Decarbonisation Technology May Issue

Decarbonisati n
May 2022
Technology
Powering the Transition to Sustainable Fuels & Energy
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Watch the previews
In the lead up to the event, we’re asking leading experts to provide us with first
insights into the discussions we can expect on 18-19 May in London.
Watch Miguel A. Calderón, Carbon Watch Maurits van Tol, CTO,

Cycle Director Division – ESG, Cepsa and Johnson Matthey discuss the
Joachim von Schéele, Director Global opportunities presented by
Commercialization, Linde discuss the path hydrogen technologies.
of energy transition and the impact of
recent events on setting a
realistic roadmap.
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Speakers include:
Joachim von Scheele Matthew Williamson Lara Young Jean-Marc Sohier Angus Gillespie Maurits van Tol
Linde BP Costain Concawe Global CCS Institute Johnson Matthey
Miguel A. Calderón John Davies André Faaij Jesse Scott Daniel Carter Miguel Ángel
Cepsa Derwent London TNO Agora Energiewende Wood García Carreño
Repsol
Attend in
person or
online!
Jim Heverin Syrie Crouch Concetto Fischetti Chris Manson

Zaha Hadid Shell IOGP Whitton
Architects Progressive Energy
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out about opportunities to make an impact,
please get in touch!
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Fred van Beuningen Claude Loréa Tim Chapman
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(GCCA)
E: info@decarbonisationtechnology.com
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28/04/2022 11:06
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Contents May 2022
What is your Decarbonisation SCORE?

Dan Carter Wood
CORALIS: industrial symbiosis in energy-intensive industries

Danai Antonaki White Research
Manuel Gomez CIRCE
21 Decarbonisation transformation of Shell’s Pernis refinery

Andy Gosse Shell Catalysts & Technologies
Value of investment, partnerships and policy in growing CCS market

Guloren Turan Global CCS Institute
IN FOCUS Delivering the Global Methane Pledge

Robin Nelson Consulting Editor
Hydrogen pathways for a clean energy future

Gary Schubak Ekona Power Inc.
Distributed hydrogen hubs

Gabriel Olson BayoTech
Economic viability of biomass to liquid via Fisher-Tropsch

Lorenzo Micucci Siirtec Nigi SpA
All roads leading to sustainable aviation fuel

Yvon Bernard, Dave Schwalje and Carine Leclercq Axens
Carbon capture application to ethylene plants

Myrian Schenk and Jim Middleton Technip Energies
Flue gas analysers for safe combustion of high hydrogen fuels Tim
Tallon AMETEK Process Instruments
Repurposing existing process units to reduce CO2 emissions

Stephen Sims New Gas Technologies Synthesis (NGTS)
Meritxell Vila MERYT Catalyst and Innovation
Fuel gas hydrocarbon recovery as carbon abatement strategy

Justin Stark Chevron Corporation
Geothermal sulphur removal

David Jackson Merichem Company
Mark Kolar Coso Operating Company Le
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 3
contents and intro.indd 3 29/04/2022 12:32:21

ACCELERATING
DECARBONISATION
TOGETHER
The world’s energy system is changing. To solve the challenges those changes present, Shell Catalysts
& Technologies is developing its Decarbonisation Solutions portfolio — to provide services and
integrated value chains of technologies, designed to help industries navigate their path through the
energy transition. Our experienced teams of consultants and engineers apply our diverse, unique
owner-operator expertise to co-create pathways and technology solutions to address your specific
Decarbonisation ambitions — creating a cleaner way forward together.
Learn more at catalysts.shell.com/decarbonisation
Decarbonisation
Solutions
shell.indd 1 04/02/2022 13:42:05

W
elcome to the fourth edition of Decarbonisation
Managing Editor Technology, which starts with a question, “What is
Rachel Storry your decarbonisation score?” and goes on to explore
rachel.storry@emap.com
industrial symbiosis projects in Sweden, Spain, and Italy. We
tel +44 (0)7786 136440
also focus on the changes underway at the Shell Chemicals and
Consulting Editor Energy hub in Rotterdam.
Robin Nelson Carbon capture and storage is one of the drivers for
robin.nelson@ developing new industrial networks, as clearly demonstrated
decarbonisationtechnology.com in the US and Europe, where public/private partnerships and
supportive policy all play a role in recently announced projects.
Graphics
Peter Harper
Carrying on the theme of new ways of doing things, we take
an in-depth look at delivering the Global Methane Pledge.
Digital Editorial Assistant We consider emerging opportunities to use biomethane and
Ciaran Nerval waste-to-fuels to reduce methane emissions from agriculture
and municipal waste before focusing on initiatives to reduce
US Operations methane from oil and gas operations. Reducing methane
Mark Peters
emissions represents low hanging fruit from both an economic
mark.peters@emap.com
tel +1 832 656 5341 and technology maturity perspective. The potential to convert
methane into natural gas to produce turquoise hydrogen is an
Business Development Director emerging technology alongside green hydrogen in developing
Paul Mason the hydrogen economy.
info@decarbonisationtechnology.com Hydrocarbon chemistry is at the heart of all refining
tel +44 844 5888 771
operations. Refineries are adapting to renewable hydrocarbon
Managing Director
feedstocks and overcoming the challenges of a much more
Richard Watts variable feedstock composition. Articles on biomass to liquids,
richard.watts@emap.com technologies for sustainable aviation fuels, increasing energy
efficiency, reducing fugitive and flue gas emissions, and in-
EMAP, 10th Floor process carbon capture illustrate the transformation underway
Southern House in our industry even as we continue to deliver specification
Wellesley Grove,
(lower-carbon) fuels for transport and petrochemical feedstocks.
Croydon CR0 1XG
This issue coincides with our first Decarbonisation Summit
in London on 18-19 May. In the lead-up, we asked for relevant
questions online, and where appropriate these will be raised
during the debates at the Summit. See the questions:
Earlier this year, the IPCC issued a stark warning that it is now
highly probable the average temperature rise will exceed the
1.5°C target set by the Paris Climate Agreement. They stress
that we have the knowledge and technology to limit the increase
and eventually bring temperatures back down, providing we
accelerate actions now. The Decarbonisation Summit intends
to add to the momentum for change through a forum where
private and public entities can share experiences and build
networks, contributing to ‘industrial symbiosis’.
©2022. The entire content of this publication is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in
Cover Story any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise –
Shell Pernis refinery, Rotterdam, Netherlands without the prior permission of the copyright owner. The opinions and views expressed by the
Credit: Photographic Services, Shell authors in this publication are not necessarily those of the editor or publisher and while every
International Limited care has been taken in the preparation of all material included the publisher cannot be held
responsible for any statements, opinions or views or for any inaccuracies.
contents and intro.indd 5 29/04/2022 17:52:15

Optimizing combustion for
a greener tomorrow.
AMETEK process analyzers and sensor technologies have been the industry standard
for more than 50 years. Today, our industry faces more environmentally responsible
emissions mandates and greater demand for the use of clean energy. That’s why
decarbonizing through optimized combustion and enhanced predictive analytics
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Our Thermox® WDG-V combustion analyzer is field-serviceable and monitors

and controls combustion with unparalleled precision. As facilities strive to
operate more efficiently and accept more variable fuels at their burners,
AMETEK provides solutions for tighter emission control.
Learn more about optimized combustion by watching our

decarbonization webinar.
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© 2021, all rights reserved by AMETEK, Inc.
ametek.indd 1 04/02/2022 13:36:59

What is your Decarbonisation
SCORE?
To simplify your journey to decarbonisation, our Decarbonisation SCORE methodology
provides a roadmap to setting and delivering emissions reduction targets
Dan Carter
Wood
The challenge today to create a better economic, environmental, and social pathway.
tomorrow We are a world in transition. The momentum
In the Paris Agreement in 2015, governments behind energy transition is accelerating. Many
acknowledged that their national climate targets nations are setting out their ambitions, targets,
at the time would not meet the goal of limiting and policies, and over 100 countries committed
global warming to 1.5˚C. 2020 was the target to cutting CO2 to net zero by 2050, representing
year to submit long-term strategies and for 70% of the world economy (UN, 2020).
emissions to reach a peak. Organisations and governments are responding
COP26 reaffirmed commitments to global to the need to change as well as pressure from
carbon reduction goals, with individual countries global governments, investors, clients, and
now asked to adopt more ambitious and end users. The consensus at COP26 was that
stringent targets in order to achieve a scenario the progress made since 2015 has not been
of less than 1.5˚C global temperature rise, and enough, and an unprecedented effort is required
to report on these targets by the end of 2022. by countries to cut the level of emissions and
The recent UN Intergovernmental Panel on get back on track. However, emissions are
Climate Change (IPCC) report also stated that increasingly impacting the balance sheet with
carbon reduction commitments made prior to the growing development of carbon pricing,
COP26 were not enough to reduce the impacts whether through emissions trading systems or
of climate change to less than a 1.5˚C average carbon taxes.
temperature rise, and would also make it Energy, heat production, and industrial
harder post-2030 to limit the overall average processes account for more than half of global
temperature increase to less than 2˚C (IPCC, greenhouse gas emissions. The pathway to
2022). However, the report also recognised reducing the carbon emissions of extractive
that the costs of several low emissions and process industries will need to leverage a
technologies, which have seen significant breadth of solutions, but the applicable solution
investment over the last decade, including set will also differ, depending on geographies,
solar, wind and battery technology, have fallen enterprise portfolios, and the characteristics
and continue to fall. of individual assets. Innovative solutions need
to be secure, scalable, and reliable, leaning
Drivers to decarbonise on product and industry expertise to deliver a
Scientific efforts to quantify the scale of the better world for the future.
challenge have helped us to better understand Although these are drivers mostly affecting
the need for decarbonisation, whilst the urgency your bottom line, it is imperative to mention that
for action is now sharply in the minds of policy these are not the only reasons why immediate
makers, shapers, and governments. This has action is recommended, but also the real threats
led to pressure on organisations to build from climate change has on our world, cities, houses,
multiple angles to create a more sustainable families, and even our own lives. What is at
DT4 Wood.indd 7 28/04/2022 11:23:16

Advise Assess Deliver
Substitute
Design
Market analysis
Capture
Objectives/ Baseline Target Cost Economic Decarbonisation Implement

TOR audit setting estimates and financial roadmap
Offset analysis
Monitor
Corporate strategy
Reduce Cross check and recycle
Policy impacts Insight / advisory (recycle)
Figure 1 Wood’s Decarbonisation SCORE methodology
stake cannot be understated. Climate change design your solution, help you implement the
has the potential to bring about spiked prices in necessary changes, and monitor performance
our food and a global rise in catastrophic storms, with real-time insight.
causing devastation to daily life. This problem is
much bigger than business; it is also personal. Where should you start?
Advise - get started, baseline your programme,
How to navigate your decarbonisation and set targets
journey Knowing where to start can often be the
The journey to decarbonisation is complex, and biggest challenge. Understanding your drivers,
knowing where to start can be difficult. It is changing policy, and subsidy landscapes, and
important to apply a structured process to be baselining your current emissions are keys
able to map out how your goals will be achieved to success.
and ultimately realise them. A strong foundation for any carbon reduction
To simplify this complex process, our programme will consider the carbon life
experts created the Decarbonisation SCORE cycle of the feedstocks consumed, products
methodology, which provides a roadmap to produced, and quantification of individual
setting and delivering emissions reduction emissions sources to identify and maximise the
targets. Using this methodology, our team can opportunities to reduce carbon emissions at the
assess where clients are in their journey, then most efficient cost.
devise an actionable and implementable plan Working across a variety of sectors from
complete with progress reporting on how to upstream oil and gas through to refining,
make your objectives achievable. petrochemicals, and life sciences enables
Wood’s structured and dynamic process, as Wood’s experienced engineers within each
seen in Figure 1, brings together the breadth sector to apply their knowledge to both carbon
of our technical advisory, specialist domain footprinting and life cycle analysis, as well
knowledge, project and operations expertise, as forming a sound basis for identification of
with a deep understanding of innovative carbon abatement opportunities.
technology solutions, as well as wide sector Understanding your carbon footprint,
and global experience as a trusted thinking corporate objectives, and how the markets
and delivery partner. Our team are also able to you operate in may evolve is key to setting
8 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
DT4 Wood.indd 8 28/04/2022 11:23:16

achievable carbon reduction goals. This could be or novel technology concepts, to help drive
against a series of interim milestones and time down the cost of implementing carbon capture
horizons as you approach the overall goal of projects. In any technology evaluation, it is
meeting a net-zero objective. important to consider technology evolution as
well as the full CO2 value chain from capture
What do you need? through transportation to ultimate end use or
Assess - informed decision-making to pick the sequestration options.
right projects
When considering the technologies, projects, Offset - considering assets or product
or asset modifications that can be adopted portfolios across a country or company-wide
to achieve decarbonisation goals, the range scale to achieve decarbonisation/clean air
of opportunities can be bewildering. From goals, alongside the potential for offsetting
automation or advanced process control investments or potentially carbon credit trading.
technologies to help improve operational Offsetting is a topic discussed frequently
performance and reduce energy consumption within industry and environmental groups, and
through to large-scale capital projects in carbon it is very important to consider that any actions
capture or hydrogen production, how do you taken in this regard cannot be identified as
decide which opportunities are the right ones ‘greenwashing’. Offsetting is an opportunity
for your business or asset? that should be addressed as a solution for
The Decarbonisation SCORE methodology residual carbon emissions once technically
can be applied to single or multiple assets, to a and commercially feasible solutions have been
client’s full asset portfolio, or across a specific implemented. Often assumed to be related only
geography or region using an evaluation to carbon credit trading, offsetting can take
assessment of opportunities to: many forms. It can include investment in natural
climate solutions (for example, afforestation)
Substitute - substitution of fuel or feedstocks or technologies like direct air capture (DAC), as
(raw material to supply or fuel a machine or well as the potential for carbon credit purchases
industrial process) consumed for renewable or or trading.
less intensive sources.
Substitution can include solutions such as Reduce - looking at holistic asset optimisation,
switching electricity provision to a renewable considering areas around energy efficiency,
source or considering the use of renewable digitalisation, and operations and maintenance
and biofeedstocks in the production of fuels best practice.
and chemical products. In some sectors, Often the best place to start a decarbonisation
for example aviation fuels, bio-alternatives journey is to consider opportunities to improve
represent the biggest opportunity to meet the performance of your existing assets. A
carbon reduction goals, while next-generation review of energy optimisation opportunities
technologies (such as hydrogen-fuelled across an asset can identify additional benefits,
aircraft) are being developed as potential such as yield improvement, which can not
longer-term solutions. only reduce operating costs but also have
a positive impact on margins. Solutions for
Capture - employing carbon capture reducing energy consumption and, therefore,
technologies, or emissions control technologies, CO2 emissions can vary from identifying best
to substantially reduce or eliminate harmful practice operational practices, deploying the
emissions to the atmosphere. latest control or automation technologies, and
There is a wide range of carbon capture low-cost projects to make the most of heat
technologies available, from traditional integration opportunities (and many other
post-combustion absorption through to pre- potential solutions).
combustion or oxy-fuelled technologies.
Many technology providers are starting to Evaluate - whatever your decarbonisation
commercialise proprietary amine solutions, journey, it is important to apply a structured
DT4 Wood.indd 9 28/04/2022 11:23:16

evaluation process to be able to map and meet energy-intensive industries. By leveraging a
goals and lead to a successful outcome. range of technology solutions such as carbon
Typical techno-economic metrics, such as capture, renewable power integration, and clean
return on investment (ROI) or net present hydrogen production, Wood developed the
value (NPV), do not justify the implementation concept selection and early design for the project.
of many carbon reduction projects. We can This project aims to abate more than
consider what the carbon price would need to 8 million tonnes per year of CO2 emissions
be to underpin each opportunity on the basis and ultimately create a zero-carbon industrial
of an economic return (internal rate of return cluster. Established combined heat and power
[IRR] or NPV). While government funding and production and refining industrial sites will be
incentives are available in many countries to integrated using state-of-the-art technology
underpin investment in alternative fuels, the to create a platform for industrial growth
same is not necessarily the case for projects and economic development while meeting
purely aimed at reducing carbon emissions decarbonisation targets.
from existing industry. Wherever your assets It is one of several industrial clusters that we
are located, it is imperative to understand have seen developing across the globe, the aims
the incentives and funding mechanisms that of which are to leverage shared infrastructure
you can take advantage of to achieve your costs and access government funding
decarbonisation goals. and incentives to deliver carbon reduction
However, it is equally important to consider commitments most cost-effectively.
other drivers within the evaluation of your
carbon reduction opportunities. For example, Making the journey more efficient
the impact on your overall company ESG goals, Accelerate sustainability through data-
the drive from your shareholders to decarbonise, driven insights and smart tools
or the effect that realising your carbon reduction While ambitious emissions targets are
goals will have on company reputation and, announced, the capacity to collect auditable
ultimately, shareholder value. data is immature, and your key decisions must
All these levers can be built into an overall be based on accurate and verifiable data.
evaluation methodology specific to your Wood offers a range of operations services,
organisation or asset, reflecting your particular from asset performance technology solutions
drivers and goals of the overall decarbonisation through to duty holdership, giving our clients
masterplan. This will enable you to identify the an overview of asset performance against
optimum project or section of projects to achieve decarbonisation targets. This includes our
the carbon reduction targets put in place. ENVision real-time carbon footprinting software,
shown in Figure 2, which provides visibility of
How will you succeed? carbon and other emissions to ensure reduction
Deliver - end-to-end execution, realising targets are achieved. ENVision manages
emission goals carbon and emissions data, and performs
The SCORE roadmap allows each asset to regulatory calculations and reporting, allowing
develop its own robust decarbonisation plan, KPI management, an auditable record of data
providing implementable solutions with the and optimisation.
ability to be delivered into operation according By accessing quality, high-frequency data
to each asset’s development timeline. in combination with external data sources,
ENVision allows organisations to set strategic,
Decarbonisation SCORE in action realistic goals, define their roadmap, and track
Wood’s Decarbonisation SCORE methodology progress. With a Microsoft Azure backbone, this
was created in-house in 2020 and is now tool collates emissions data across a portfolio
being used globally by our clients and even of assets to track an organisation’s real-time
our own company. For example, one of our footprint and performance metrics. The open
industrial process clients aimed to develop a structure also allows the addition of scope 1, 2
decarbonisation masterplan for a cluster of and 3 emissions.
DT4 Wood.indd 10 28/04/2022 11:23:16

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Decarbonisation_Technology_AD_D1.indd 1 4/25/2022 2:53:21 PM
was to analyse the GHG
baseline for a major
coastal infrastructure
that will attract regional
investment for several
industrial process
facilities. The purpose of
the study was to develop
a baseline estimate of
the GHG emissions for
the construction and
50-year operational life
of the infrastructure.
The outcome was that
the baseline estimate
supported the roadmap
required for reducing
GHG emissions during
both the construction
and operational phases
Figure 2 Screen shot of ENVision in the development of
the infrastructure.
Our team effectively deployed ENVision Carbon Column (see Figure 3) provides a
across a chemical complex that included 26 focussed approach that offers technical insights
large chemical units in Saudi Arabia, with real- and solutions recognising the Taskforce for
time emissions data collation, verification, and Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD),
reporting. Utilising the ENVision tool, over GHG Protocol, and ISO standards. The delivery
1.3 million individual data points are updated is through a Tiered Reporting Process with four
every 30 seconds to operators to provide the internationally recognised Tiers:
necessary information to help drive efficiency
and reduce emissions. The client indicated Tier 1 – Default factors based upon knowledge
an improvement of 10 times faster reporting of project parameters, such as fuels, materials,
methods and a better vision of plant operations, services, and product types.
which resulted in a reduction in effort associated
with emissions reporting by around 80% and Tier 2 – Application of benchmark factors for
a reduction in excess emission time by 40% equipment type, characterisation of fuels, and
through early identification. estimate of consumption. Materials, services,
It is also becoming more critical to understand and product types and estimates of quantities
not just the carbon footprint of our assets, and transport type and distances.
but also the carbon footprint of the activities
associated with building, maintaining, and Tier 3 – Application of defined factors for
modifying them. To that end, Wood, and specific equipment and details of final fuel types
its project services subsidiary company rhi, and rates of consumption. Specific material
developed the Carbon Column toolkit to allow quantities and regional or source factors and
us to assess the carbon emissions associated transport type and distances. Feedstocks and
from material sourcing, transportation, and product quantities, mode of transport, and
construction activities (among other scope 3 distance to markets.
emissions). This enables ourselves and our
clients to make informed decisions and minimise Tier 4 – Measurement – Fuel quality and
the carbon footprint of project delivery. quantity, power consumption, and leak
One example of this tool being implemented detection. The application of Wood’s ENVision
DT4 Wood.indd 12 29/04/2022 17:21:42

320.80K
Marine & Land Development Matrix 0.3M
Level 1 Total fuel (kl) Transport (t-CO2e) Total t-CO2e
Total t-CO2e
+ Land development infrastructure 17,678.74 18,174.23 65,595.16 0.2M
+ Marine infrastructure 88,115.43 4,882.23 255,209.58
Total 105,794.17 23,056.46 320,804.73
0.1M
Driver = Marine Fuel Usage 0.0M

Marine Land development Total
infrastructure infrastructure
Level 1
Detailed Carbon Metrics of Project Project Pie Chart
Place fill 0.66% Land development
Supply, Place & Compact infrastructure
700mm layer ... 1.85% 16.71%
Reclamation of
mangrove area/cr...
7.25%
Cutter Suction Dredger

12.38%
Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger Marine

66.45% infrastructure
83.29%
Figure 3 Screenshot of the Carbon Column toolkit
tool was used to measure, monitor, and manage At Wood, we believe every organisation has a
direct emissions throughout the operation. decisive role to play in achieving sustainability
for the environment and their own business.
The time to act is now All organisations urgently need to implement
Global climate change is arguably the most sustainability measures that are data-driven,
important and urgent challenge humanity enabled by innovative real-time digital
has ever faced, and the onus now falls upon technology, and can make an immediate impact
companies to make a difference. on decarbonisation and emissions monitoring.
While 121 countries have committed to But no single company can do this on their own
being carbon neutral by 2050, they account – who you partner with is key.
for less than 25% of emissions. On present The time for talk is over, and the need for
policies, the world is heading for a 3˚C rise change is urgent.
by 2050, triggering a global environmental
and financial crisis. The commitments made VIEW REFERENCES
during COP26, and to be unveiled at COP27
in Egypt, are an absolute necessity to limit the Dan Carter
global and potentially catastrophic impacts of daniel.carter@woodplc.com
climate change.
DT4 Wood.indd 13 29/04/2022 17:21:58

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CORALIS: industrial symbiosis
in energy-intensive industries
An EU project aims to enhance the knowledge base for industrial symbiosis to
ensure data accuracy and comparability in existing and new IS initiatives
Danai Antonaki White Research

Manuel Gomez CIRCE
I
ndustrial symbiosis (IS) is becoming the overcoming of non-technical barriers
increasingly necessary due to the growing are major challenges in current approaches
awareness of the need to reduce pollution for implementing IS synergies. In addition,
and emissions as well as increase resource the results of these projects and initiatives
and energy efficiency. These concerns have have usually been disseminated individually
reached industrial parks around the world, and with a limited audience, which makes
leading to the promotion of IS activities. them insufficiently visible or accessible for
These can be defined as communities of managers of IS, while most of the active IS
manufacturing and service businesses seeking networks lack a monitoring framework or
enhanced environmental and economic harmonised mechanisms of data collection
performance through collaboration in managing and quantification of benefits (Domenech,
environmental and resource issues, including 2018). For this reason, the full understanding
energy, water, and materials (Bellantuono et al., of their practical value for specific cases is
2017). By working together, the communities hampered, and there is not enough clarity about
seek collective benefits that are greater than the existing gaps for the further implementation of
sum of the individual benefits each company IS solutions.
would accomplish independently (Domenech et All in all, there is a need to enhance the
al, 2018). knowledge base for IS in Europe, which must
be supported by harmonised frameworks and
Industrial symbiosis efforts so far data reporting structures that ensure data
Increasing interest in IS has already led to the accuracy and comparability in existing and new
investment of over €130 million in European IS initiatives. The availability of new data in
research projects since 2006, which have IS should further promote its implementation
focused on the development of methodologies, and market uptake in the EU, shed light on
tools, software, platforms, or networks that the added value of facilitators, and steer the
facilitate the uptake of IS by different economic transition towards a circular economy within
actors (Dhanorkar, et al., 2015). In fact, due to industrial areas. Therefore, even though
the complex task of identifying and assessing examples of successful IS activities exist in
opportunities for IS, as well as selecting the Europe and enabling technologies have been
most appropriate solutions from a broad around for a while, IS implementation has yet to
range of options, many research efforts have address several barriers to its uptake in the EU.
been directed towards the definition of the
most attractive IS activities rather than their Market potential for IS in Europe
implementation, management, and follow-up. The untapped potential of IS is increasingly
Consequently, there is a lack of knowledge attracting attention in the EU. In the meantime,
in the operation of IS solutions and, as a given that the industrial sector accounts for
result, issues such as capacity building or about one-third of global energy demand,
CORALIS - Industrial Symbiosis in Energy Intensive Industries.indd 15 28/04/2022 12:48:10

IP of Sweden
Nordvastra Skanes Kemi-Tornio
Svartsengi Resource Park Renhallning
Nordvastra Skanes
Vatten och Avlopp FISS
Oresundskraft Enkoping
Helsingborg
Harjavalta IP
Stenungsund
Eyde Network Lidkoping
NISP Scotland
Handelo
Kalundborg IS
SMILE NISP NI Avesta
Biopark Terneuzen
Dyfi Eco Park
London Sustainable Rotterdam harbour Zero Emission Park Bremen
Industries Park Knapsack IP
LSIP_London Ökopark Hartberg
Steiermark
UK
NISP UK Z.E.P. Kaiserslautern

Kaiserbaracke Industrial Z.E.P. Bottrop
Havre harbour IP REPROWIS Hungary
Park
BELGIUM
Essenscia Brussels Lagny-sur-Marne Green Tech

Symbioseplatform La Courtilière IP Valley
Werecycle.be Bazancourt-Pomacle INEX Styria R.N.
Monceau-Fontaines Park NISP Hungary
Chemical Valley IA Orée E-Simbioza
PNSI Ponte Prato Industrial Macrolotto ECOERG Suceava
Rizzoli IP
Parc de l’Alba
IP of Rieti-Cittaducale
Sagunto Tanning Cluster
(S. Croce sull’Arno)
Relvao Eco-IP
Rethink_Italy
Symbiosis.gr
ResidiRecurso/ ENEA Italian Network
Organised Waste Market Wasteresource.eu Padova Industrial Park
Figure 1 Main EU hotspots for exploiting IS in Europe (Domenech et al., 2019)
many industries have been reducing their

energy demand in the last years through energy and petrochemical sectors, and more. However,
efficiency measures to decrease costs and the types of waste streams exchanged
improve competitiveness. Nevertheless, there is between companies depend on the sectorial
still a high potential for further improvements, composition of the nearby companies. In terms
especially when considering that up to 50% of enhanced market opportunities, two types
of the energy consumption is wasted as heat. of waste exchange models can be identified:
Moreover, the European Commission’s (EC) firms producing waste (usually large producers)
Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe points and firms using waste (for both big firms and
out that improving the reuse of raw materials small to medium enterprises, or SMEs). In that
through greater ‘industrial symbiosis’ could context, besides causing a significant reduction
save €1.4 billion a year across the EU and in resource use and CO₂ emissions by industrial
generate €1.6 billion in sales. Therefore, the processes, IS should also generate new job
potential to tackle the challenge of providing positions. In particular, by 2030, it is projected
regular supplies without fluctuations by that an expansion of circular activity could
exploiting the utilisation of waste material flows create a potential labour market impact of 1.2
is indeed a promising venture, which can lead million new jobs (Domenech et al., 2018).
to the identification of business opportunities
leveraging underutilised resources through CORALIS EU project
IS as well as to the development of a more CORALIS (Creation Of new value chain
sustainable and integrated industrial system. Relations through novel Approaches facilitating
Target markets vary from construction, Long-term Industrial Symbiosis) is a four-year
cement, and foundries to iron, steel, chemical (October 2020-September 2024) Horizon

2020 project funded to shed light on the It will also demonstrate the deployment
implementation reality of IS solutions and of novel symbiotic value chains in its
on the ways to overcome related barriers. demonstration sites by the development and
CORALIS demonstration industrial areas share implementation of instrumental technologies
the identification and deployment of enabling for IS. The overall objective of the identified
technologies as the main driver behind their technologies is to contribute to the
symbiotic relationships. Likewise, the project decarbonisation of the industrial areas and the
focuses on technological innovations, while it transition to a circular economy. In particular,
is complemented by managerial and economic four different approaches have been considered
considerations of IS, which, when combined, in the implementation of technological
indicate the IS readiness level; in other words, innovations to IS initiatives:
the overall feasibility of the IS solution. The
analysis, design, and implementation of an IS • CO₂ capture and valorisation for the creation
initiative according to this triple perspective is of zero direct emissions industrial areas: At
being accompanied by an impact assessment Escombreras industrial area, the implementation
methodology, which provides a harmonised of a symbiotic process for KNO3 will require
framework for the monitoring and follow-up of the consumption of CO₂, provided by different
results, as well as the quantification of benefits industries within the park after its capture. In the
for the actors involved in the IS initiative. industrial area in Sweden, a capture unit will be
installed at the steel company to provide CO₂ to
Execution methodology a nearby greenhouse.
In order to achieve a significant improvement
of the overall IS readiness level in real • Reduction in raw materials consumption
demonstration sites, thus tackling differing by the implementation of circular economy
perspectives involved in such initiatives, approaches: At Escombreras, calcium from the
CORALIS will demonstrate the deployment industrial area wastewater management system
of novel symbiotic value chains in three will be recovered to substitute the current
demonstration sites (lighthouse demonstrators), consumption of CaCO3 and CaSO4 at QSr. Also,
along with three extra follower cases to validate HCl byproduct will be recycled as raw material
and replicate results. for the existing processes. At Brescia, industrial
Technological Symbiotic value chain demonstration

S
rI
Key enabling technologies for IS

fo
9 Decarbonisation of industrial parks

e
tiv
8
c
Circular economy principles at industrial level

pe
pe l:
7
pl ve
rs
Process redesign for adaptation to IS

rip s le
6
e
St s
5
LI ine
4 Business models and distribution of benefits

RA ad
3
CO Re
Contractual issues (IS facilitator figure)

IS
2
1
Infrastructure ownership models
0 Uncertainty and risk mitigation
Investment needs and funding sources available
Awareness creation among stakeholders

Secure data exchange protocols and channels
Economical Managerial Creation of joint management structures
Confidentiality and trustful communication
IS initiative monitoring and impact assessment Creation of local/regional/national synergies
KRIs and KPAs for real-time monitoring of the IS interaction Standardised framework for measuring IS benfits
Techno- and thermo-economic assessment of IS solutions Generation of a knowledge based on IS
Life cycle approach for impacts analysis Transfer of results to increase awareness
Figure 2 CORALIS project concept and approach

Horizon 2020 and Horizon Europe
Horizon 2020 was the EU Research and and boosts the EU’s competitiveness
Innovation programme with nearly $80 and growth. The programme facilitates
billion of funding over the period 2014- collaboration and strengthens the impact
2020. Many of the projects funded by of research and innovation in developing,
Horizon 2020 are ongoing. Horizon Europe supporting, and implementing EU policies
is the latest EU funding programme for while tackling global challenges. It supports
research and innovation, with a budget of creating and better dispersing of excellent
€95.5 billion over the period 2021-2027. knowledge and technologies. Legal entities
It tackles climate change, helps to achieve from the EU and associated countries
the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, can participate.
waste from four different industries will be improvement of IS opportunities. Moreover, the
shared to reduce the demand for raw materials use of a standardised assessment approach
like iron ore for metal production. In addition, enables the comparison between IS solutions
the lighthouse in Sweden will assess different as well as the sharing of results to create
circular economy approaches, including the awareness and replicate best practices and
valorisation of slags and the transformation of benefits among industrial areas. For this
organic industrial wastes into fertilisers. reason, CORALIS has developed a set of
indicators – key performance indicators and
• Energy consumption optimisation through key performance areas (KPIs and KPAs) that
waste heat recovery and valorisation: In will support the technical, environmental,
Sweden, low-grade waste heat will be and economic evaluation of IS and will
recovered so it can be used in the operation of allow for better decision making. Based on
a greenhouse. At Brescia, novel technologies those, a methodology for the joint techno-
for industrial waste treatment will incorporate and thermo-economic analysis of the IS
waste heat recovery techniques, so different solutions will be deployed, enabling the
alternatives for its use, including the supply transformation of the IS analysis process into
to nearby district heating systems, will a mono-criteria assessment using energy as a
be analysed. homogenising agent.
A methodology for measuring emissions,
• Integration of renewable energy sources at benefits, and consumption between involved
an industrial level: At Escombreras industrial actors in the industrial areas is being
area, a thermo-economic study will be developed to verify the flow exchanges and the
conducted to create a design of a CSP plant implications for the different parties. On top
operating at an industrial area level to maximise of this approach, life cycle and life cycle cost
the production of renewable energy and the analysis (LCA and LCC) are being implemented
substitution of natural gas for steam production to obtain a wider approach to the impact of
in order to get zero CO₂ direct emissions. the IS solutions. This generates a life cycle
At Brescia, the substitution of fossil sources inventory (LCI) for IS and provides useful
(carbon) with biogenic materials (biochar) will information for identifying best practices that
be performed. minimise the economic and environmental
impacts, taking into consideration future
Impact assessment and monitoring of operational and replacement needs. There
IS interaction will be a monitoring period of the implanted
The development of new methods and metrics IS solutions, in which further learning will
facilitates the monitoring, management, and be obtained.

Beyond the technological scope of win-win relationships and a fair share of
The success in the implementation and long- benefits between parties. These include the
term operation of these technologies by the settlement of price schemes for the products/
lighthouse demonstrators does not only rely services exchange; the definition of ownership
on the readiness level and effectiveness models for common infrastructure and services
of the technological innovations but also such as logistics, water, and electricity supply;
heavily depends on the awareness level of schemes for risk management plans and
the involved industries and the willingness compensation clauses between parties to
and trust of companies to engage in such minimise the uncertainty of the symbiosis
cooperation. For this reason, CORALIS uses case; and support in attracting private and
IS facilitators, neutral actors that provide public funding to ensure the continuity or
partners with tools and procedures that implementation of new IS options.
allow the mobilisation of stakeholders, the
creation of joint management structures, and
the establishment of fluid communication VIEW REFERENCES
channels between industries. CORALIS is also
fostering trust among the parties through the Danai Antonaki
development of data sharing modules and dantonaki@white-research.eu
channels that enable a secure exchange of
information between companies. In addition, Manuel Gomez
CORALIS aims to define the main business magomez@fcirce.es
model elements that facilitate the creation
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atlas.indd 1 28/04/2022 16:04:59

Decarbonisation_Technology_AD_D1.indd 1 4/25/2022 2:53:21 PM
Decarbonisation transformation
of Shell’s Pernis refinery
Pernis refinery will play a key role in Shell’s transition to net-zero emissions by
2050 through a number of strategies involving biofuels, green hydrogen, and CCS
Andy Gosse
Shell Catalysts & Technologies
T
he decarbonisation of a refinery goes well
beyond seeking out energy efficiency Generating
Shareholder value
savings. Many refineries are already very
energy efficient, but most of the greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions associated with their energy
products come from the products’ end use:
85% of these emissions, in fact. Consequently,
decarbonising a refinery also means making
lower-carbon energy products. Powering
One of Shell’s largest facilities is Pernis
Progress
refinery in Rotterdam. In this article, I will Powering
Respecting lives
describe the major transformations that are Nature
under way to see it become Shell Energy and
Chemicals Park Rotterdam, equipped to supply
customers with lower-carbon products.
Achieving
Net-zero emissions
Need for more and cleaner energy solutions
Shell’s purpose for many years has been to
provide more and cleaner energy solutions. It Figure 1 Shell’s Powering Progress strategy
is clear that the world of the future will need
more energy. Its population is growing, and Another pillar, Generating Shareholder Value,
people will use even more energy as living is about remaining profitable through the energy
standards improve. Climate change is very transition. Significant investment is required
real, and there are many examples in the form to facilitate the energy transition so that the
of extreme weather events, so cleaner energy future energy state can be achieved. This means
is essential. keeping the core business healthy today to
Powering Progress is Shell’s strategy setting generate income and shareholder value. Capital
out how the organisation will accelerate its discipline is key to this strategy.
transition to net-zero emissions by 2050. The fourth pillar, Achieving Net-Zero
This ambitious process will be achieved in a Emissions, sets out how Shell aims to work with
purposeful and profitable manner. There are four its customers to accelerate the change towards
pillars to this strategy, as shown in Figure 1. the widespread use of low-carbon products.
The Powering Lives pillar is about providing Most of the carbon emissions associated with
cleaner solutions to customers to support an Shell’s businesses are those produced when
inclusive society. The Respecting Nature pillar customers use our products. Only 10-15% of
sees an increased focus on sustainability and the total associated emissions directly emanate
reducing waste. from our own operations. The remaining 85-
Shell Pernis’ decarbonisation transformation.indd 21 28/04/2022 13:11:42

90% of GHG emissions come from product end Future of refining at Pernis: an integrated
uses, for example, when vehicles burn our fuels. energy and chemicals park
We will help to empower the transition of our One piece of the solutions jigsaw puzzle is
customers’ businesses to net zero by providing Pernis refinery. One of the largest in Europe,
them with lower-carbon fuels and alternative Pernis refinery has a 400,000 b/d capacity and
energy sources. a complexity enabling the processing of many
In the short, medium and longer terms, different crude types. The site is already deeply
Shell has set goals and targets that will help integrated with chemicals production.
to enable the transition to net zero by 2050. We are transforming Pernis refinery into an
Some examples of milestones for 2030 involve integrated energy and chemicals park that will
eliminating routine flaring and a shift away deliver low-carbon products. This transformation
from oil production. Oil production peaked is already under way. Whereas the traditional
in 2019 and is expected to decline at 1-2% feed has been crude oil, in the future, biomass,
per annum. Natural gas is seen as a key waste oil and gas, hydrogen and plastic and
fuel in the energy transition and is likely to municipal solid waste will become significant
account for 55% of hydrocarbon production in feedstocks, with renewables providing a principal
coming years. energy source, as seen in Figure 2.
Shell also aims to double the amount of The shift in feedstocks aims to broaden the
low-carbon electricity it sells to customers to site’s product slate to include, for example,
provide the equivalent of 50 million homes with sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) and biofuels. This
renewable electricity by 2030. represents a move away from the petrochemicals
For the transport sector, Shell, already one of and transport fuels currently produced. The
the biggest producers of biofuels, will grow its production of performance chemicals and
low-carbon fuel production by eight times. bitumen will continue, as will waste process heat
Where direct product decarbonisation is not capture to provide district heating for buildings.
possible or not enough, Shell is targeting 25 Carbon capture has been in operation at
Mt/y of CCS by 2035 and planning, in the longer Pernis refinery for several years, with the carbon
term, about 120 Mt/y of nature-based solutions, dioxide (CO₂) being fed to local horticultural
including reforestation programmes. sites to encourage plant growth. In the future,
Road and aviation fuels Resilient products

Performance Bitumen
chemicals
Other SAF Biofuels
Margin optimisation
CO2 Heating
Raw
Carbon capture materials
and storage
CO2
Biomass and H2 Crude oil Renewable Plastic waste and

waste oil gas energy municipal solid waste
Figure 2 The emerging product portfolio at Shell Energy and Chemicals Park Rotterdam

Pathway 1: Pathway 2: Pathway 3:
Increase energy efficiency Make lower-carbon energy Capture and store the remaining
products emissions
Ensuring that the facilities that bring
energy products to customers use Reducing greenhouse gas emissions Mitigating emissions with
energy as efficiently as possible from products’ end use carbon sinks
Figure 3 The three classic decarbonisation pathways
significantly more CO₂ will be sequestered Pathways 2 and 3 represent the biggest
via CCS. departure from historical activities at the
The decarbonisation activities set to transform Pernis site. In Pathway 2, the central aim is to
Pernis refinery are integrated into the three help our customers decarbonise, so we need
classic decarbonisation pathways, as shown in to provide them with lower-carbon energy
Figure 3. products. For this, Pernis refinery will be
producing green hydrogen and biofuels via
Pathway 1: Increase energy efficiency exciting new processes. Pathway 3 involves
Pathway 1 targets energy efficiency. Across significantly increasing the level of CCS via the
all of Shell’s downstream assets, teams are Porthos project.
working to reduce the carbon intensity of
refinery operations. At the Pernis site, a recent Pathway 2: Make lower-carbon energy
energy-efficiency programme helped to cut products
CO₂ emissions by the equivalent of the annual For Shell, developing lower-carbon fuels lies at
emissions of 50,000 cars. Our industry has been the heart of its decarbonisation strategy. Pernis
trying to find efficiency savings opportunities for refinery will produce 820,000 t/y of low-carbon
years, but an integrated decarbonisation strategy fuels in a new hydroprocessed esters and fatty
that includes mitigating GHG emissions goes acids (HEFA) unit, using the Shell Renewable
well beyond this. Refining Process (see Figure 4). Pernis refinery
HDO MP stripper Product stripper

New Existing
Hydrogen
Renewable
Feedstock diesel
and jet
Pretreatment First stage Second stage

Hydrogenation and hydrodeoxygenation Hydroisomerisation
Unique pretreatment filter Can process wide range of feeds with With poisons removed, can utilise superior
‘add-on’ helps reduce varying exotherms. performance of noble metal catalyst to
pretreat unit size Removes poisons, CO, and CO2 for increase overall yield, minimise wild naphtha
and Capex. enhanced second-stage performance. and further reduce cold flow properties.
Figure 4 The Shell Renewable Refining Process

metal catalyst is used, which also helps to reduce
Storage Capture Utilisation wild naphtha formation.
Industry Horticulture I believe that the HEFA unit is particularly
CO2 CO2 CO2
significant because it represents a new phase
in what we, as an industry, have learned and
Transport
are learning. In the past, our focus might have
been on processing crude oils but we are now
Storage location also developing the ability to take very different
feedstocks, which are also highly challenging and
variable, and learning how to clean them up, and
process them robustly and economically in order
Figure 5 The Porthos project to produce high-quality lower-carbon fuels.
In addition, we believe that the unit is going to
selected the process, which is available to have the lowest carbon intensity of any HEFA
non-Shell customers under licence from Shell unit worldwide, which I think is very exciting.
Catalysts & Technologies, after an extensive This is because it is going to use partially
evaluation of the currently available technologies. renewable hydrogen: we will produce hydrogen
All of the HEFA units that will be built in Shell in a new hydrogen plant that will be powered by
Energy and Chemicals Parks will use the Shell the process’ residual gases, which originate from
Renewable Refining Process. renewable sources.
The unit is expected to start production in Not only that, but the unit will also have its
2024 and has the capacity to produce enough CO₂ captured using ADIP ULTRA, which is Shell
renewable diesel to avoid 2.8 Mt/y of CO₂ Catalysts & Technologies’ solvent technology
emissions, which is equivalent to taking a million for capturing CO₂ from high-pressure process
European cars off the road. It will also generate streams. This will then be transported via the
renewable naphtha and SAF. Porthos pipeline for storage under the North Sea.
Furthermore, the unit will process 100%
biofeeds. These will include waste animal Pathway 3: Store the remaining emissions
fats, cooking oil, and vegetable oil, which The Port of Rotterdam CO₂ transport hub and
will arrive by barge. Crucially, all these feeds offshore storage (Porthos) project (see Figure 5)
will be sustainably sourced; the unit will not is the Netherlands’ first CCS undertaking. Shell
process crude palm oil because of its associated will be one of four companies to supply CO₂ to
sustainability issues. Porthos’ collective pipeline. For Pernis refinery,
These are challenging feeds for a HEFA which will route CO₂ emissions from the Shell
plant to process economically, as they require Gasification Process and the Shell Renewable
considerable pretreatment, and here we will Refining Process unit to the pipeline, this would
be using a mix of technologies that have been reduce the site’s emissions by some 25%.
around for a while, and also novel ones. Through The CO₂ will be compressed and piped 20 km
continuous R&D, the Shell Renewable Refining offshore to an underground storage facility 3 km
Process is likely to evolve to process increasingly below the seabed. The facility will store 2-2.5
advanced and sustainable feedstocks. Mt/y of CO₂. The final investment decision will be
The existing technology will provide filtration made in 2022 and the project will be operational
and the removal of metals and other impurities, by 2024.
whereas the novelty is in the HEFA plant first Throughout the 15-year life of the Porthos
and second stages. The first stage incorporates project, the reduction in CO₂ emissions at the
hydrogenation and hydrodeoxygenation, in which Pernis site will be equivalent to about 1.15 Mt/y.
poisons, carbon monoxide, and CO₂ are removed Another piece of the jigsaw of solutions is
to enhance the performance of the second stage. Shell’s involvement in the Rotterdam Clean
Hydroisomerisation takes place in the second Energy Hub and the production of green
stage to produce products with the right flow hydrogen. Shell will take renewable power from
properties. In this final stage, a superior noble the Hollandse Kust Noord wind farm, which can

provide up to 759 MW. Some of the renewable Key takeaways
electrical energy will be traded and provided to Accelerating the transition of Shell’s businesses
local customers, while a 200 MW electrolyser to net-zero emissions by 2050 will involve the
will produce green hydrogen. The hydrogen deployment of a wide range of decarbonisation
will play a balancing role, with some of it being solutions. These solutions can be applied today, or
supplied to Pernis refinery, which is a hydrogen in the near future. The scale of the challenge is that
consumer. This will help Pernis refinery to lower most businesses will need to apply nearly all of them.
its emissions. Some of the hydrogen will also be The Powering Progress strategy sets out our route
supplied to industrial customers in the first move map to accelerate the transition of our business to
to set up hydrogen infrastructure in the region. net-zero emissions by 2050, in step with society
But there is another important aspect to and in partnership with our customers. The Pernis
this: hydrogen fuelling stations for trucks have site will play a big role in this through a wide range
the potential for substantial growth and the of strategies involving biofuels, green hydrogen, and
availability of hydrogen will encourage heavy- CCS, and it is very much a partnership as we look to
duty transport customers to invest in hydrogen- help our customers decarbonise.
fuelled trucks. So, in this way, Pernis refinery will Tackling climate change involves technology
play a crucial role in helping that sector to lower development, innovation, and collaboration
its emissions. This will also help the refinery to across the energy industry. Our industry holds a
reduce the emissions that come from the use of long history of innovation, so I firmly believe that
the products it sells – its Scope 3 emissions. although we clearly face many challenges, exciting
The Porthos project may offer the opportunity times lie ahead.
to expand blue hydrogen production, with
associated CCS, in the region, which would help
customers in other sectors, such as power, steel Andy Gosse
and cement, to decarbonise. www.shell.com/CT
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_SER-RET-359_HEDecarbAd-AW.indd 1 05/04/2022 17:01

ACCELERATING
DECARBONISATION
TOGETHER
The world’s energy system is changing. To solve the challenges those changes present, Shell Catalysts
& Technologies is developing its Decarbonisation Solutions portfolio — to provide services and
integrated value chains of technologies, designed to help industries navigate their path through the
energy transition. Our experienced teams of consultants and engineers apply our diverse, unique
owner-operator expertise to co-create pathways and technology solutions to address your specific
Decarbonisation ambitions — creating a cleaner way forward together.
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Decarbonisation
Solutions
shell.indd 1 04/02/2022 13:42:05

Value of investment, partnerships
and policy in growing CCS market
As 2050 climate targets near, matching climate ambition with urgent action
will drive CCS adoption, inching us closer to a net-zero future
Guloren Turan
Global CCS Institute
I
n 2021, carbon capture and storage – or development, a rise in financial investments, and
CCS – saw the largest scale-up since the more public-private partnerships.
technology’s inception over 50 years ago. As climate impacts become a stark reality for
The first commercial CCS facility was brought governments and businesses alike, applying a
online in 1972, primarily to enhance the business sustainability lens to long-term strategic planning
operations of a natural gas processing facility has become imperative. Guiding by legislated
in Terrell, Texas. A few decades later, industry international and domestic climate targets, the
players in Norway sought to adopt the innovative role of CCS as a credible climate solution and a
technology to abate CO₂ emissions and store it tool to support a just energy transition is being
offshore in the North Sea, making the country steadily recognised and adopted.
a first mover in undertaking CCS efforts solely
for climate change mitigation purposes. Since Current state of CCS
then, interest and popularity around CCS have Over the last year alone, 73 new CCS facilities
steadily grown, leading to increased CCS policy were added to the project pipeline globally (see
Direct air capture Oxy Dac

Cement production Norcem Brevik
Iron and steel production Abu Dhabi CCS 1
Fortum Oslo Varme Stockholm Exergi
Waste to energy
Zeros Copenhill
Mustang Station Immingham Power
Power generation:
Natural gas Coyote Cal Capture
Plant Daniel
San Juan
Prairie State
Bridgeport Moonie
Power generation: Boundary Dam Petra Nova
Coal Guodian Taizhou Project Tundra
Gerald Gentleman
Air Liquide Rotterdam Shell Rotterdam
Hydrogen production Air Products SMR Quest Actl Sturgeon Philips 66
Air Prodicts Rotterdam Exxonmobil Rotterdam
Chemical production Great BASF Antwerp
Sinopec Zhongyuan Karamay Dunhua Lake Charles
(Others) Plains
Interseqt Plainview One Earth Energy
Ethanol production Arkalon Bonanza Bioenergy Illinois Industrial Interseqt Hereford Summit Carbon Solutions
(31 facilities)
Fertiliser Enid Fertiliser PCS Nitrogen Actl Nutrien
Wabash
production Coffeyville Sinopec Qilu
Szank Field Sleipner
Century Plant Gorgon
Natural gas Snøhvit Abu Dhasbi CCS 2
Uthmaniyah CNPC Jilin
processing Lost Cabin Santos Cooper basin
Core Energy Petrobras Santos Qatar LNG CCS
Terrell
Applications 1972 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Chart indicates the primary In operation Advanced development Size of the circle is proportionate to
industry type of each facility Operation suspended Capture capacity TBC the capture capacity of the facility. 0.2 1.0 5.0 Mtpa of CO2
among various options. In construction
Figure 1 CCS projects by sector and the scale-up of CCS overtime
The Value of Investment, Partnerships and Policy in a Growing CCS Market.indd 27 29/04/2022 10:34:50
Commercial CCS facilities in operation and construction
Commercial CCS facilities in development
Operation suspended
United Kingdon
North America Rotterdam and
and Ireland
Antwerp Rotterdam
Aberdeen
Edmonton
Chicago
Dublin
London
Houston
Antwerp
Figure 2 CCS projects being deployed by region
Figure 1), bringing the total of projects to 135 applied by cement, chemical, iron, and steel
CCS facilities in various stages of development plants to decarbonise production.
(Global CCS Institute, 2021). With financial Across Europe and North America, the
investments being made to support this scale- urgency of addressing climate change and
up, will the returns be worth it? The impact so scaling up CCS is evident. With 40 facilities
far suggests so. CCS has mitigated over 300 in operation and under development, the US
million tonnes of CO₂ since the technology has remained the global CCS front runner for
came into effect, abating over 40 million tonnes decades (see Figure 2), which can largely be
per year. The versatile technology provides attributed to long-standing supportive policy
deep decarbonisation in energy-intensive development, including a CCS-specific tax
sectors by capturing CO₂ – typically from a benefit that has driven CCS investment.
point source at an industrial facility – and In Europe, we also see CCS ambitions on the
storing it below the earth’s surface before it can rise. With targets to reach climate neutrality by
reach the atmosphere. While its deployment 2050 cemented by the European Green Deal,
has been largely associated with the energy the European Commission announced targets
sector, CCS’s application is flexible and is being to cut emissions by 55% by 2030 (European
Commission, 2021). This ambitious but much- corporations have signed on to take part in
needed target is being supported through a the Longship project (Bellona, 2020). The
number of policy mechanisms, including grant Norcem cement plant in Brevik – owned and
programmes and an emissions trading system. operated by Heidelberg Cement – championed
the project, acknowledging that CCS is one
Collaborative efforts and the rise of CCS of the few climate solutions they can rely on
As a method to mitigate both cost and to decarbonise the cement industry. As 2050
operational risk, CCS networks – where climate targets near, CCS is no longer an option
several CCS projects share CO₂ transport but a necessity.
and storage infrastructure to enhance cost
savings – have taken off. Across the UK and CCS and international climate targets
Europe in particular, industrial players are The Paris Agreement calls for global warming
partnering up with the public sector to get not to exceed 1.5-2º by 2050 if we are to avoid
CCS networks off the ground (see Figure 2). the catastrophic impacts of climate change.
The response has been promising. In 2020, the A tough target but one that remains within
UK government pledged to allocate £1 billion reach so long as all proven climate mitigating
towards the development of CCS clusters, with tools are urgently deployed and fully utilised –
an aim to have four fully operational networks including CCS. According to the International
by 2030. Energy Agency (IEA), CCS will need to account
Concurrently, the European Commission has for 15% of the world’s emissions reduction
developed supportive CCS policy and grant by mid-century – that requires a 100-fold
schemes to drive project development, most increase in CCS facilities between now and
notably through the EU Innovation Fund – one then (IEA, 2020). To achieve this, a rapid scale-
of the world’s largest funding programmes up of projects across the energy-intensive
aimed at scaling up green technologies. While
the size of the funding pot is directly tied to
revenues made from the EU Emissions Trading According to the IEA, CCS will
Scheme (EU ETS), the Innovation Fund will need to account for 15% of the
allocate 20-25 billion Euros to projects by 2030 world’s emissions reduction by
– a small fraction of which has already been
mid-century – that requires a
dispersed. In April of this year, seven green
tech projects totalling 1.1 billion Euros formally 100-fold increase in CCS facilities
signed their grant agreements with the between now and then
Commission – four of which are CCS focused
(European Commission, 2022). With projects
in Finland, Sweden, France, and Belgium being sphere will need to retrofit their industrial
supported, the Innovation Fund is opening new facilities with CCS where possible, as soon
doors for CCS across Europe. as possible.
Similarly, in Norway, the recently approved In time, climate impacts will further affect
and funded Longship Project aims to provide the bottom line of businesses – particularly
ample CO₂ storage space for CCS initiatives, as stronger climate policies are implemented
both from industrial facilities domestically and – making the business case for CCS more
from facilities across Europe. The ambitious attractive. In Europe, the EU ETS has made
effort will initially store 0.8 million tonnes emitting CO₂ a financial cost that is ever
of CO₂, with the capacity to expand and increasing. With CCS recognised as a
provide 5 million tonnes of CO₂ storage space. climate- mitigating tool, both under the
Although the Norwegian government will EU ETS system and within the EU Green
provide two-thirds of the funding needed to Taxonomy, energy-intensive industries are
develop Longship, the European Commission turning to the technology to reach net zero
will also support the project and carry some and mitigate the price tag associated with
of the cost burdens. At present, five major their operations.
In North America, the 45Q tax credit in the Similarly, governments and industries are
US alleviated costs and enabled businesses turning to opportunities around low-carbon
to reflect on CCS as a long-term investment. hydrogen production – an area where CCS will
Enacted in 2008, the tax credit has since play a role if a booming hydrogen sector is to
been reformed to provide greater regulatory grow with the net-zero aim.
clarity and will soon support small-scale CCS Undoubtedly, the opportunities that exist
networks to allow for the cost relief benefits for CCS are diverse and exciting. However,
that those operations seek. more will be needed beyond financial
investments and grants to get projects into
Economic and commercial viability development. For CCS to reach commercial
As more projects get off the ground, the viability, supporting projects means adequately
economic and commercial viability of CCS will resolving legal and regulatory uncertainties
continue to take centre stage. While upfront associated with CO₂ storage. In many regions
costs of CCS can be high, the demand for around the world, CCS policies are either
producing low-carbon products is rising. In the non-existent or lack the maturity to provide
Middle East, a global hot spot for the energy industry with the confidence to forge ahead
market, CCS is taking on a greater role as an with projects. In areas like Europe, where
enabling technology to support the energy CCS policies do exist, further CCS regulations
transition and shore up sustainable business regarding CO₂ transport and storage
models for major corporations. Although there infrastructure will be crucial to further scale-up
are only three CCS facilities in the region, 3.7 and investment.
million tonnes of CO₂ are being captured from
those projects alone – that accounts for 10% Where CCS is headed
of the total amount of CO₂ currently being To balance the books on global emissions,
captured globally. As more facilities in the carbon removal technologies, like CCS, will
Middle East adopt CCS, the region has the need to play a stronger role in the years to
potential to capture up to 60 million tonnes of come. In 2021, we saw 71 new projects added
CO₂ by 2035. to the project pipeline and a 33% growth in
Growing alongside a CCS market is a CCS capacity (Global CCS Institute, 2021).
growing job market. CCS facilities are large While the ongoing growth in the CCS market is
engineering and construction projects, and reassuring, the reality remains that 2,000 CCS
their design, build, and operation will create facilities will be needed by 2050 for net zero to
a significant number of high-value jobs as be reached.
more CCS projects get developed (Global CCS To address the urgency, both government and
Institute, 2021). If 2050 international climate industry appear to agree that a collaborative
targets are to be met, on average, around 70 approach is needed to scale up CCS projects.
CCS facilities will need to be built per year, That collaboration has, so far, been illustrated
creating up to 100,000 construction jobs and both in the funding mechanisms and policies
40,000 ongoing operations jobs within a few that exist – from grants, tax credits, and carbon
decades (Global CCS Institute, 2020). markets – and in the inclusive CCS business
The potential for the commercial viability model in place, primarily in the form of a hub
of CCS is also spurring interest in innovative and cluster network. As 2050 nears, matching
methods of capturing and storing CO₂. Direct climate ambition with urgent climate action will
air carbon capture – where CO₂ is captured drive CCS adoption, inching us closer to a net-
from the air, as opposed to a point source zero future.
from a facility – is seeing a rise in popularity,
particularly in North America. Although
adoption of the technology is in the early VIEW REFERENCES
stages, the opportunity to capture and store
CO₂ that has already been released has the Guloren Turan
guloren.turan@globalccsinstitute.com
potential to be deployed on a wide scale.
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chromalox.indd 1 28/04/2022 16:02:21

IN FOCUS Delivering the
Global Methane Pledge
Atmospheric methane concentrations have risen by almost 10% in the past 20
years, so how do we deliver a 30% reduction in methane emissions by 2030?
Robin Nelson
Consulting Editor
T
he first half of our extended feature on What is the Global Methane Pledge?
the Global Methane Pledge summarises
the commitment to a 30% reduction in • In November 2021, the US and the EU jointly
global methane emissions by 2030. We consider announced the Global Methane Pledge, a global
natural methane sources and sinks and the partnership with over 100 countries, which could
impact of anthropogenic methane emissions. We avert 0.2°C of global warming by 2050 (US
summarise the major initiatives and technologies Department of State, 2021a).
available for reducing emissions from agriculture • Countries joining the Global Methane Pledge
and waste by 2030. Opportunities for the energy commit to a collective goal of reducing global
sector to collect and use methane from anaerobic methane emissions by at least 30% from 2020
digesters or avoid methane emissions from levels by 2030 and moving towards the best
waste by investing in waste-to-fuels and waste- available inventory methodologies to quantify
to-plastics processes are highlighted. The second methane emissions, focusing on high emission
half focuses on initiatives to reduce methane sources (European Commission, 2021).
emissions from the oil and gas supply chain. • The Global Methane Pledge was supplemented
2000
Methane concentration (ppb)
1500
1000
500
0
-800,000 -600,000 -400,000 -200,000 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year (negative values = BCE) Year
Figure 1 Atmospheric concentration of methane in the atmosphere from 800,000 years ago through
2019, measured in parts per billion (ppb). Different coloured lines represent different data sources
Source: EPA, 2021
DT4 Nelson.indd 32 28/04/2022 13:39:44

Global methane emissions 5%
Natural
Agriculture
Waste 18% 8% 9% Global anthropogenic
methane emissions
Fossil fuel
Biomass and biofuel 39% Rice cultivation
burning
Livestock fermentation
31% 33% & manure
Total emissions:
Landfill & waste
596Tg 11% Fossil fuel
(range 572–614)
extraction and use
19% Biomass & biofuel burning
Total anthropogenic emissions:

27% 354Tg (range 340–381)
Figure 2 Global methane emissions, 2017

Source: (Saunois, et al., 2020): data used 2017 “top-down” (1Tg=1Mt)
by a separate US-China cooperation agreement (C4H10), and pentane (C5H12), have formed from
to develop additional measures to enhance thermogenic decomposition in underground rock
methane emission control before COP27. formations under the surface of the Earth, often
China intends to develop a comprehensive in association with other hydrocarbon reservoirs
and ambitious National Action Plan on including coal and oil. Methane hydrates occur
methane, aiming to significantly affect methane in oceanic sediments as methane clathrate
emissions control and reductions in the 2020s (CH4)4(H20)23. Methane can be released naturally
(US Department of State, 2021b). from these deposits (Skarke et al., 2014).
Methane is also formed pyrogenically by the
Atmospheric methane concentrations combustion of biomass, for example, from forest
Atmospheric concentrations of methane (CH4) fires caused by lightning strikes.
averaged about 500 ppb (see Figure 1, left) Natural methane sinks, such as the reaction
for hundreds of thousands of years but, with with hydroxyl (OH-) radicals within the
the onset of industrialisation, increased to over troposphere, oxidation by methanotrophic
1800 ppb by 2019 (see Figure 1, right, EPA, bacteria and other chemical reactions with
2021a). Although these concentrations are at oxygen and free chlorine in the atmosphere,
least an order of magnitude lower than carbon maintained an equilibrium with natural methane
dioxide (CO2), the global warming potential of emissions (IPIECA, 2021a). By 2017, natural
methane over 100 years (GWP100) is 28-36 sources only accounted for 39% of global
that of CO2. methane emissions (see Figure 2).
Natural sources of methane Anthropogenic emissions of methane

Methane is formed biogenically as a result of Anthropogenic emissions reached 62% of
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in global methane emissions, or 1.6 times the
wetlands and forests. natural emissions by 2017, while methane sinks
Over time, substantial deposits of natural gas, removed an estimated 96% of total (natural and
primarily methane but with lesser amounts anthropogenic) emissions (Global Carbon Atlas,
of ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane 2020). Anthropogenic emissions are considered
the main cause of higher atmospheric methane comment is in relation to emissions from oil and
concentrations, although changes impacting the gas operations, it is equally valid, but with less
flux between emissions and sinks may also be a global governance, more problematic, in the
factor. context of reducing methane from agriculture.
Globally, the main anthropogenic sources CCAC’s Agriculture Initiative includes four
are agriculture at 45%, followed by fossil fuel programmes targeting reductions in methane
production and use (coal, oil, and natural gas) at emissions (CCAC, 2019):
24%, waste at 20%, and smaller amounts from  Rice methane
burning of biomass and biofuels, residential, and  Livestock methane
industrial emissions (see Figure 2). However,  Manure methane
the ranking of anthropogenic emissions changes  Bioenergy methane
in different regions of the world. Emissions
from paddy fields reflect the importance of Reducing methane from rice cultivation
rice cultivation in Asia. Similarly, the increased Rice is the staple food for 3 billion people,
reliance on coal for power in Asia results in a providing one-fifth of calories consumed
higher contribution from coal relative to oil and worldwide. Rice cultivation is responsible
gas, whereas in Europe, rice and coal rank lower for 9% of anthropogenic methane emissions
than emissions from livestock and gas (Saunois, (IRRI, 2021a). Flooded rice paddies are ideal
et al., 2020). anaerobic environments for methane-producing
microbes that feed on decomposing organic
Reducing methane emissions from matter, a process known as methanogenesis
agriculture and waste (Drawdown, 2019a).
Alternate Wetting and Drying practices,
The UN Climate and Clean Air Coalition originally developed to save water, have been
(CCAC) estimates that known techniques and found to decrease methane emissions. CCAC
management practices could reduce emissions estimates that this could reduce methane
by between 21 and 40% of that needed for emissions from paddy fields by over 30%
agriculture to contribute to its share of methane by 2030 (CCAC, 2022a). Project Drawdown
emissions reductions. Farmers will readily extends this out to 2050 and estimates that
adopt new practices if they can realise tangible mid-season drainage alone can reduce methane
benefits in terms of greater productivity, emissions by 70% (Drawdown, 2019a).
lower input costs, or more sustainable yields The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
through better resource management. The “Paddy Rice Component” provides technical and
UN International Methane Observatory in its policy guidance for national governments (IRRI,
theory of change aims to catalyse action by 2021b). The programme will address major
plant managers (IMEO, 2021a). Whilst this constraints to methane mitigation by identifying
Mixed dairy OECD -11% OECD

Fat supplementation 2.1-2.3% countries
Manure management 8.9%
Beef cattle -47.5% South

Improved feed quality 25.7% America
Improved fertility and reduced mortality 21.8%
Small ruminants -4.5% West

Improved fertility and reduced mortality 2.65% Africa
Improved feed quality 1.85%
Mixed dairy -2.8-10.9% East

Improved feed quality 2.2-9% Africa
Improved fertality and reduced mortality 0.6-1.9%
Dairy cattle -38% South Commercial pigs -20-28% South

Improved feed quality 23.4% Asia Improved fertility and reduced mortality 17.1% East Asia
Improved fertality and reduced mortality 3.3% Manure management 15.4%
Figure 3 Methane mitigation potential for the livestock sector Source: (CCAC, 2019)
DT4 Nelson.indd 34 28/04/2022 13:39:45

(1) best management practices that achieve CCAC is working with the Chinese Academy of
both mitigation and food security, and (2) Agricultural Sciences to incorporate methane
incentives, technical support mechanisms, and mitigation measures into China’s 14th Five-
enabling conditions to overcome the barriers Year Plan (2021-25) and update China’s NDC
that men and women farmers face in using new (CCAC, 2020). Among other measures, CCAC
practices (IRRI, 2021a). is promoting farm-scale anaerobic digestion to
control methane emissions from manure.
Reducing methane from livestock
In many countries, there is considerable scope Bioenergy methane solutions:
for improvement in the efficiency of livestock anaerobic digestion
farming, leading to higher production levels and Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a proven and
reduced methane emissions (see Figure 3). Such energy-efficient method to decompose organic
measures include: matter. Anaerobic bacteria digest the organic
• Improved feed availability and quality matter to produce biogas (a mix of methane
• Better herd and health management and and CO2 with small amounts of other gases)
husbandry along with an organic residue called digestate,
• Manure management. a nutrient-rich fertiliser or soil improver (Global
The CCAC found that these measures could Methane Initiative, 2016).
reduce methane emissions by 8.6 million tonnes Small-scale digesters are widespread in Asia
(Mt) per year, though with considerable (4.5- in households and farms. More than 100 million
47.5%) country to country variation. CCAC also people in rural China use biogas for cooking,
noted that whilst such efficiency measures may lighting, and heating (Drawdown, 2019c).
reduce the emissions per unit (animal), total In China, mono-digesters that use animal
emissions may still increase due to forecast manure as feedstock are the most common
increases in production. type of anaerobic digester. However, Zheng et
Two emerging trends that could temper the al., recognise the tremendous opportunity to
forecast increases in global meat production upgrade biogas production in China and other
are the move to healthier diets with more plant developing countries by adopting modern
proteins and the use of precision fermentation to technologies and management practices
produce 'alternative animal' proteins. Rethinkx, (Zheng, et al., 2020).
a think tank, suggests that alternative proteins Co-digestion biogas units are common in
will lead to a 50% reduction in the number of Europe and the US, combining a broader range
cows in the US by 2030 (Rethinkx Team, 2019). of organic feedstocks, such as manure, food
Whilst thought-provoking, it would be unwise waste (processing, distribution, and consumer-
to count on such a disruption in human dietary generated materials), energy crops, crop
behaviour delivering a reduction in global residues, as well as fats, oils, and greases. Co-
methane emissions by 2030. digestion biogas units are more efficient and
give higher yields of biogas. Methane in the
Manure and waste management biogas can be purified (CO2 removed) to produce
The Global Alliance for Climate Smart biomethane, which can then be inserted into
Agriculture (GACSA) is promoting integrated natural gas grids, used for electricity production,
manure management as a means to improve soil or used as a vehicle fuel (see Figure 4).
health, along with composting and anaerobic The EPA currently lists 317 anaerobic digester
digestion to reduce emissions of both methane projects operating on livestock farms in the US
and nitrous oxide, another potent GHG (EPA, 2022).
(FAO, 2022). In Europe, most local authorities use anaerobic
With the world’s largest domesticated animal digestion technology to treat sewage in
population, China made a commitment in its wastewater. In 2011, over 70% of municipal
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to wastewater treatment plants in the UK used
develop low-carbon agriculture and reduce anaerobic digesters to produce energy (DEFRA,
GHG emissions through manure management. 2011). Municipal solid waste (MSW) digesters
DT4 Nelson.indd 35 28/04/2022 13:39:45

Figure 4 Feedstock for and output from anaerobic digestion Source: (EPA, 2021)
are less common in the UK, whereas in Germany, In 2019, landfill accounted for 12% of the
in 2014, nearly 8,000 aerobic digesters were world’s total methane emissions. Globally, most
operating, generating 4,000 MWe electricity. waste is disposed of in some form of landfill,
Project Drawdown estimates that large but only 8% is disposed of in sanitary landfills
anaerobic digesters could grow from current with landfill gas collection systems (World
values of 0.7% or 100 TWh of global electricity Bank, 2022).
generation to as much as 1.7% or 761 TWh by The technology to capture biogas from landfill
2050 and reduce total GHGs by 9.8 GT of CO2eq is relatively simple. Dispersed, perforated
(Drawdown, 2019c). tubes are inserted at a suitable depth to collect
At present, there are only five Bioenergy with the gas, which is piped to a central collection
Carbon Capture (BECCs) facilities operating area. The gas can then be compressed and
globally (Global CCS Institute, 2019). Equipping purified for use as fuel or mixed into the natural
biogas to power plants with carbon capture gas supply. Project Drawdown estimates
would result in reductions in both methane and that capturing and using landfill methane for
CO2 emissions. electricity generation can result in emissions
reductions equivalent to 2.2 Gt GHG emissions
Methane capture from landfill by 2050 (Drawdown, 2019d).
The world generates 2.01 billion tonnes of Clearly, reducing the amount of hydrocarbon
MSW annually, an average of 0.7kg per person waste that ends up in MSW will reduce
per day, ranging from 0.11 to as much as methane emissions from landfill. The use of
4.54kg. By 2050, global waste is expected to anaerobic digesters has already been discussed.
grow to nearly 3.4 billion tonnes (see Figure 5) Composting household and garden waste should
(World Bank, 2022). be encouraged as another option that averts
DT4 Nelson.indd 36 28/04/2022 13:39:45

methane production. Waste-to-fuels processes • Avoidance of up to nearly 1 billion tonnes
are very topical and attracting significant globally of biowaste going to landfill with a
investment from the oil and gas sector. concomitant reduction in methane
• The use of biowaste as feedstock for
Waste-to-fuels and waste-to-plastics renewable fuels avoids new releases of CO2
The World Bank reports that 32% of waste in from the equivalent amount of fossil oil
high-income countries is food and green waste, • Reducing the amount of waste going
while 51% could be recycled (plastic, paper, to landfill would also lower the cost to
cardboard, metal, and glass). In middle- and low- society involved in managing landfill. Waste
income countries, the total waste is less, and the management takes up a significant part of
amount of food and green waste increases to local government budgets.
53% and 57%, respectively (World Bank, 2022). Non-recyclable plastic waste is another
The hydrocarbon-rich fractions (biowaste) component that can be separated from MSW
can be separated from MSW and used as a to reduce the amount of landfill or incineration.
feedstock for renewable fuels using processes OMV, in its Schwechat refinery, recently
for waste-to-fuels. announced an investment to scale up its ReOil
In its Gela biorefinery, ENI has operated a process (based on pyrolysis), in which plastic
pilot plant that uses a hydrothermal liquefaction waste is converted to synthetic crude oil,
process to produce a bio-oil that can be used as primarily used for plastics production (OMV,
a low-sulphur marine fuel or refined further to 2021). While this does not directly contribute
kerosene and diesel (ENI, 2022). to methane reductions, it does reduce demand
An alternative technology is using high- for crude oil and is a positive step towards a
temperature gasification of biowaste to produce circular Bioenergy methane economy.
syngas, which is then converted using the The choice to invest in anaerobic digestion
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process to longer chain or waste-to-fuels, waste-to-plastics will be
hydrocarbons in the kerosene or diesel range driven by local and regional considerations,
(Rispoli, 2019). such as the proximity of an integrated
A number of investments in waste-to-fuels petrochemicals refinery with existing
projects have been announced, with companies plant and expertise in fuels and plastics
such as BP, Cosmo Oil, ENI, ExxonMobil, Neste, production. Partnerships between oil and
Repsol, and Shell in the first wave. Whilst the gas companies, local authorities, and private
investments are primarily for the production waste management services will be important
of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), they avoid in the organisation of waste collection with
biowaste going to landfill, which consequentially separation of waste streams, preferably
will avoid methane emissions. The Sierra at source.
biofuels plant, a partnership
between Fulcrum BioEnergy
and BP, is located adjacent to 800
Millions of tonnes per year
714
one of the largest landfills in the 700 2016 2030 2050 661
602
Western USA (BP, 2018). 600
516
490
The biomass fraction of mixed 500 466
440
468
396 392
municipal waste, biowaste from 400 369
342 334
private households, industrial 300 255 269
231
290 289
waste, and used cooking oil 200

129
177 174
are all listed as feedstocks for 100

advanced biofuels in Annex IX 0
Middle Sub- Latin North South Asia Europe East Asia
of the EU’s Renewable Energy East and Saharan America and America and and
North Africa Africa Caribbean Central Asia Pacific
Directive RED II (European
Commission, 2018).
The benefits of waste-to-fuels Figure 5 Projected waste generation by region (million tonnes/
are significant: year) Source: (World Bank, 2022)
DT4 Nelson.indd 37 29/04/2022 16:24:10

“Reducing methane leaks into the atmosphere is the single most
important and cost-effective way for the industry to minimise overall
emissions from core oil and gas operations”.
“This should be a first-order priority for all” (IEA 2021a)
Reducing methane emissions from oil and

gas operations 7% Total 135 Tg
The second half of our focus on the Global

Methane Pledge focuses on initiatives to reduce
32%
or eliminate methane emissions from oil and
gas production, distribution, and use.
29%
While 111 countries have now signed the Coal
Global Methane Pledge, four of the top 10
emitters, China, India, Iran, and Russia, are Oil
yet to do so. Methane emissions from Russian 32% Gas

oil and gas operations rank first, with Iran the
Bioenergy
third highest (Global Methane Pledge, 2022).
When emissions from coal are included,
China becomes the highest-ranked country
(IEA, 2021a). Figure 6 Total methane emissions from coal, oil,
China, India, and Russia are partners in the gas and Bioenergy, 2021 Source: IEA methane
Global Methane Initiative (GMI), launched in tracker 2022 (IEA, 2022) . For comparison with
2004 (Global Methane Initiative, 2022) but Figure 1, 2017 total methane emissions from
which falls short of the Pledge’s performance- fossil fuel production and distribution were 128Tg
based commitment to a 30% reduction (1Tg =1 million tonnes).
by 2030.
coal for the same amount of energy generated
Importance of gas in the energy transition (GIE & Marcogaz, 2019). However, this critically
• The outlook for gas over the next decade assumes a very low rate of methane emissions.
is more resilient than that of coal and oil, The measured emissions rate in the US Permian
underpinned by the role of natural gas in basin, for example, would largely offset any
supporting fast-growing developing economies benefit of natural gas. SEE UPDATE
as they decarbonise and reduce their reliance • Reducing methane emissions is critical in
on coal (BP, 2020). maintaining societal support for the role of gas
• Natural gas is composed of methane (70- in the energy transition. It is in the interests of
90%) with up to 20% other hydrocarbons the oil and gas industry to show commitment
(ethane, propane, butane), as well as carbon and to deliver on that commitment.
dioxide (CO2) and smaller amounts of oxygen, • The IEA considers that it is possible to
nitrogen, and hydrogen sulphide. avoid around 75% of today’s methane
• Methane is a more potent greenhouse gas emissions from global oil and gas operations
(GHG), over 86 times more powerful than CO2 using technology available today. Fatih Birol
over a 20-year period, but with a shorter 12- emphasised that with 2022 natural gas prices,
year lifespan in the atmosphere, resulting in nearly all the methane emissions from oil and
a Global Warming Potential over 100 years gas operations worldwide could be avoided at
(GWP100) of 28-36 times that of CO2. no net cost.
• Natural gas has a lower carbon intensity than • The current sanctions on Russia, coming on
coal or oil, producing about half as much CO2 as top of a surge in energy demand as the world
D4 Nelson p2.indd 38 28/04/2022 13:45:56

recovers from COVID, have led to 2022’s record The OGMP 2.0 reporting framework includes
energy prices. Sanctions make it more difficult emissions from a company’s own operations
to work with Russia on methane emissions as well as non-operated and joint venture
abatement. On the other hand, the crisis has assets (scope 1 emissions). Companies with
created a greater imperative to avoid methane plans to improve measurement and reporting
emissions elsewhere to increase the market transparency, combined with an overall goal
supply effectively. of reducing the methane emissions intensity
to 0.2% or less (or an equivalent absolute
reduction level), can attain OGMP’s gold
Global coordination on reducing methane
standard.
emissions from the oil and gas sector
In 2022, OGMP 2.0 supplemented its earlier
There are a number of major, well-coordinated Technical Guidance Documents with a new
and complementary initiatives on reducing series, listed below, along with guidance and
methane emissions from the oil and gas sector: templates for reporting upstream, mid, and
downstream emissions (OGMP, 2022):
 Oil and Gas Methane Partnership 2.0
The Oil and Gas Methane Partnership 1. Liquid unloading
2.0 (OGMP 2.0) is an initiative led by the 2. Reciprocating compressors
International Methane Emissions Observatory 3. Leaks
(IMEO) at UNEP, together with the European 4. Incomplete combustion
Commission and the Environmental Defence 5. Centrifugal compressors
Fund. Over 75 oil and gas companies have 6. Glycol dehydrators
signed up to OGMP 2.0, committing to measure 7. Flare efficiency
and report their emissions against a detailed 8. Level 1 and 2 reporting
performance framework, with a goal to reduce
collective industry methane emissions by 45% Indirect, scope 2 emissions from the
by 2025 and 60-75% by 2030. generation of purchased energy and scope
BASELINE 2017
OUR TARGET 0.30% HOW WE REDUCE
IN DETAIL METHANE EMISSIONS
2018
Includes all operated Expand leak detection and repair
upstream oil and gas assets 0.25% campaigns
2019
All OGCI members support the aims
0.23% Replace or upgrade high-emitting devices
of zero Routine Flaring by 2030
We will report our collective 2020

Reduce flaring
methane intensity annually
0.20%
Consistent with support Reduce venting in new and existing assets

for Paris Agreement 2025
TARGET
Well
below
0.20%
NEAR ZERO
Figure 7 OGCI Aiming for Zero methane emissions by 2030 (OGCI, 2022)
D4 Nelson p2.indd 39 28/04/2022 13:45:56

Flare/vent LNG and LNG and
Lease Inlet pipeline pipeline
separator separator Gas imports exports
processing
Raw (wet plant
natural Pipeline Main line
Oil/ Electric
gas natural gas sales
gas power
well
Industry
Reinjection Natural
Crude oil
gas plant
liquids Storage
(NGPL) in mix
Commercial
Water, sand,
Resource inert gases
Local
disribution Residential
Fractionator company
NGPL purity Transport

LNG peaking
products storage
Figure 8 Natural gas value chain Source: US Energy Information Agency (US EIA, 2018)
3 emissions arising during the combustion of than 30%. In March 2022, this commitment
methane by the end user are not included in the was strengthened via the Aiming for Zero
OGMP framework. Methane Emissions initiative (see Figure 7).
The Global Methane Alliance (GMA) is Signatories strive to reach near-zero methane
a Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) emissions from operated oil and gas assets
initiative that encouraged governments to by 2030. OGCI encourages all oil and gas
explicitly include methane as part of their companies to join this initiative.
overall GHG reduction targets in their Nationally
Determined Contributions in the lead-up to  Methane Guiding Principles (MGP)
COP26. OGMP 2.0 builds on the reduction An industry initiative managed by OGCI, MGP
targets established in the GMA. The Clean prioritises actions on the natural gas supply
Air Task Force, a partner to GMA, provides chain, from production to the final consumer
technical and policy assistance to countries (see Figure 8), (MGP, 2022). MGP signatory
committed to reducing methane emissions companies commit to reporting publicly on
(CATF, 2022). progress with five MGPs:
 Oil and Gas Climate Initiative (OGCI)  Continually reduce methane emissions
OGCI is a CEO-led industry initiative launched  Advance strong performance across the gas
in 2014 to take practical actions on climate supply chain
change. Reducing methane emissions is a  Improve accuracy of methane emissions
priority area for OGCI, with the objective to data
achieve near-zero methane emissions across  Advocate sound policy and regulations on
the oil and gas industry and along the full methane emissions
value chain.  Increase transparency
All OGCI members commit to reducing their
methane intensity target to well below 0.20% MGP provides 10 Best Practice Guides
by 2025. OGCI members report progress and a Best Practice toolkit with the
annually, and over the last five years reduced reporting framework. The website https://
their aggregated methane emissions by more methaneguidingprinciples.org/reporting/ gives
D4 Nelson p2.indd 40 29/04/2022 16:16:48

links to MGP reports from each reporting Downstream methane emissions
company. In the 2022 reports, companies The abatement of methane emissions from
summarised activities completed in 2021 and upstream is considered 'low hanging fruit' in
stated their plans for 2022 against each of that it is both cost-effective and technically
the MGPs. Examples taken from two of the feasible using currently available technologies.
reports include: The GIE/Marcogas report covers methane
• Shell reports a reduction in methane emissions from downstream and end uses
emissions from 91 kt in 2019 to 67 kt in of natural gas, such as domestic heating and
2020, and a methane intensity between cooking in Europe (GIE & Marcogaz, 2019).
0.01 to 0.6% for individual facilities Many countries will continue to rely on
(Shell, 2022). natural gas for domestic heating and cooking
• QatarEnergy’s methane emissions intensity up to and beyond 2030. A UK study found it
has been stable (0.005 to 0.008%) and below is feasible to convert the existing natural gas
the OGMP 2.0 target of 0.2% since 2015. network to hydrogen (Ahn, 2017). Britain’s
QatarEnergy reports progress with the LDAR Hydrogen Network plan takes this further
programme for its LNG and gas-to-liquids with the aim to deliver a national 100%
assets (QatarEnergy, 2021). hydrogen network (DNV & ENA, 2021).
In October 2020, OGCI, IPIECA, and Given the economics and limited availability
IOGP launched a joint task force to develop of green hydrogen in the short term, it will
industry recommended practices for Methane be better directed towards higher added-
Detection and Quantification technologies value applications. As such, the abatement
for the upstream oil and gas industry. This of emissions from domestic gas consumption
builds on the MGP best practice guide on is likely to be reliant on the use of 'blue'
Identification, Detection, Measurement and hydrogen, made from steam reforming of
Quantification (MGP, 2020). methane in combination with carbon capture.
IOGP is further supporting the MGP An emerging technology that holds promise
via a new initiative, Embedding Methane for the longer term is the pyrolysis of methane
Management Best Practices Across Gas to produce 'turquoise' hydrogen and carbon in
Companies, together with the MGP Secretariat the form of char, avoiding the need for carbon
and the Energy Institute. This initiative will (dioxide) capture.
leverage MGP’s network, contacts, and The near to mid-term warming impacts of
tools in a global stakeholder outreach and hydrogen are higher than widely perceived.
engagement programme. Hydrogen is present in the atmosphere in
H2 + OH H + H2O
Tropospheric warming effects Stratospheric warming effects
Tropospheric O3 Stratospheric H2O

CH4 concentrations
concentrations concentrations
Less OH is available to react
Tropospheric O3 formation via When this reaction occurs
with CH4 and OH is the main
a chain of reactions: in the stratosphere, the
sink of atmospheric CH4, this
H + O2 HO2 additional water vapour
increases the lifetime of CH4
HO2 + NO NO2 + OH causes stratospheric cooling
NO2 + hv NO + O that leads to a positive
O+O+M O3 + M radiative forcing
Figure 9 Effects of hydrogen oxidation on atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations

Source: (Ocko & Hamburg, 2022)
D4 Nelson p2.indd 41 29/04/2022 16:17:09

trace amounts (about 510 ppb). The GWP100 requirements, as well as requirements for
for Hydrogen is 5±1, but this figure downplays public disclosure.
its impact. GWP deemphasises the climatic
importance of short-lived molecular species Technologies for detection and monitoring
such as hydrogen and methane. In the of leaks
troposphere, hydrogen reacts with OH radicals,
the main sink for atmospheric methane and LDAR programmes aim to detect, locate,
affects the chemistry of ozone. It also impacts and repair fugitive leaks of volatile organic
water vapour levels in the stratosphere compounds, including methane. LDAR is used
(see Figure 9), (Ocko & Hamburg, 2022). across the entire supply chain from upstream,
It will be crucial to minimise the leakage of midstream (pipelines and shipping) to
hydrogen from the outset, starting with the downstream. In addition, continuous monitoring
design specifications for repurposed and based on remote or facility-based sensors can
new infrastructure for the synthesis, storage, abate emissions from large but sporadically
distribution and use of hydrogen. occurring leaks.
Annex VI of the “Report for the Madrid Forum
Regulatory action should underpin industry in June 2019” (gie/Marcogaz, 2019) provides
voluntary actions a review of available techniques for detection
The International Energy Agency’s (IEA) and quantification of methane leaks (and
“Driving down methane leaks – A regulatory other VOCs).
roadmap and toolkit” (IEA, 2021b) supports The gas industry typically uses a source-
the design and implementation of government specific, 'bottom up' approach. A couple of
policies that can overcome barriers due to examples include:
a lack of information, the development of
infrastructure for capturing natural gas and  On-site monitoring and detection of
incentivises investment for the reduction of methane leaks
methane emissions. Handheld devices, used by operators or
IEA advocates a combination of four maintenance engineers, utilising standard (such
regulatory approaches, classified as as EPA 21 or EN15446) methods based on:
Prescriptive, Performance based, Economic, • Flame-ionisation detector (FID) to sample the
and Information based: concentration of methane ('sniffing')
• Prescriptive regulations require actions by a • Quantitative Optical Gas Imaging (OGI)
target date, such as: using infra-red cameras with real-time image
a) Requirements for Leak Detection and Repair processing (Quantitative OGI or QOGI).
(LDAR) programmes and A study in the US showed the importance
b) Technology standards with equipment of surveyor training to increase the detection
specifications. One example used by signatories resolution of OGI (Zimmerle, et al., 2020).
to the Global Methane Initiative is the
replacement of high-bleed pneumatic devices. Airborne detection for pipeline monitoring
• Performance-based approaches that set Unmanned aerial vehicles or drones
goals based on an outcome. Examples include: equipped with miniaturised gas analysers
a) The 30% reduction by 2030 as per the are a lower-cost alternative to helicopters
Global Methane Pledge and to monitor pipelines and remote equipment.
b) Emissions intensity (0.2%) or absolute One example is ABB’s HoverGuard drone,
emissions reduction targets used by companies equipped with laser-based Integrated Cavity
in OGMP 2.0. Output Spectroscopy (OA-ICOS), capable of
• Economic approaches include carbon taxes or detecting variations in ambient methane gas
tradable emissions allowances and credits, such concentrations at ppb levels (ABB, 2021).
as the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) Satellites have significantly increased the
• Information-based instruments include world’s knowledge of emission sources.
mandatory data collection and reporting Scientific institutes and agencies are combining
D4 Nelson p2.indd 42 28/04/2022 13:45:57

watlow.indd 1 28/04/2022 16:03:55
satellite imagery with high-resolution studies, methane emissions from the energy
atmospheric modelling and machine learning sector in 2021 totalled 135 Mt (see Figure
algorithms to detect and quantify methane 1), 70% higher than those declared in
plumes. These estimates can be aggregated at national submissions.
a national scale to evaluate the contribution of In a note of encouragement, the IEA also
ultra-emitters to national reported emissions mentioned that while overall energy use
(CCAC, 2022). Monitoring agencies such recovered by 10% in 2021, the methane
as the IEA, in its global methane tracker, emissions from the energy sector grew by just
and the IMEO are incorporating these 'top- under 5%, indicating that efforts to reduce
down' estimates in their work to validate and emissions may be starting to pay off (IEA,
challenge data from other sources. 2022). That said, the IEA makes it clear that
Differences between top-down and bottom- we are not yet on track to meet the goals of
up approaches are present and difficult to the Global Methane Pledge.
reconcile. Top-down methods tend to measure The IEA also found a significant difference in
atmospheric methane concentrations using emissions intensity across different countries,
airborne or satellite sensors to infer emissions with a methane emissions intensity from the
releases, while bottom-up approaches are worst performers 100 times that of Norway,
based on activity data such as operational the best performer.
flows through a number of facilities, with
standardised emission factors to estimate  International Methane Emissions
leakages from particular types of equipment. Observatory (IMEO)
The IEA points out that typically bottom-up The IMEO is a new UNEP initiative with
methods do not account for emissions from support from the European Commission
accidents and unpredictable process failures, and the US Government to commission
which can constitute some of the largest measurement studies and to collect and
emitting events. integrate diverse methane emissions data
The coverage provided by satellites is still from a range of sources to establish a global
far from complete: existing satellites do not public record of empirically verified methane
provide measurements over equatorial regions, emissions (IMEO, 2021).
offshore operations, or northern areas such as IMEO ingests data from four streams:
the main Russian oil and gas producing areas OGMP 2.0 company reports, direct data
(IEA, 2022). Despite this, satellites are useful measurements from scientific studies, remote
in identifying instances of massive methane sensing data from satellite observations
emissions from 'ultra-emitters', often larger (TROPOMI, GoSat & MethaneSAT), and
than 25 tons per hour of methane. Large short- national inventories (IMEO, 2021). IMEO’s
duration releases from oil and gas, which are first report was published in 2021. It will be
a mixture of leaks and intentional releases, are important to follow progress with the global
not captured in the current reporting system initiatives via these monitoring activities.
(CCAC, 2022).
Related initiatives
Independent monitoring and surveillance Although not focused on methane, the
World Bank’s Global Gas Flaring Reduction
 IEA methane tracker Partnership (GGFR) is committed to ending
The IEA methane tracker is a web-based venting and routine flaring of gas associated
information portal with the best available data with crude oil production sites across the
and analysis on oil and gas methane emissions world. While flaring is better than venting,
abatement potential. the default option should be to avoid methane
The headline statement from the emissions from venting or CO2 emissions
press release for the IEA 2022 methane from flaring by capturing and conserving the
tracker assessment was that based on associated natural gas.
measurement campaigns and scientific Signatories to the GGFR Zero Routine Flaring
D4 Nelson p2.indd 44 28/04/2022 13:45:57

IOGP: New Energy Transition Strategy
IOGP (The International Association of Oil and Deliverables include:

Gas Producers) has launched a new Energy • Flaring and venting: process and
Transition Directorate to deliver its Road to technologies to minimise both routine and
Net Zero strategy. The new directorate will non-routine emissions
develop guidelines, recommended practices, • Electrification of oil and gas facilities:
and standards to ensure cost-effective and lessons learned from electrification projects
timely delivery of low-carbon projects, and • Energy efficiency: overview of best
rapid scale-up across the global oil and gas available technologies (BAT)
industry. IOGP will also promote sharing • Energy transition metrics and KPIs
and optimisation of resources through
collaboration and co-ordination between its  'Carbon Capture, Transportation and
membership and the industry at large. Storage' focuses on sharing lessons from
IOGP’s Energy Transition directorate will early CCS pilot projects as well as best
implement two programmes: practices and operating experiences for
large-scale CCS deployment to improve their
 'Low Carbon Operational Efficiency' cost, schedule, and safety.
focuses on streamlining and integrating the
decarbonisation of upstream operations In 2022, IOGP is planning an Opportunity
(falling under scope 1 and 2 emissions) to Framing session among its members and
decrease both CO2 and methane intensity of technology providers around hydrogen and
EGPC production assets. its value chain.
initiative commit to avoiding routine flaring in Conclusion

new oil field developments and ending routine Singularly and jointly, leading oil and
flaring at existing oil production by 2030. gas companies are showing that goals
(World Bank - ZRF, 2015). In February 2022, to achieve near-zero methane emissions
two industry associations, IPIECA and IOGP, are smart goals. It is time for all oil and
in partnership with GGFR, published “Flaring gas companies, in all countries, to embed
Management Guidance for the Oil and Gas methane emissions avoidance and reduction
industry”, a framework to reduce or eliminate targets in their corporate strategies, divisional
flaring (IPIECA, 2022). business plans, and operating budgets.
GGFR publishes global gas flaring estimates These targets should be cascaded through
regularly and monitors progress towards the organisation to be included in annual
the zero-flaring goal via The World Bank’s performance goals for operations and
Global Gas Flaring Tracker. The top seven maintenance engineers. Staff recognition and
gas flaring countries (Russia, Iraq, Iran, USA, incentive schemes should reflect individual and
Algeria, Venezuela, and Nigeria) produce team achievements in reducing and avoiding
40% of the world's oil each year, but in 2020 methane emissions.
accounted for 65% of global gas flaring.
GGFR partners collectively reduced their Acknowledgements
flaring intensity (the volume of gas flared The author would like to thank the following who
per barrel of oil produced) by around 30% were all interviewed for this article: Concetto Fischetti
between 2004 and 2020. Nevertheless, 142 (IOGP), Jim Herbertson (IPIECA), Julien Perez (OGCI),
billion m3 of gas associated with crude oil Roland Kupers and Manfredi Caltagirone (IMEO).
production was flared in 2020 (World Bank
GGFR, 2022). VIEW REFERENCES
D4 Nelson p2.indd 45 29/04/2022 16:16:13

Hydrogen pathways for a clean
energy future
Methane pyrolysis is an emerging, eco-friendly alternative for clean H2
production that can be flexibly deployed across global natural gas networks
Gary Schubak
Ekona Power Inc.
A
ddressing global climate change might electricity generation, electrify energy services
be the largest and most important where it makes sense, capture and sequester
collective endeavour the world has ever CO2 from existing fossil fuel-driven processes,
faced. Climate change refers to long-term shifts and adopt hydrogen as an energy carrier to
in global temperatures and weather patterns, decarbonise many tough-to-decarbonise
principally driven by changes in the atmosphere. segments of the global economy. In addition, the
These shifts may be natural, occurring over launch of the First Movers Coalition at COP26
long periods of time. However, for the past is bringing the collective purchasing power of
two centuries, global climate change has been global companies to drive market demand for
accelerated by human activities, primarily the these low-carbon technology solutions.
burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and Countries ranked among the top 10 GHG
gas. Combustion of fossil fuels produces heat- emitters account for over a quarter (26%) of
trapping gases, like carbon dioxide (CO2), global GHG emissions. These include China, the
that collect in the atmosphere and lead to a US, India, the Russian Federation, Japan, and
general warming of the planet. Reducing these Canada. Among these top emitters, only Japan,
'greenhouse gases' or GHG emissions is the key Canada, and the EU have legally binding net-
priority for constructing a sustainable and clean zero commitments.
energy future.
The first climate action milestone was reached Canada’s net-zero plan
in Paris on 12 December 2015, when over The Canadian Net-Zero Emissions
190 countries adopted the first legally binding Accountability Act became law on 29 June
agreement to curb GHG emissions. This 2021. With a legislated commitment to achieve
landmark treaty, known as The Paris Agreement net-zero emissions by 2050, the Canadian
or COP21, united all nations with a common government is beholden to ensure transparency
goal to limit global warming to well below and accountability in all efforts to deliver on its
2°C, preferably to 1.5°C, compared to pre- targets. The Act establishes a legally binding
industrial levels. Achieving these goals requires process to set five-year national emissions-
a significant reduction in GHG emissions reduction targets, as well as develop credible,
worldwide. science-based emissions-reduction plans
COP26, the most recent United Nations to achieve each target. It includes the 2030
climate change conference to date, was held in Emissions Reduction Plan, a roadmap for how
Scotland from 31 October to 13 November 2021. Canada can achieve GHG emissions reductions
The assembly placed even greater urgency on of 40-45% below 2005 levels by 2030. Taking
reducing GHG emissions, as well as ending coal into consideration the best available science, the
power and fossil fuel subsidies. Renewed calls for 2030 Emissions Reduction Plan includes new
action emphasise the need to scale the adoption measures and strategies across all sectors of
of green and renewable energy technologies for the economy.
Hydrogen Pathways for a Clean Energy Future.indd 46 28/04/2022 14:47:36

Transitioning away from fossil fuels hydrogen per year, and the total annual market
Fossil fuels make up more than 80% of the value is estimated at $180 billion (US). Most of
global energy sector. To reach net zero by 2050, this hydrogen is used to serve 'over-the-fence',
huge declines in the use of coal, oil, and gas large-scale industrial applications, primarily as
will be essential. Like all countries committed an industry feedstock for petroleum refineries,
to mitigating climate change, Canada must upgraders, and ammonia production.
transition away from burning fossil fuels and Global hydrogen demand is expected to grow
releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. significantly over the next decades. Forecasts
A growing number of renewable energy project that global hydrogen demand will
alternatives have surfaced in recent years. exceed 500 Mt-H2/year by 2050. Growth will
Scientists committed to finding ways to primarily be driven in new applications, where
reduce emissions of CO2 and other warming hydrogen can act as an energy currency to
agents are at the forefront of these developing decarbonise tough-to-decarbonise markets,
technologies, such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, such as heavy-duty transportation, industrial
ocean energy, geothermal, biomass, heating, power generation, and natural gas
and hydrogen. decarbonisation.
In the search for renewable, resilient energy
carriers, hydrogen is making headway as a Methods of hydrogen production
reliable and cost-effective solution in many Hydrogen is not an energy source. Hydrogen,
market applications. Hydrogen, however, is not like electricity, is an energy currency that
an energy source; it must be produced from can be used as a carrier for conducting
available energy and feedstock resources, and energy transactions, such as heat and power
its own production must be clean in order for generation, or as a feedstock for industrial
it to affect GHG reductions. Building clean processes, like ammonia production. And like
hydrogen production pathways that utilise electricity, hydrogen must be produced from
abundant and low-cost hydrocarbon resources available energy and feedstock resources.
and leverage existing infrastructure is a key So the production of hydrogen is a key
enabler to transforming the oil and gas industry consideration for its role in the evolving energy
into a clean hydrogen industry and accelerating system and its potential impact on mitigating
positive GHG emissions abatement. GHG emissions.
The numerous techniques for hydrogen
Hydrogen market and decarbonisation production are often described in terms
The hydrogen market is large. Today's global of colours, which are really no more than
demand is approximately 70 million tonnes of nicknames used to describe the production
Global H2 demand (2020) Clean H2 demand forecast (2050)

1% 70 MT-H2 per year 540 MT-H2 per year
2% 1%
2% Industrial H2 600
4% Petroleum recovery
& refining 500 Power generation
8-fold increase driven
Million tonnes of H2
Ammonia production
by new markets
400 Transportation
~70M
Methanol production
metric tons of H2 46%
produced annually Metal production 300
Industrial energy
45% Electronics mfg.
200
Food industry Building heat and power
Other 100
Industry feedstock
Global GHG emissions: ~700 Mt-CO2 e /year 0
~1.3% of global GHGs
Figure 1 Comparison of the demand and forecasted demand for global hydrogen production

process. These techniques are principally Advantages: Implementing CCS to decarbonise
differentiated by the material feedstock and the incumbent SMR process enables rapid
energy source used. Regardless of colour impact to existing hydrogen production
designation, the most important criteria that infrastructure.
distinguish hydrogen production pathways Disadvantages: Incorporating CCS adds
are GHG emissions intensity (i.e., how much substantial cost. Moreover, the CCS process
CO2 is emitted during the hydrogen production cannot be ubiquitously deployed, as the
process) and production cost. A brief description permanent storage of CO2 is not suitable to all
of each pathway is provided below, along locations. As such, the application of CCS as a
with their unique attributes that describe cost decarbonisation pathway is limited in terms of
and emissions: its location and global impact.
Black/brown hydrogen Green hydrogen

Black or brown hydrogen is produced from the Green hydrogen combines electrolysis with
gasification of coal. The colour refers to the type renewable electricity to produce hydrogen from
of coal used in the process, bituminous (black) feedstock water. This emerging pathway is
and lignite (brown) coal. Gasification of coal attractive for its potentially low GHG emissions.
is largely used in Asia, where coal is a lower Moreover, electrolysis is a commercial and
cost and preferred feedstock to natural gas. scalable technology solution that can be readily
Nevertheless, coal gasification is the most GHG- deployed for distributed hydrogen production.
intensive of hydrogen production pathways and Electrolysis, however, is an electricity-intensive
a technique not largely used in North America. process and, as a result, electrolytic hydrogen
is often expensive unless very low-cost and
Grey hydrogen highly dispatchable electricity is available.
Grey hydrogen is produced from natural gas. Furthermore, electrolysis requires low carbon-
Steam methane reforming (SMR) produces intensity electricity generation to produce
hydrogen by passing natural gas and steam clean hydrogen, which is not presently the
across a high-temperature catalyst bed. The case in most regional electricity grids. Finally,
reactor produces a hydrogen-rich stream that electrolysis requires substantial feedstock water
is subsequently purified for hydrogen delivery supply for hydrogen production, which adds
to the customer. SMR is the current industry environmental impacts and siting constraints.
standard process for large-scale hydrogen Advantages: Potential for ultra-low GHG
production. It accounts for roughly 90% of emissions when coupled with renewable
hydrogen production in North America and electricity production.
nearly 50% of global production. SMR is Disadvantages: Electrolysis is electricity-
favoured for its low production cost, where low- intensive and therefore often expensive
cost natural gas feedstock exists. However, the to implement.
SMR process emits substantial GHG emissions,
which are costly to mitigate. Pink hydrogen
Pink hydrogen combines water electrolysis with
Blue hydrogen nuclear energy. The attributes of this pathway
Conventional SMRs can be equipped with carbon are largely aligned with those of nuclear power
capture and sequestration (CCS) systems to generation and its own regional considerations.
reduce GHG emissions. CCS systems capture
and purify the CO2 from SMR emissions. The CO2 Turquoise hydrogen
is then compressed into a pipeline for delivery Methane pyrolysis is an emerging alternative
and permanent underground storage. Compared for clean hydrogen production. In a pyrolysis
with a conventional SMR, the adoption of CCS reactor, feedstock methane is heated to
can achieve GHG reductions in the range of 50- pyrolysis conditions (1,200-1,500°C) and
90%, depending on the utilisation and location of dissociated into solid carbon and hydrogen.
the CO2 capture process. Since solid carbon is the principal byproduct,

GHG emissions are significantly reduced when than CO2. New approaches for handling and
compared with the conventional SMR process. storing solid carbon are needed to demonstrate
Moreover, since methane pyrolysis does not the viability of methane pyrolysis at scale.
require CO2 sequestration or water feedstock, it • Carbon markets: The availability of low-cost
can be flexibly deployed wherever natural gas byproduct carbon from hydrogen production
infrastructure exists. presents new opportunities for large-
Challenges: Methane pyrolysis has been used scale, bulk carbon utilisation in ubiquitous
commercially for decades to produce carbon markets such as agriculture and construction
black (tyres, plastics), but has seen limited materials. Developing these markets is a
application to date for hydrogen production. key step to maximising economic value for
Challenges with commercialising methane methane pyrolysis.
pyrolysis for hydrogen production include:
• Materials: Methane pyrolysis is an Developments in methane pyrolysis
endothermic reaction that occurs at high Numerous methane pyrolysis platforms are
temperature. Steady-state reactor designs under development, each taking a different
can require specialised construction materials approach to energy delivery, feedstock heating,
to meet high-temperature heat transfer and process integration.
requirements. • Plasma/microwave: These techniques use
• Catalysts: Catalysts can be employed plasma or microwaves to heat the reactor
in reactor designs to reduce the pyrolysis and provide energy for the pyrolysis process.
temperature and alleviate material challenges. These platforms are attractive because
However, these catalysts are often sensitive they are high temperature, do not require
to poisoning and de-activation, which must be catalysts, and provide good control, which
addressed through reactor and process design. can be advantageous for producing high-
• Carbon fouling: Solid carbon produced by quality carbon. Their drawback is that they are
the pyrolysis reaction can foul reactor internals, electricity-intensive, which adds operating costs
as well as catalysts used to promote the and prioritises the use of low-cost and low
reaction. Carbon fouling adds additional system carbon-intensity electricity.
complexity and cost for its remediation. • Fluidised bed: These platforms use a
• Solid carbon disposal: Industry has limited somewhat conventional packed-bed design.
experience sequestering solid carbon rather Heat is applied to the reactor using electric
Grey Blue Green Turquoise.
Technology inputs SMR SMR+CCS PEM Methane

electolysis pyrolysis

Capacity (TPD-H2) 300 300 300 300 Baseline assumptions
Installed Capex ($US) $340M $815M $860M +/-20%SMR NG feedstock cost: 3/GJ
Industrial electricity: $70/MWh
NG input, kg-NG 3.7 3.7 - 4.8-5.3
Renewable electricity: $30/MWh
Water input, kg-H20 6.0 6.0 9.0 -
Steam sales price: $3/GJ
Electricity input, kWh 2.0 2.8 55.0 2.4-10 Carbon sales price: $0/t-C
Steam production, MJ/kg - - - 0-2.4 of water: $0.001/litre
Cost
Carbon production, kg-carbon - - - 3.2-3.8 of CO2: $0/t-CO2
Cost
Cost of CCS: $80/t-CO2
CO2 production, kg-CO2 10 1.0 - 0.6-1.0
Electrolyser Capex: $1,000/kW
Water production, kg-H20 - - - 0-2.8
Electrolyser efficiency: 55kWh/kgH2
Upstream GHG Upstream NG emissions (kgC02/GJ) 9.5 Cost of capital: 10%
Emissions factors GHG intensity electricity grid (kgCO2/kWh) 0.129 Amortisation period: 20 years
(Canadian average) GHG intensity renewable electricity (kgCO2/kWh) 0.010 Fixed O&M: 5% Capex/year
Table 1 Techno-economic analysis of hydrogen production pathways

H2 Production cost H2 Production cost vs. GHG intensity
Methane pyrolysis vs. competing pathways
H2 Production cost ($/kgH2)
$6.00 Electrolysis 3.00
Green H2 0.6
$5.00
Renewable electricity
@ $30/MWh Electrolysis 5.00
H2 Production cost ($/kg)
sis Canada Electricity Grid 7.1

oly
$4.00 ctr
Ele Industrial electricity SMR 1.20
@ $70/MWh Grey H2 14.00
$3.00
SMR + CCS (90%) 2.00
Blue H2 3.2
$2.00 SMR + CCS
Methane pyrolysis 1.35 - 2.00
Methane pyrolysis
SMR Turquoise H2 3.0 - 3.6
$1.00
GHG Intensity (kgCO2/kgH2)
$- Methane pyrolysis is the lowest clean H2 pathway and can
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 be flexibly sited without requirement for water,
Cost of electricity ($/MWh) renewable electricity or CCS infrastructure
Figure 2 Economic comparison of different production pathways for hydrogen
coils or indirect heat transfer from an external Techno-economic analysis

energy source. These platforms generally use A generic techno-economic analysis was
a catalyst to reduce the reactor temperature, conducted to explore the relative economics
simplifying heat transfer and construction and GHG emissions intensity of competing
materials. However, catalyst degradation and clean hydrogen pathways. A list of input
carbon fouling tend to be challenges with assumptions is provided, using Canada as
these designs, and complex techniques are a reference case. Inputs for the methane
often proposed to remove carbon build-up and pyrolysis pathway capture a range of values
regenerate catalysts, adding cost. that represent the diverse technology platforms
• Molten metal/salt: These platforms use under development. The cost of hydrogen
high-temperature molten metals or salts to
transfer energy to the pyrolysis bed. Process
Methane pyrolysis has the best
heat is delivered from electricity or external
combustion. Catalysts are generally employed potential to deliver significant
to reduce the pyrolysis temperature to match GHG emissions reductions and low
the molten material selected. These systems are hydrogen production costs while
elegant in principle and provide excellent heat enabling flexible deployment across
transfer to the natural gas feedstock. However, the natural gas infrastructure
scaling these platforms may be a challenge.
• Combustion-based reactors: New
approaches are under development that production includes all Capex and Opex
use a combustion-driven process. These considerations for a 300 TPD plant capacity.
approaches uniquely integrate combustion into GHG emissions intensity is calculated to include
the pyrolysis reactor design to maximise heat process emissions, as well as all upstream
transfer, performance, and simplicity. These emissions for natural gas and electricity.
novel designs offer the advantages of being The results of the analysis (see Table 1 and
low cost, scalable, and catalyst-free. They also Figure 2) can be summarised by the following
minimise electricity consumption and mitigate key statements.
carbon fouling. However, by their nature, these • Conventional SMR is the lowest cost hydrogen
designs rely on combustion for the driving production pathway, but it emits substantial
energy and are therefore subject to an inherent GHGs
GHG emission. • SMR and CCS can reduce GHG emissions

by more than 75% at the expense of higher markets include transportation, chemicals, heat,
production costs and power, as well as heavy industry, such as
• Electrolysis, when coupled with renewable steel and cement production.
electricity, can achieve very low GHG emissions, Methane pyrolysis is an important component
but it is electricity-intensive and typically for unlocking the clean hydrogen opportunity.
substantially more expensive than conventional This process provides a compelling pathway for
approaches low-cost and clean hydrogen production that
• Methane pyrolysis has the best potential can be flexibly deployed across global natural
to deliver both significant GHG emissions gas networks. It is an enabling platform that
reductions and low hydrogen production costs can leverage existing natural gas infrastructure
while enabling flexible deployment across the to accelerate the adoption of clean hydrogen
natural gas infrastructure. solutions across multiple applications and
regions. Harnessing the value of abundant and
Opportunity for methane pyrolysis low-cost hydrocarbon resources for delivering
With many countries across the globe committed cost-effective and clean hydrogen is the key to
to reaching net-zero emissions, the demand is revitalising the oil and gas industry as a leader
strong, and momentum is high to innovate and in the emerging clean energy economy, and
scale clean hydrogen solutions. Hydrogen can methane pyrolysis will play a significant role in
provide a pathway for decarbonising numerous this transition.
tough-to-decarbonise segments of the global
economy, which cannot be decarbonised through
Gary Schubak
electrification due to the volume of electricity gary.schubak@ekonapower.com
required or other application constraints. These
Decarbonisati n
Technology.com
The transition to sustainable fuels & energy
Your essential resource for navigating the

transition to sustainable fuels and energy
Decarb nisation
Technologies

Distributed hydrogen hubs
Advanced technology paired with global hydrogen production hubs can lead to
lower transportation costs and fewer carbon emissions
Gabriel Olson
BayoTech
A
chieving net-zero emissions by 2050 Unlocking potential of emerging hydrogen
will require nothing short of a complete applications
transformation of the global energy Steam methane reforming (SMR) is the most
system. How can we decrease our reliance widely used method for hydrogen generation (US
on fossil fuels while ensuring reliable and DOE, 2022). SMR is a process in which methane
affordable energy supplies, providing equitable from natural gas is heated, with steam and a
energy access, and enabling economic growth? catalyst, to produce hydrogen. Most hydrogen
It will require the deployment of a host of clean is produced at a few centralised production
energy technologies. No one solution can meet plants for supply directly to refiners and chemical
the demand of all sectors. manufacturers. For customers in other regions –
Hydrogen is an essential tool in the consuming hydrogen for emerging applications
energy transition toolbox. Hydrogen such as transport and power generation –
is a flexible fuel that will fill the gaps hydrogen must be liquefied and trucked long
where electricity alone cannot easily or distances. This creates a series of adoption
economically replace fossil fuels. It is critical challenges. Hydrogen’s low volumetric energy
for decarbonising the steel and fertiliser density makes it inefficient to transport. The
industries as feedstock. Long-range ground liquefaction and then distribution via diesel truck
mobility applications such as heavy-duty increases the carbon intensity of the hydrogen.
trucks, buses, off-road equipment, and trains Furthermore, distributed customers relying on
require the long-range payload capabilities excess hydrogen from a central plant are the first
and quick refuelling provided by hydrogen. to have supply interrupted. The current hydrogen
Hydrogen blended with natural gas reserves supply is expensive and unreliable, with a high
creates a cleaner-burning fuel and increases carbon footprint.
the renewable content of the gas delivered To unlock the potential of these emerging
through our natural gas infrastructure. applications, a cost- and energy-efficient
Hydrogen can also aid in enabling more solar production and distribution model is required.
and wind on the grid by serving as a seasonal The most competitive and low-carbon solution
energy storage solution to avoid curtailment, is to co-locate hydrogen production onsite or
as well as playing other roles in electric near emerging demand centres. Hydrogen hubs
grid management. are emerging – regional clusters of hydrogen
The hydrogen revolution is just getting producers and consumers that will scale the
started. Deployments and investments industry together (BayoTech, 2022a).
in hydrogen are accelerating rapidly as Producing hydrogen at a smaller volume at
governments commit to deep decarbonisation more numerous locations has many apparent
goals. Over 30 countries have hydrogen benefits. It opens the door to leveraging local
roadmaps, and the equivalent of $160 resources – natural gas, renewable natural
billion of direct investments are taking place gas from biogenic sources, or solar and wind
today, according to the Hydrogen Council combined with electrolysis – to produce cost-
(Hydrogen Council, 2021a, Hydrogen Council, efficient hydrogen. This creates local jobs and
2021b). helps transition the workforce to clean energy
DT4 bayotech.indd 52 28/04/2022 14:50:52

190
164
151
110 118
Carbon intensity (gCO2 e /MJ)
Onsite
(100%
dairy RNG) 0
0
Diesel Onsite Onsite Onsite SMR Central SMR Central SMR Onsite
equivalent (27% dairy electrolysis (natural gas) (natural gas) (natural gas) electrolysis
RNG) (renew power) (gas delivery) (liquid delivery) (grid power)
Renewable source Fossil source

-300
Figure 1 Energy pathway carbon intensities
sectors. Distributed production is also much more intensity (CI) score. This score is based on the
reliable than centralised models. Recent supply lifecycle emissions resulting from upstream,
disruptions due to natural disasters caused by production, and downstream activities, measured
extreme climate change have highlighted the in grams of CO₂ per megajoule of energy content.
need for redundancy (Cole Smith, 2021). With The GREET (Greenhouse gases, Regulated
a network of distributed hydrogen production Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies)
plants, consumers can be assured that even if Model was developed by the United States
one site goes down, another source is close at Argonne National Laboratory to understand
hand. There are also emission reduction benefits. a variety of different energy pathways, and is
Locally produced hydrogen is distributed to one approach that is recognised and respected
nearby consumers via truck from the hydrogen by many industry experts and policymakers
hubs. Shortening the distance that hydrogen is across North America, and is integrated with
transported and avoiding liquefaction reduces the California Air Resource Board CA-GREET
the carbon intensity of hydrogen. Of course, 3.0 Model. With this context, let us explore the
when considering the environmental impact of carbon intensity and colours of the most common
hydrogen, the production method is the most forms of hydrogen production.
significant factor. Green hydrogen is typically defined by
electrolysis, using electricity sourced from
Considering carbon intensity renewable energy sources such as wind, solar,
Green, blue, turquoise, yellow, pink, brown, grey, or hydroelectricity to split water into hydrogen
black, and white – not all hydrogen production and oxygen using various membranes and
technology is the same. With rapidly growing catalyst materials. Currently, less than 1% of
commercial interest in hydrogen, a colour wheel hydrogen is produced with electrolysis (IEA,
classification system has evolved to help simplify 2019). To effectively scale up this technology,
the different technologies (Ivanenko, 2020). significant renewable energy capacity is
Unfortunately, the nuance and complexity needed. Individual projects must consider local
of the different technologies are critical to grid interconnection constraints since many
understanding their environmental attributes. electrolysis plants are grid-connected with
To accurately account for the environmental contractual power arrangements. Electrolysis
value (i.e., carbon intensity) of a given molecule is very energy-intensive and is dependent on
of hydrogen, rather than a categorical colour electricity markets to ensure that production
scheme, we need to utilise a quantitative carbon remains cost-competitive.
DT4 bayotech.indd 53 28/04/2022 14:50:52

The CI score for green hydrogen is a function facilities. Carbon capture can effectively
of the electricity used in the production process reduce CO₂ emissions by 90%. However, the
and associated additional steps required for technology is still developing and relies upon
transportation, compression, storage, and long-term secure underground storage or
distribution of the hydrogen, each of which other permanent end uses to avoid unintended
requires energy and potential associated future carbon emission impacts. Scaling carbon
emissions. Renewable electricity from solar or capture requires adequate storage capacity,
wind can generally be assumed to be carbon transportation infrastructure, and additional
neutral (0 CI). However, compression, storage, energy inputs, which can drive cost and, in some
and distribution add 10 CI points and, if cases, additional carbon emissions.
required, cryogenic liquefaction of hydrogen In contrast to traditional centralised SMR
results in 45 CI points due to its significant production, next-generation SMR technology,
energy demands. Meanwhile, electrolysis such as that offered by BayoTech, has proven
produced with grid electricity (assuming a effective at a smaller, modular scale that allows
nominal 30% renewable energy mix) results in for distributed, site-specific production near
hydrogen with a net 164 CI score, higher than the point of use (BayoTech, 2022b). This helps
almost any other production pathway. avoid the need for compression or liquefaction
Grey and blue hydrogen utilise SMR (10-45 CI) and long-distance transport (1-7
technology, fuelled by fossil natural gas and CI). The production unit can be scaled to match
high-pressure steam to produce hydrogen and onsite demand or integrated as part of a
CO2. This hydrogen has a CI score of 117-151, community-scale hydrogen production system
depending on the need for compression or serving a variety of end use applications. The
liquefaction and transportation requirements. net result of this approach is a more efficient
Blue hydrogen involves the use of carbon lifecycle hydrogen value chain, with lower
capture technology, where CO₂ is captured capital costs that result in a more economical
through onsite equipment using physical and pathway to carbon emission reduction.
chemical processes and directed to other Renewable natural gas (RNG) sourced from
industrial applications or underground storage agricultural, municipal waste, and other biogenic
Commodity cost
($/kg H2e) 0.18
Cost per point of 0.17
carbon reduction
($/Cl score reduction)
0.13
$12.00
$10.00
$9.17
$7.28
$6.17
0.035
$2.93 $2.83 0.02
$0.00
Diesel Onsite Onsite Onsite Onsite Central Central
equivalent BayoTech BayoTech electrolysis electrolysis SMR SMR
(NG) (27% biogas) (grid) (renew) (NG/liquid) (NG/gas)
CI score 190 110 0 164 11 151 118
Potential LCFS/RINS ($/kg) 0 7.38 11.52 6.09 11.26 6.40 7.19
Figure 2 Hydrogen production cost effectiveness
DT4 bayotech.indd 54 28/04/2022 14:50:52

sources can provide low or negative carbon offers clear benefits today. However, to fully
feedstock for hydrogen production, with some exploit the potential, it is not sufficient to
dairy RNG achieving -300 CI scores. In turn, simply shrink traditional large-scale SMR
this can allow an SMR system to generate technology for lower volume production
carbon-neutral or negative hydrogen. Despite hubs. The catalyst in the SMR reaction
its higher cost per MMBtu ($50/MMBtu long- requires a high amount of heat to generate
term off-take contract) compared to natural gas, hydrogen. With a conventional SMR
the blended use of RNG in a distributed SMR design, the inefficient heat transfer into
system provides an economical and extremely the reactors results in valuable feedstock
effective pathway for reducing or entirely being consumed solely to produce heat.
avoiding carbon emissions. As noted above, Some of this heat produces steam for
modular, distributed hydrogen production the reaction, but most is wasted. A new
can offer a scalable solution for various end approach to generating hydrogen is
uses. Substantial carbon emission reductions emerging. BayoTech’s patented tube-in-
are possible more cost-effectively than other tube ‘bayonet’ SMR design recuperates
production methods, whether using renewable heat internally for direct use. This uses less
or fossil-based natural gas. energy than traditional SMR technology and
Based on the CA-GREET 3.0 model, assuming eliminates any dependence on exported
an end use in a heavy-duty fuel cell vehicle, steam. For customers, this translates to less
an onsite BayoTech SMR system producing feedstock used, lower carbon emissions, and
1MT of hydrogen per day would reduce carbon lower costs to produce the same amount
emissions by 42% compared to the use of of hydrogen.
diesel fuel. It would be effectively cost-neutral BayoTech is leveraging its core technology
in reducing carbon emissions ($0.00 per CI to develop 1- and 5-tonne units, which are
point reduction). That same technology, using being built and deployed in a distributed
a 30% blend of RNG, would achieve carbon network of hydrogen hubs throughout the
neutrality at a cost of $0.02 per CI point US and the UK. Given that these units need
reduction. In comparison, electrolysis powered to operate autonomously and be monitored
by renewable energy would cost $0.035 per CI remotely, BayoTech turned to Emerson, a
point reduction, and grid electrolysis would cost global technology and software leader, for its
$0.17. Neither can achieve carbon neutrality. advanced automation technologies, software,
For any emerging technology to be successful, and products. BayoTech uses Emerson’s
it must be cost-effective, both in terms of programmable logic controller and edge
capital investment and operational costs. With control technologies, remote monitoring, and
the overarching goal of carbon reduction, we Microsoft Azure IoT Suite to automate and
should assess production technologies on their monitor 24x7 the unmanned units located
ability to deliver carbon savings. Models such as anywhere in the world from our Albuquerque,
CA-GREET 3.0 provide a useful starting point New Mexico headquarters.
to allow carbon reduction estimates compared Producing hydrogen efficiently on a small
to baseline fuels. However, to harmonise the scale is key to realising the distributed model
hydrogen market and provide more clarity and to make hydrogen more affordable and
investor confidence, a global, unified approach accessible to consumers. It is the pathway to
to measuring carbon intensity and, ultimately, bringing down costs and scaling up hydrogen
the economic value of a unit of hydrogen is demand quickly to take full advantage of this
required. Production technologies should clean energy carrier.
be compared on an equal footing of carbon
efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
VIEW REFERENCES
Efficient onsite steam methane reforming Gabriel Olson
From a combined perspective of carbon gabriel.olson@bayotech.us
efficiency and cost-effectiveness, onsite SMR
DT4 bayotech.indd 55 28/04/2022 14:50:52

Economic viability of biomass
to liquid via Fisher-Tropsch
When the Fisher-Tropsch process is coupled with a biomass gasification facility,
sustainable liquid fuels can be produced for aviation and marine propulsion
Lorenzo Micucci
Siirtec Nigi SpA
G
lobal warming prompts limiting the Earth's the operating conditions, most notably the
average temperature rise to less than operating temperature.
2°C. To achieve this goal, greenhouse Cobalt-based catalysts give a higher yield
gas emissions must be reduced. Notably, the of middle distillate products with much less
anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions oxygenated relative to the use of iron-based
from burning fuels of fossil origin must be catalysts. They show higher selectivity for
reduced to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. paraffinic derivatives at low temperatures; hence,
The transportation sector is a major source of they can be used to produce sustainable aviation
CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, and aviation fuel (SAF). At high temperatures, however, an
fuels are one of the more difficult transport undesired quantity of methane forms. Thus,
modes to decarbonise. Despite the efforts being this type of catalyst is not suitable for high-
made to find alternative fuels for aircraft and temperature FT processes.
vessels propulsion, liquid fuels remain the most Iron-based catalysts are relatively inexpensive,
practical solution. Producing synthetic liquid fuels tolerate flexible operation conditions, and are
from biomass via Fisher-Tropsch technology suitable for synthesis with low H2/CO ratio
(BTL-FT) is a way to decarbonise the transport syngas – typically derived from low-quality
sector. This article discusses the fundamentals feedstock such as biomass – although it produces
of this technology and spotlights the conditions a significant quantity of non-paraffinic derivatives
under which the economic viability of BTL-FT as byproducts.
investment is assured. As the FT reactions are highly exothermic,
the accuracy of the reactor temperature control
Fischer-Tropsch process significantly impacts the products (paraffins and/
The Fischer-Tropsch synthesis process (FT) or olefins).
involves the non-selective polymerisation In principle, syngas can be produced from any
of carbon monoxide (CO) under reductive carbonaceous feedstock, including biomass and
conditions. The polymerisation is catalysed by organic wastes. The FT process architecture
most Group VIII metals, notably iron or cobalt- may be either an open loop or a closed loop,
based catalysts, typically supported on SiO2, depending on the feedstock to be processed.
TiO2, or Al2O3. In an open-loop scheme, the light ends are
Due to the lack of selectivity, a wide variety separated from the cooled reactor outlet and
of side reactions occur; hence, the synthesis used to generate electric power for the FT
products include alkanes and alkenes with a process and export to the grid. In a closed loop,
very broad composition, along with oxygen- part of the light ends can be recycled back for
containing compounds, mainly alcohols, carbonyl further conversion to synthetic liquid fuel, while
compounds, acids, and esters. The product the remaining part is used for power generation.
distribution depends on the H2/CO in the syngas, The product from an FT plant is a synthetic
the catalyst employed, the reactor design, and crude analogous to crude oil of fossil origin, albeit
siirtec nigi Fisher Tropsch.indd 56 28/04/2022 14:56:17

syncrude components are different for different to 51 in diesel that meets the EN-590 standard,
FT technologies and catalysts. it can command an extra premium on account of
An FT operated at high temperature yields a the additive savings it delivers when FT-diesel is
syncrude containing light gases, LPG, naphtha, blended in the diesel pool.
distillate, and aqueous products. Residue/wax, Analysis of the existing FT plant shows that
distillate, and naphtha are the major components these facilities are capital expensive. Indeed, the
yielded by a low-temperature FT plant. For capital expenditure for industrial running natural
both cases, an upgrade or a syncrude refining is gas FT plants, which benefit from the most
needed to produce a more valuable product slate. favourable technical and economic conditions,
The waste energy related to the generation ranges from $100,000 bbl/d to $146,000 bbl/d.
of syngas with the heat produced in the FT The capital-intensive character of these industrial
synthesis is generally recovered as steam and installations calls for large-scale production to
converted into electric power for internal use achieve the economy of scale. In fact, today’s
and export. Thus, electric power is typically a commercial plant capacity spans from 15,000
by-product of the current FT processes. The bbl/d to 146,000 bbl/d. For the case study below,
energy adds to the product slate and contributes the total cost of the investment was estimated at
a source of revenue. 174,320 $/bbl/d.
The total cost of investment for a biomass FT
Economics plant might be significantly higher relative to
The economics of an FT plant are strongly the current FT plants because biomass impacts
affected by the cost of the carbon-bearing several parts of the line-up of the syngas
feedstock, the cost of CO2 emissions, the product production and FT synthesis system. More
pricing, and the facility's capital cost. specifically, biomass requires:
The cost of feedstock is a sizable component of • More extensive feedstock handling and
operating costs, yet its price cannot be controlled preparation
because it is source dependent and on the • Application of a slagging entrained flow
distance from the production and harvesting (or gasifier, which includes all solids handling, is
collection and separation of biowaste) sites to the typically 50% more expensive than a natural gas
FT facility: the greater the distance, the higher the reformer
feedstock transportation costs. The latter is part • About 50% higher oxygen demand, i.e. 50%
of the key to biomass price at the fence of the FT larger ASU capacity is required
plant and, ultimately, to its profitability. • Need for pre-combustion carbon capture to
It is worth noting that the SAFs produced remove the higher load of CO2.
by an FT plant are rich in alkanes and may Therefore, robust R&D programmes are needed
command a price premium depending upon the – in addition to selecting the optimal site location
end users. For example, an extra price is paid – to reduce the investment cost and open the
for FT-naphtha when used in the petrochemical window of the economic viability of BTL-FT
industry because it gives a higher yield of technology for supplying sustainable fuels to
ethylene than that derived from petroleum. the transport sector. That is the objective of the
Russian refineries typically blend diesel with an GLycerol to Aviation and Marine products with
additive to adjust the cetane number. As FT- sustainable Recycling (GLAMOUR) project. The
diesels have a cetane number of 73, compared project has received funding from the European
Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis (wt%, dry basis)

Fixed Volatile Ash Moisture
carbon matter (wt%) (wt%) LHV HHV Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur Ash
(wt%) (wt%) (MJ/kg) (MK/kg)
18.1 61.6 5.30 15.0 14.5 15,935 47 5.72 40.2 0.86 0.09 6.19
Table 1 Biomass main properties

EE to export Light gases
Autothermal
Power reforming Light gases
generation
Biomass Recycle gases
IP steam FT-synthesis
IP steam off-gas
Gasification HTHR & Acid gas Fisher-Tropsch Syncrude Product

& tar cracking gas cleaning removal synthesis refining refining
Ash O2
Particulate Solvent H2 Sustainable Marine
Water to WWT H2 production aviation diesel
Air regeneration
separation fuel oil
Air CO2 treat. &

compression CO2 to storage
Option
Figure 1 Biomass to liquid process setup
Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation The FT design is based on the slurry-phase
programme under grant agreement N° 884197. reactor, which enables a high heat transfer,
resulting in the high conversion of feed gas
Case study to liquids in a relatively small reactor volume
In the context of the GLAMOUR project, Siirtec without excessive temperature rise. The syncrude
Nigi developed the benchmark against which is distilled to split naphtha, distillate, and wax.
to compare the new technology. In order The naphtha stream is first hydrotreated,
to find out the conditions for the economic resulting in the production of hydrogen-saturated
viability of investments in BTL-FT processes, liquids (primarily paraffins). The distillate stream
the case for the production of 1.5 MMbbl/y of and the wax fraction are also hydrotreated,
middle distillates from 149.2 t/h of herbaceous resulting directly in the finished products.
biomass was modelled. Table 1 shows the main A slipstream of the light gases (C1-C4)
properties of the biomass fed to the plant. separated from the syncrude is used as fuel gas
The plant setup is shown in Figure 1. The plant in the power generation block, while most of
front-end consists of the chopping of herbaceous them are mixed with unconverted syngas and
feedstock followed by feeding via lock-hoppers. the off-gas from the H2 production section and
The syngas from biomass is produced by a dry- recycled back to the FT synthesis through the
fed, oxygen/steam-blown fluidised bed gasifier autothermal reformer to maximise the liquid
operating at 30 bar. An on-site air separation unit fuel production.
provides the O2. About 66 MW of electric power is being
The tar-free gas from the gasification unit generated in the power generation, with two-
is then cooled in the high-temperature heat thirds of this power being used to meet internal
recovery (HTHR), where high-pressure steam power demand, while the balance is delivered to
is raised to be sent to the power generation the electric grid as a by-product.
section. For this case study, the gasification was For this case study, the economic viability has
designed to deliver syngas with an H2:CO ratio been assessed by:
of about 2. • Fixing a preset rate of return (RR) on
114 t/h of CO2 is removed in an acid gas investment and the CO2 price ($80/tons as per
removal process and vented in the base the average January 2022 ETS)
case. Alternatively, this CO2 is compressed, • Varying the price of the synfuels products
dehydrated, and delivered to an underground expressed in terms of barrel of oil (Brent)
storage facility. equivalent (BBE) or crude oil equivalent (CEO)

8
Biomass price @ fence ($/GJ)
4
Biomass price @ fence ($/GJ)

7
6 3
5
2
4
3 IRR 8% 1 IRR 8%
IRR 12% IRR 12%
2
0
1 110 120 130 140
70 90 110 130 Barrel of Brent equivalent ($/bbl)
Barrel of Brent equivalent ($/bbl)
Figure 2 Economic viability chart for the Figure 3 Economic viability chart for the
BTL-FT-CCS case BTL-FT- CO2 vent case
• Computing the maximum feedstock prices that produce a wide variety of liquid hydrocarbons.
set the gross profit equation to zero The actual product mix is strictly related to
• Assuming the electric energy is quoted at $42 the selected operating conditions, the type of
per MWh. catalyst, and the reactor design.
Figure 2 shows the results of the algorithm When an FT process is coupled with a
described above for 8% and 12% rates of return. biomass gasification facility, sustainable liquid
The BTL-FT plant operates at a loss to the left fuels can be produced for aviation and marine
of the 8% or 12% RR lines in the chart, while it propulsion without upsetting the existing
operates at a profit to the right. distribution infrastructures.
It is worth mentioning that for the case without Since these products are crude oil derivative
a carbon capture and storage facility integrated analogues, they are subject to the same market
into the plant line-up to attain the carbon balance dynamic of crude oil and its derivatives. Hence,
negative, the above equilibrium lines move the economic viability of a BTL-FT is linked to
downward and to the right, so a BTL-FT-CO2 the expected oil price actions, which set the
vent project is going to be feasible for higher BBE maximum feedstock price for the investment to
and lower biomass prices, as shown in Figure 3. be profitable.
Takeaway
Lorenzo Micucci
The Fischer-Tropsch process is the catalytic, non-
l.micucci@siirtechnigi.com
selective polymerisation of CO and H2, which can
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All roads leading to sustainable
aviation fuel
A spotlight on the main technology options to transition from fossil-derived
jet fuel to SAF on the journey towards sustainable mobility
Yvon Bernard, Dave Schwalje and Carine Leclercq

Axens
D
espite the unprecedented drop in What is SAF, its market perspectives, and
global air traffic due to the Covid-19 how to produce it?
crisis in the past years, passenger SAF is an alternative to fossil jet fuel and a
numbers and cargo volumes are anticipated promising solution to decarbonise the aviation
to increase in the coming decades. The sector. It is produced from either:
International Civil Aviation (ICAO) has • Renewable or waste-derived bio-based
updated its growth forecast for global air resources that meet sustainability criteria
passenger numbers post-Covid using three depending on the source, such as renewables
scenarios (low growth is 2.9%, medium is oils and fats, lignocellulosic biomass, wastes,
3.6%, and high is 4.2% per annum). At the low C-I inedible starches, and sugars
same time, aircraft and operational efficiency • Captured CO2 combined with green hydrogen
are expected to improve by 1.8-2.0% (produced via the electrolysis of water using
per annum. electricity from renewable sources – so-called
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from e-kerosene)
aviation contribute to 2% of total GHG SAF is a drop-in fuel, meaning it can be
emissions, with just over 600 Mt of carbon blended with traditional jet kerosene (currently
dioxide (CO₂) production in 2020. The ICAO up to 50 vol%), and the blend does not require
has set ambitious goals to reduce aviation net equipment change, special infrastructure, or
CO₂ emissions by 50% by 2050, compared to modification of the supply chain, therefore
2005 levels. limiting supply-chain investment requirements.
In addition, in 2021, the global air transport According to the IEA, SAF currently accounts
industry, through the ATAG (Air Transport for 0.1% of global jet fuel consumption.
Action Group), adopted a long-term climate The primary drivers for future SAF market
goal of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, development are listed below, resulting from
confirming the commitment of the world’s the basic realisation that producing SAF is
airlines, airports, air traffic management, currently more expensive than producing fossil-
and the makers of aircraft and engines to based jet fuel. A combination of consumer
reduce CO₂ emissions in support of the Paris pricing, regulatory, and incentive programmes
Agreement 1.5ºC objective. is therefore required to expand SAF production,
While a range of technical, operational, and regardless of the pathway.
behavioural solutions are required to reduce
aviation emissions, it is recognised that liquid Regulations
fuels will continue to be the dominant fuel • World: in 2016, the ICAO adopted a global
for air travel through to 2050. This article market-based mechanism, the Carbon
will focus on the main technology options Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for
to transition from fossil-derived jet fuel to International Aviation (CORSIA), to address
sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). CO₂ emissions from international aviation.
All Roads Leading to Sustainable Aviation Fuel.indd 61 28/04/2022 14:59:18

many of the major carriers, allowing private
1800 passengers to pay a ticket premium that is
International aviation net CO2
1600 then transferred down through the airline

1400
Operational improvements procurement chain to ensure SAF blending.
Basket of measures
emissions (MT)
• On the corporate level, major organisations

1200
Aircraft technology are now actively trading air travel emission
1000
Sustainable credits and maturing dialogues with their air
aviation
800 fuels and CORSIA transportation partners to formulate actionable,
600 mid- and long-term SAF strategies driven by
400
Carbon neutral growth from 2020 an increasing societal demand, which, when
2010 2020 2030 2040 combined with the lack of SAF production, has
led to SAF prices in excess of 3000$/t FOB
Figure 1 Contribution of measures for reducing Rotterdam in early 2022.
international aviation net CO2 emissions (ref
CORSIA) Project development support
• Major corporate organisations are in some
This programme aims to freeze aviation CO₂ cases partnering with airlines and migrating
emissions at 2020’s level via three actions: upstream in the SAF supply chain to inject
increasing airframe and engine efficiency, capital, offtake commitments, and other
improving operations efficiency, and expanding support directly at the project-development
the use of biofuels (SAF). level, helping to reduce risk, offset project
• Europe: In 2021, under the Fit for 55 initiative, development costs, and catalyse SAF supply
EU regulations defined a road map and market growth.
mandates for SAF, which are also agreed by
the ATAG: from 2% in 2025, 5% by 2030, all SAF processes review
the way up to 63% in 2050. According to the Among the seven pathways currently certified
ATAG, it is likely that the aviation sector will under the ASTM D-7566 specification for
need around 450-500 million tons of SAF per synthetic kerosene to be blended into the Jet A1
year by 2050. Europe regulations are promoting pool, Axens is uniquely positioned, providing
advanced biofuels or those derived from de-risked technology for the three main
feedstocks not in direct or indirect competition pathways. The Fischer-Tropsch pathway was
with food resources. the first process to be certified in 2009, followed
• US: Many US fuel purchasers are considering by the hydrotreatment of esters and fatty acids
carbon-intensity-based metrics to evaluate in 2011. The Alcohol to Jet (ATJ) process was
fuel sustainability, utilising tools like the certified in 2018 for SAF production.
GREET model developed by Argonne National Each of these pathways can significantly
Lab. Such models do not group feedstocks or reduce fuel lifecycle GHG compared to fossil
processes by category, but instead scientifically baselines, with reductions well over 90%
calculate a given feed’s overall GHG emission possible when utilising advanced cellulosic
profile considering its feedstock production, feedstocks and/or green power.
transportation, processing, and utilisation. The The following section will give more details on
resulting scientifically based, quantified Carbon the certified SAF pathways licenced by Axens
Intensity (CI) score can then be utilised to both and shown in Figure 2.
(1) determine the sustainability of a given fuel
compared to fossil baselines and (2) provide Vegan: hydroprocessed esters and fatty
regulatory and credit structures that incentivise acids (HEFA) pathway
CI reductions across the entire SAF value chain. Vegan is a flexible solution to produce
renewable diesel and SAF through the
Market price hydrotreatment of a wide range of lipids
• Consumers may also play a role in growing (renewable vegetable oils and animal
SAF production. Programmes exist today from fats). This technology allows producers to

Lipids Vegan
Fats, veg oils, UCO, etc. HVO
Lignocellulosic biomass BioTfuel

Wood residue, Gasification + FT Gasel
agriculture residue, Fischer-Tropsch
energy crops + upgrading
Futurol 2G ethanol ATJ Sustainable

2G enzymatic Alcohol to Jet aviation fuel
conversion
Green H2,
carbon capture, waste, 1G/2G alcohol
low-Cl, inedible starches
and sugars
Figure 2 Main sustainable aviation fuel pathways
effectively address environmental regulations, one of the most promising mid-term solutions
sustainability targets, and secure energy for the production of alternative fuels and
diversification with drop-in premium-quality petrochemicals, including biomass-to-liquids
products. Vegan technology includes: (BTL) and efuels:
• A hydrotreatment (HDT) section to • Syngas purification: if required, this step
deoxygenate and remove contaminants from aims at ensuring a syngas purity suitable for
renewable lipids in the presence of hydrogen to the FT catalyst. It can treat syngas from any
produce linear paraffins conventional acid gas removal process
• A hydroisomerisation (HDI) section to • FT synthesis: the reaction takes place in a
upgrade the linear paraffins produced in the three-phase slurry bubble column (SBC) reactor
previous step into real drop-in middle distillate where syngas is brought into contact with the
biofuels. The hydroisomerisation section can be solid FT catalyst to produce long-chained liquid
tuned to produce different grades of jet fuel or hydrocarbons. The liquid products are recovered
diesel fuel, according to market needs, with the in L/S and G/L separators and sent to the
ability to produce anywhere from 0 to 100% of upgrading section
the middle distillate product as SAF. • FT product upgrading: the raw FT liquid
The HEFA pathway can be a low investment product is stabilised, hydrotreated (olefins and
solution as it offers the possibility to revamp oxygenates), hydrocracked, and isomerised. The
existing hydrotreatment units and turn them fully converted product is then separated, and
into HEFA units to produce SAF. it offers flexibility towards different production
modes (max kerosene or max middle distillates/
Gasel: Fischer-Tropsch (FT) pathway diesel with a small production of naphtha).
Gasel technology converts synthesis gas
(H₂+CO) from various origins – biomass, BioTfueL1: gasification pathway
captured carbon oxides – into a flexible slate BioTfueL technology unlocks SAF and advanced
of ultra-clean liquid fuels (XTL), including biofuels production from energy crops,
SAF. This FT route is commonly accepted as agricultural, and forestry residues (including
Raw biomass Torrefied biomass Raw syngas Clean syngas SAF

CO2
H2
H2
H2S H2O
CO CO
Figure 3 Gasification pathway

wood industry residues) via a thermochemical • FT synthesis and upgrading: see the
pathway. This technology enables access to a description of Gasel technology hereabove.
wide range of biomass and positions itself as
a sustainable alternative to vegetable oil and Ethanol to Jet pathway
food-based biofuels and is the only technology Ethanol to Jet (ETJ) is the process by which 1G
that offers the complete BTL chain backed by or advanced bioethanol (2G) is converted to
one licensor SAF via different steps:
• Pretreatment: biomass is conditioned • Dehydration: first, polymer-grade ethylene is
with drying and torrefaction. These steps produced by ethanol dehydration (Atol)
homogenise feedstock quality, facilitate • Dimerisation: the ethylene is then
grinding, and increase storage stability and oligomerised at close to ambient temperature
biomass energy density. Flexible process with a high selectivity towards butenes, utilising
conditions allow adjustments due to changes in a liquid phase, homogeneous Ziegler-type
biomass quality and supply strategy catalytic system based upon a transition metal
• Gasification: the applied Uhde entrained-flow derivative, nickel, activated by an alkylaluminium
gasification process with direct quench (PDQ) reduction compound. The catalytic system is
is a high pressure and high temperature partial called homogeneous because the reactants, the
oxidation converting carbonaceous material into products, and the catalysts form a single liquid
tar-free syngas phase (Dimersol)
• Syngas conditioning: syngas is conditioned to • Oligomerisation: the produced butenes
FT requirement by adjusting the H₂/CO ratio via and hexenes are converted into SAF via
a water gas shift reaction, followed by acid gas heterogeneous oligomerisation (Polynaphtha),
removal and a final purification utilising a robust, environmentally friendly and
regenerable catalyst, which ensures long cycles
and long catalyst life
Forest and 1 • Upgrading: a last step of hydrogenation is
agriculture
residues,
Pretreatment necessary to reduce the olefin content of the
straws and product to fulfil ASTM specifications for the
byproducts,
dedicated biomass final products.
This differentiating technology bundle
Pretreated biomass approach utilises commercially proven processes
with over 100 homogeneous and heterogeneous
2 reference units.
Biocatalysts
production
Futurol: enzymatic conversion pathway
3 Futurol converts lignocellulosic biomass from
Hydrolysis
and
Enzymes various origins into cellulosic ethanol (advanced
fermentation,
SSCF Yeasts bioethanol, see Figure 4). This cellulosic ethanol
can then be converted to SAF with the Alcohol
to Jet (ATJ) process described above.
Ethanol Biobased • Pretreatment: An energy-efficient, single-
fuels
4 train, continuous technology was selected and
Products optimised for converting biomass feedstock
C5 sugar recovery Monomers
C6 sugar such as energy crops, agricultural, and wood
Enzymes residues to a standardised pretreated substrate,
Yeasts
Ethanol Energy and highly digestible, and with low moisture. High
Lignin
Hemicellulose
Lignin and process hemicellulose conversion is attained while product
stillage integration
Cellulose degradation is minimised
• Biocatalysts production: inhibitors-resistant
Figure 4 Enzymatic conversion pathway for tailor-made biocatalysts (enzymes and yeasts)
ethanol production were designed, adapted, and improved to

Dimersol
Futurol Atol Polynaphta
Enzymatic 1 2 3 4
conversion Dehydration Oligomerisation Hydrogenation Fractionation
Lignocellulosic Any ethanol Any Bio-olefins

biomass source
Figure 5 Alcohol to Jet pathway
optimise process performances. Futurol Takeaways

offers on-site enzyme production and yeast SAF will be an essential lever in the near future
propagation using lignocellulosic substrate, to decarbonise the aviation sector, along with
which strongly contributes to ethanol increased aircraft efficiency and behavioural
production cost reduction adaptations. Consensus forecasts predict
• Hydrolysis and fermentation: enzymatic exponential growth in SAF capacity to meet
hydrolysis of biomass and co-fermentation of C₅ regulatory and market-driven demand.
and C6 sugars take place simultaneously in the As previously discussed, many different
same vessel (‘one-pot’ process). This process technologies and pathways are now available
configuration capitalises on a synergy between to produce SAF, and Axens is positioned to
biocatalysts and allows for both Capex and bring de-risked technologies to three primary
Opex minimisation while achieving high ethanol pathways (HEFA, ATJ, and biomass to liquids via
yield through full conversion of C5 and C6 sugars gasification and Fischer-Tropsch). Each pathway
• Products recovery: state of the art distillation has distinct regional, feedstock-specific
and dehydration allow recovery of advanced economies of scale and techno-economic
bioethanol suitable for biofuel applications advantages, with each one having a role to play
or further processing in chemical production. depending on the individual project context.
Lignin and stillage are recovered and routed to Meeting the demands of the aviation sector will
energy production while water is recycled. likely require the implementation of multiple
project pathways, including those listed here.
Combination of enzymatic conversion + The common threads running through
Alcohol to Jet pathways these technologies are flexibility, reliability,
Combining Futurol and ATJ processes (see and the realisation of decades of technology
Figure 5) provides the possibility of producing development, demonstrating that Axens is
ultra-low CI – or even carbon-neutral, advanced rising to meet the challenges of scaling up SAF
SAF from lignocellulosic biomass. This chain has capacity in the coming years.
many advantages, including:
1 BioTfuel Project partners are Avril, Axens, CEA,
Total, IFP Energies nouvelles, and ThyssenKrupp
 A two-stage investment plan to either Industrial Solutions.
produce advanced bioethanol first (with
Atol, BioTfueL, Gasel, Futurol, and Vegan are
Futurol), then subsequently build an ATJ block
trademarks of Axens.
 To produce SAF from low-CI 1G ethanol
(with ATJ), then decarbonise the SAF over time
Yvon Bernard
with the introduction of advanced bioethanol Yvon.BERNARD@axens.net
 To utilise a ‘hub and spoke’ approach by
building multiple small Futurol plants near Dave Schwalje
feedstock sources that all feed a centralised ATJ David.SCHWALJE@axens.net
plant that captures economies of scale. These
advantages make the ATJ pathway unique in Carine Leclercq
today’s continuously evolving environment. Carine.LECLERCQ@axens.net

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Our Thermox® WDG-V combustion analyzer is field-serviceable and monitors

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© 2021, all rights reserved by AMETEK, Inc.
ametek.indd 1 04/02/2022 13:36:59

Carbon capture application to
ethylene plants
Operationally proven carbon capture applied to ethylene plants, with examples
of deployment in new and existing plants
Myrian Schenk and Jim Middleton

Technip Energies
T
he production of ethylene originates mainly The modifications to ethylene plants to
from steam cracking. This thermal process accommodate the addition of a CC plant are
uses a large amount of energy and, as such, principally in the flue gas and utility areas.
is a significant emitter of CO2 in the industrial Therefore, it is relatively straightforward to
sector (Middleton, 2021). The reduction of CO₂ design new ethylene plants to allow for the future
emissions from the cracker can be achieved by installation of a CC plant; indeed, Technip Energies
replacing the methane fuel from the process with is currently designing two such plants.
alternative lower carbon fuels, such as hydrogen, The use of CC on ethylene plants can be
or installing electrical heating. However, a third complementary to other methods of CO₂
option to reduce CO₂ emissions is to add a post- reduction, such as partial hydrogen firing and
combustion carbon capture plant. reduced conventional firing in furnaces, both of
Post-combustion carbon capture (CC) has been which reduce flue gas flow rates and lower the
proven in the power industry and can be applied operating and capital costs of the CC plant.
to steam crackers. Apart from the use of high The 'conventional' routes for captured CO₂ are
hydrogen content fuels, CC is the only currently for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) or sequestration;
commercially proven technology that can achieve however, more and more alternative uses of
very high levels of reduction of CO₂ emissions captured CO₂ are starting to emerge.
from steam crackers (Middleton, 2021).
In this article, we will highlight some studies Post-combustion carbon capture technology
carried out by Technip Energies, in which we Continuous improvement in the affordability of
show the feasibility of installing a CC plant on a CC is key to enabling the technology to play its
steam cracker and that the operation of the steam part in worldwide CO₂ reduction. The integration
cracker should not be affected by the addition of a between CC technology and CC and cracker
CC plant. engineering represents a significant step towards
The installation of CC, both on a new cracker achieving this goal.
design or as a retrofit to an existing cracker, is At Technip Energies, we maximise the benefits
relatively straightforward, provided the designer of our alliance with Shell Catalysts & Technologies,
of the CC plant understands how the cracker licensor of the Cansolv CO₂ capture technology, to
operates to allow for smooth integration. The provide a single point delivery of projects.
right decisions must be made for the proper Since 2012, we have had an exclusive alliance
functioning of the two plants together. The main with Shell Catalysts & Technologies for the
requirements are: power industry. However, in recent years, we
• A destination for the captured CO₂ have extended our cooperation across numerous
• A plot area, if possible close to the furnaces (and projects and sectors in the carbon capture,
auxiliary boilers if the capture is planned for these utilisation and storage industry.
units too) Together, we work on technology and
• The utilities required to run the CC plant engineering improvements and drive integration
Carbon Capture Application to Ethylene Plants.indd 67 28/04/2022 15:01:56

Treated flue gas CO2 to compression
Sludge effluent Condenser
Thermal Reflux
Wash reclaimer accumulator
water Wash water
cooler section
Filter
CO2
Main Lean amine stripper
absorption
section cooler Reflux pumps
Wash water
Lean amine CO2 MVR
pumps feed pumps Lean amine
Main tank compressor
absorption Reboilers Steam
section Intercooler from OSBL
Flue gas Lean rich
from pre- Intercooled
exchanger Steam
scrubber section condensate
Intercooler pumps level pot
CO2 absorber
Steam
Lean amine condensate
Rich amine pumps pumps Condensate
flash pot to OSBL
Figure 1 Cansolv CO2 - simplified PFD
to continuously enhance CC solutions to make characterises many CCUS projects and also at
projects affordable. the much smaller scale expected to characterise
Technip Energies and Shell have a team for many CO₂ capture applications in the future.
project delivery and integration of a joint axis of The Cansolv CO₂ capture system is an amine-
R&D efforts, enabling us to deliver both capital based technology using Shell’s proprietary
and operating cost reductions in our combined Cansolv DC-103 absorbent. The process line-
offerings for CC plants. up is shown in Figure 1, and relies on standard
The Cansolv CO₂ capture technology, equipment (vessels, pumps, exchangers) and
integrated into the Shell technology portfolio mass transfer internals (structured packing).
through the acquisition by Shell of Cansolv The CO₂ is captured from the cooled gas
Technologies Inc. in 2008, is positioned among by contact with the aqueous (lean) amine
the leading technologies for CO₂ removal absorbent in the absorber, where multiple
(Shell, 2022). structured packing beds are used to promote
Through projects like SaskPower’s Boundary mass transfer while keeping pressure drop
Dam, the technology has been deployed low. Capture efficiencies of up to 99% can
at the large scale (1 MT/y and above) that be achieved (depending on the application),
Figure 2 SaskPower Boundary Dam Capture Project in Canada Courtesy of Shell

Figure 3 Lanxess CISA CO2 capture plant in South Africa Courtesy of Shell
but the economic optimum is around 95% in lean absorbent exiting the stripper to preheat the
most cases. rich absorbent before it enters the column.
CO₂ absorption is exothermic, which results in The lean absorbent exiting the lean-rich
a temperature bulge in the absorption column. exchanger is further cooled in the lean absorbent
As high temperatures are detrimental to efficient cooler and is then sent back to the absorber to
absorption, at high inlet CO₂ concentrations, absorb more CO₂. Existing Cansolv CO₂ plants
an intercooler is used to remove heat from the are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
system and maintain an operating temperature
profile favourable to absorption: a draw-off tray Ethylene plant considerations for a plant
collects absorbent from the upper packing beds, operating with a post-combustion CC unit
which is pumped through the intercooler before Flue gas from ethylene plant furnaces is very
returning to the lower packing bed. low in sulphur and low in particulate matter,
The upper section of the absorber is a water- two good points for post-combustion CC with
wash system that ensures the emissions absorbent technology like Cansolv. The fuel
of solvent and degradation products to the gas composition can change depending on the
atmosphere are minimised. The water-wash ethylene plant feedstock, so there is typically
system is usually sufficient to meet the most a difference in the hydrogen fraction in the
stringent emissions specifications. However, fuel gas between liquids and gas crackers; this
depending on the project requirements and feed results in a difference in the ratio of H₂O to
gas characteristics, an aerosol mitigation device CO₂ in the flue gas. For gas crackers, the fuel
can be added downstream of the absorber. to the furnaces is normally high in hydrogen,
The rich absorbent, loaded with CO₂, is which means the flue gas contains a relatively
regenerated in a stripping column using high amount of water vapour and a lower
structured packing to promote mass transfer CO₂ content (8.5 wt%). However, this is still
and reboilers to generate the stripping steam. attractive for absorbent technology.
A condenser is used to condense the stripping If the ethylene plant is located in desert regions,
steam from the overhead vapours, and the dust and sand in the combustion (ambient) air
pure (water-saturated) CO₂ is released for may contribute to higher particulate levels in the
downstream treatment. A lean-rich heat flue gas than for European/American crackers,
exchanger is used to recover heat from the hot so it would be prudent to consider higher

particulates emissions in the design basis for CC to allow the continuous/smooth operation of the
units on such ethylene plants. ethylene plant.
NO₂ is a contaminant that should be reduced It should be noted that the CC plant does not
for the CC plant, as it degrades the absorbent. rely on the availability of low CO₂ electricity
Modern ethylene furnaces without a selective to reduce the CO₂ emissions from the cracker,
catalytic reduction (SCR) are typically designed although the increased utility demand for the
to achieve NOx emissions in the range of 50-70 CC plant should be met with as low a carbon
ppm (dry basis, corrected to 3 mol% O₂). A typical footprint as possible. A large part of the CC plant
conservative assumption is to have a split of utility demand can be met from the cracker.
85% NO and 15% NO2 during a normal cracking
operation. The addition of an SCR to reduce CO₂ utilisation
NOx and consequently NO₂ at the inlet to the If the ethylene plant is located near depleted
capture plant will be a trade-off between amine reservoirs or next to a CO₂ pipeline, the CO₂
degradation and the cost and operation of the can be sequestered or used for EOR. Only a
SCR. This can be analysed in detail for each case. compression and purification unit will be required
Another interesting point is that the operation of (mainly removing water, but a small concentration
the furnaces in the different modes (decoking, hot of oxygen can also be removed if required for
steam stand-by) introduces very small changes pipeline safety).
to the emitted flue gas. Also, ethylene crackers Traditional technologies for the use of CO₂
offer an advantage for CO₂ capture as they run include the production of urea and using gas/
at constant loads for long periods, allowing the liquid CO₂ in the food industry, such as dry
CC plant to run smoothly over time with little ice production. Methanation is another ‘old’
intervention. It is worth noting the CC plant is technology being proposed to ‘recycle’ CO₂.
also very flexible in operation and can handle a Emerging technologies for transforming the CO₂
more challenging, dynamic type of operation. into a ‘usable’ product (IEA, 2019) are utilising
In modern ethylene plants, each furnace has hydrogen, produced with renewable electricity,
an individual induced draft (ID) fan to control its to transform CO₂ into methanol or ethanol. From
arch pressure. When CC is installed, the outlet there, a number of routes can be followed to
of the ID fan will discharge to a common duct, transform these alcohols into chemicals or fuels
which receives the flue gas from each furnace (aviation fuel, for example). Ethylene production
and directs it to the CC unit. A common booster by ethanol dehydration (Technip Energies’
fan upstream of the CC unit pulls the flue gas Hummingbird technology) is an attractive route
through the common duct. Dampers will be for conventional ethylene producers. The ethylene
installed to permit the furnaces to continue to produced in this way will be expected to have
operate when the CC unit is not running and a higher price, as it could be considered ‘green
enable the furnaces to be individually isolated ethylene’ (depending on the source of hydrogen).
from the common duct. Another way of utilising CO₂ is to produce
Upon trip of the downstream CC unit, the building materials to replace water in concrete:
ethylene plant shall remain in operation. This CO₂ curing. This process is perhaps one of the
will require an alternate route to atmosphere for more mature/developed technologies. CO₂ can
the flue gas from the furnaces. Each furnace will also be used as a raw material in its constituents
retain an individual stack, which is isolated by (cement and construction aggregates). Both
a damper in normal operation. On failure of the technologies are centred on the reaction of CO₂
common booster fan (or trip of the CC unit), the with calcium or magnesium to create low-energy
stack damper on each furnace would be tripped carbonate molecules, the form of carbon that
open to allow the furnace flue gas to discharge makes up concrete. This technology requires
directly to atmosphere. Failure modes for utilities further development compared to curing.
are considered: for example, the steam supply In both cases, the resultant concrete can be
to the CC plant could be tripped to conserve tested on the construction of non-structural
steam in the ethylene plant in the event of a units (roads, floors) until these new materials
power failure. Everything shall be considered can meet regulations, which can be very

Duct Pre-scrubber
Process line Booster fan
(in different colours)
WHB
Ethylene
furnaces
LP steam/condensate
Waste water
Treated flue gas
to atmosphere Sludge effluent CO2 to compression
Condenser
Thermal
reclaimer Reflux
Wash accumulator
water Wash water Filter
cooler section
CO2
Main Lean amine stripper
absorption
section cooler Reflux pumps
Wash water
Lean amine CO2 MVR
pumps feed pumps Lean amine
Main tank compressor
absorption Reboilers Steam
section Intercooler from OSBL
Lean rich
Intercooled
exchanger Steam
section condensate
Intercooler pumps level pot
CO2 absorber
Steam
Lean amine condensate
Rich amine pumps pumps Condensate
flash pot to OSBL
Figure 4 Schematic CC added to an ethylene plant (furnaces connection)
stringent, particularly for concrete used for be marketed as green ethylene with a larger
structural purposes. Note that the use of CO₂ to profit margin. A schematic of the addition of the
manufacture products can significantly reduce the capture plant is shown in Figure 4.
utility consumption of the CO₂ compression stage,
as the delivery pressure required is much lower Conclusions
than for EOR and sequestration applications. A solution to reduce CO₂ emissions from steam
crackers has been discussed. Technip Energies
Summary believes that the presented option is viable and
The basis for designing a CC plant to be retrofitted easily applicable if a destination or use of CO₂ is
to a steam cracker, or incorporated into a new available. Different considerations for new-build
plant design, has been proposed, with details of plants or retrofits are required, but with the recent
key considerations. It is important to note that a development of new projects, there have been
good understanding of the ethylene and CC plants clear advancements in the technology.
and how these can be integrated is essential to Hummingbird is a trademark of Technip Energies.
proper execution of the project. The destination of
the captured CO₂ can be studied, depending on VIEW REFERENCES
the ethylene plant location and the availability of
utilities. For example, having hydrogen available Myrian Schenk
will allow the CO₂ to be used for methanol or myrian.schenk@technipenergies.com
ethanol production. Technip Energies also offers
the possibility of transforming ethanol to ethylene Jim Middleton
jim.middleton@technipenergies.com
through the Hummingbird process, which could

Decarb_FullPage_Bleeds.pdf 9 4/12/2022 12:04:43 PM
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chromalox.indd 1 28/04/2022 16:02:21

Flue gas analysers for safe
combustion of high hydrogen fuels
Proper flue gas monitoring is critical to ensure safe combustion control, fuel efficiency,
and reduced emissions, especially when firing high hydrogen fuels
Tim Tallon
AMETEK Process Instruments
A
midst the global transition to In many cases, centralised processes that
decarbonised assets, combustion generate high carbon emissions are primed
remains an important heating source for carbon capture technology. However,
across many industries, including power operators face much more of a challenge if
and steam generation, oil, gas and cement they are looking to remove carbon emissions
production. While many companies have from multiple decentralised combustion
shifted to using natural gas in their burners sources. In the case of a refinery, there would
to reduce their emissions to air, there is still be considerable difficulty in the logistics
the opportunity to decarbonise further by of isolating stack gases from multiple fired
using hydrogen as a zero-carbon fuel – either heaters and then redirecting them to a single
by spiking it into the natural gas header or carbon removal system. Carbon capture
by using pure hydrogen as the primary fuel is one option to decarbonise combustion
source. In the transition to high hydrogen processes, but it also poses a challenge with
fuels, it will become increasingly important to existing plants that have numerous small and
monitor the stack gas and flue gas to ensure decentralised stack emissions.
plant safety and efficient combustion control. In addition, while many operators may
consider electrification to reduce their
Challenges decarbonising combustion and carbon emissions, it might not be feasible
trends driving use of high hydrogen fuels
Now more than ever, end users are confronted
with the challenges of retrofitting their plants In the transition to high hydrogen
to meet evolving environmental and regulatory fuels, it will become increasingly
targets. Operators of combustion equipment important to monitor the stack gas
have many options available to meet their and flue gas to ensure plant safety
long-term decarbonisation targets, including:
• Carbon capture to directly remove carbon
and efficient combustion control
emissions from the combustion process
• Electrification to generate heat in place of or practical in all cases. For new greenfield
combustion projects, electrification presents a viable
• Hydrogen fuels to generate heat without option for many low-temperature applications,
carbon emissions although this approach still depends on an
While deciding how to decarbonise is outside mechanism to generate and supply
circumstantial, investment costs play an sufficient renewable electricity. However,
inherently large role in the screening process, the real challenge with electrification enters
especially for very well-established plants. when applying it at a larger scale across the
Operators considering carbon capture are faced wider installed base of existing plants and
with justifying the up-front investment and equipment. It may not be economical to buy all
securing adequate plot space for the equipment. new electric equipment, especially if multiple
DT4 Ametek.indd 73 28/04/2022 15:05:09

Property Hydrogen Methane Risks of firing hydrogen and high hydrogen
blends vs methane only
Molecular weight (g/mol) 2.02 16.04 Any time an operator changes fuel sources, the
Density (kg/m³)* 0.0899 0.717
implication on process safety is an important
Avg. molecular speed (m/sec)** 3848 1365
consideration. This is especially true when
Flammability limits (vol%) 4-75 5-15
Gross heating value (kJ/m³) 12,109 37,669 switching to pure hydrogen and high hydrogen
Gross heating value (kJ/kg) 142,081 55,384 fuels. In particular, hydrogen has several
Flame speed (cm/sec) 300 30 physical and combustion properties that
Adiabatic flame temp. (°C) 2254 1963 differ significantly from methane and other
Autoignition temp. (°C) 585 600 hydrocarbon-based fuels, as shown in Table 1.
Min. ignition energy in air (mJ) 0.02 0.29 While some of these differences may impact the
burner directly, others can be monitored using
* At standard temperature (0°C) and pressure (1 atm, 101.325
flue gas analysis to ensure safe and efficient
kPa, 14.7 psia
** Based on the root mean squared molecular speed at 926°C
combustion control.
From the standpoint of physical properties,
hydrogen is a very light and fast diffusing gas.
Table 1 Physical and combustion properties of Compared with methane, diatomic hydrogen is
hydrogen compared to methane a very small molecule with 8X less mass than
methane, which contributes proportionally
to its 8X lower density. Because of its low
combustion processes provide heat, power, molecular weight, hydrogen also exhibits
and steam to the entire plant. Electrification very fast molecular speeds that are almost 3X
provides a window to remove emission sources faster than methane at the same temperature,
entirely, but it also presents a challenge with meaning that hydrogen diffuses nearly 3X faster
existing plants that have many combustion than methane. Altogether, these properties
processes (especially processes with very high depict the inherent nature of hydrogen to move
temperature) or limited availability of external very quickly in a confined space, such as a
power sources. combustion chamber. From a safety perspective,
As indicated, the challenges of unburnt or leaked hydrogen would move much
decarbonisation often arise when the faster in the firebox than methane in the event of
combustion processes are small, decentralised, a fuel leak or loss of flame, and flue gas analysis
and scattered across many point sources and is one option to detect and respond to these
when large amounts of energy are consumed unsafe conditions.
for high-temperature process heating. For this From the view of combustion properties,
reason, many operators are considering the hydrogen is a very reactive and fast-burning
use of hydrogen fuels to reduce the carbon gas. Notably, hydrogen displays extremely fast
emissions from their combustion processes. flame speeds that are 10X faster than the flame
In many cases, hydrogen fuels are more often speed of methane, partly driven by its very fast
readily implementable for existing equipment molecular speeds. Hydrogen flames are also
and more affordable to decarbonise than much shorter and hotter burning than methane,
other options. Operators may consider firing which could increase NOx emissions and
pure hydrogen or blending the hydrogen impact any metal parts used within the burner
with their natural gas to achieve their near- throat. Hydrogen also has an extremely low
term and long-term emission targets. Some minimum pre-ignition energy threshold, which
plants may still need to modify their burners poses a risk of flashback if run at high enough
or upgrade their piping material to handle concentrations, especially in premix burners.
high hydrogen fuels. However, with these From an operational standpoint, high
modifications, operators can continue to use hydrogen fuels have several implications at the
their existing assets and leverage the hydrogen burner and in the combustion control system.
fuel to offset their carbon emissions directly In particular, the fuel flow rate of hydrogen fuel
to atmosphere. will change considerably if measuring the flow
DT4 Ametek.indd 74 28/04/2022 15:05:09

rate by mass or volume. If the plant measures  The role of fuel efficiency and optimisation
flow rate by volume, 3X more hydrogen (by  The detection of unsafe conditions.
volume) is needed to achieve the same heat
release as methane at the same pressure. If Each role will be highlighted along with its
the plant measures flow rate by mass, then corresponding measurement. Together, the
the hydrogen mass flow rate will be 3X less measurements ensure combustion safety,
than the mass flow of methane for the same proper operation, and fuel efficiency.
heat release (at the same pressure) because
of the differences in heating value. Piping and Role of excess oxygen setpoint
burner nozzles sizes should be evaluated to As the first, most critical role, flue gas analysis
ensure they can handle the required change in provides the operational air-fuel ratio setpoint
fuel flow and to avoid material embrittlement at the burner using the ‘excess oxygen’
and unexpected pressure changes. In addition, measurement. To sustain a flame, a sufficient
hydrogen requires 20% less combustion air amount of air must be diverted to the burner to
than methane to achieve the same heat release. consume all the fuel. This balance is represented
While burner adjustments can be fixed when by the air-fuel ratio. In practice, the burner must
permanently switching to a new fuel, these have enough ‘excess oxygen’ in the flue gas to
differences in heating value and combustion air ensure safe combustion control.
requirements have implications if the hydrogen Unlike the ‘total oxygen’ concentration in the
content of the fuel varies over time and/or if flue gas, the ‘excess oxygen’ measurement
the burner switches from natural gas to a high
hydrogen fuel, which may be the case in using
natural gas during light-off and switching to When it comes to setting the
hydrogen fuels during normal operation. For air-fuel ratio, the excess oxygen
this reason, it is vital that operators monitor measurement is an operational
the combustion process and ensure the burner setpoint to ensure that the burner
always has adequate combustion air, and flue operates with sufficient ‘excess’
gas analysis is one approach to safe monitoring
of these burner-related parameters.
oxygen at all times
Critical threefold role of flue gas analysis is unique in that it correlates directly to the
and its measurements for safe combustion air-fuel ratio. This excess oxygen level refers
In any combustion process, it is necessary to to the amount of oxygen present after all
monitor the inlet flow rates of fuel and air to the combustible content in the stream is
the burner. While these flow rates provide consumed; hence, it monitors the ‘excess’ of
baseline parameters to set a flame, they do the remaining oxygen. This measurement is
not provide feedback to reveal or alert any also referred to in industry as the ‘residual
potential concerns with the combustion oxygen’ or ‘net oxygen’ reading. It is also
reaction, such as incomplete combustion from important to note that a 0% excess oxygen
imperfect mixing in the burner or safety risks reading means there is no safety margin of
such as fuel leaks or loss of flame. Flue gas air to the burner, and this presents an unsafe
analysis offers one approach to monitoring condition if held for too long.
the process and providing feedback using When it comes to setting the air-fuel
measurements made in the flue gas. It is ratio, the excess oxygen measurement is an
especially important to consider when firing operational setpoint to ensure that the burner
high hydrogen fuels. operates with sufficient ‘excess’ oxygen at all
That said, flue gas analysis plays three critical times. In most cases, operators set the excess
roles in the combustion process: oxygen setpoint anywhere between 1%
and 5%, depending on the fuel type and the
 The operational set point for the air-to-fuel variability of the fuel composition over time.
ratio If the reading is too low, more combustion
DT4 Ametek.indd 75 28/04/2022 15:05:10

Role of combustion optimisation
As its second role, flue gas analysis also offers
the ability to optimise the excess oxygen
setpoint using a ‘combustibles’ measurement.
Reference
For context, combustibles are generated as
element a byproduct of incomplete combustion at the
burner. Under perfect conditions, hydrocarbon
fuels react to form carbon dioxide (CO₂) and
water (H₂O). However, combustion is never
perfect in practice because of poor air/fuel
Catalytic sensor
mixing at the burner, changing load conditions,
malfunctioning burners, and variable fuels.
Combustibles
Catalytic element
sensor housing As a result, a small amount of unburned
combustibles is always generated, usually ppm
Flue gas flow levels of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
(H₂). A combustibles detector uses catalytic
Figure 1 An example combustibles detector, elements to measure CO and H₂ together in a
which uses catalytic elements to monitor for single measurement. As shown in Figure 1, the
ppm levels of incomplete combustion, including combustibles detector uses a catalytic active
H2 and CO, in a single, combined ‘combustibles’ element and a reference element to provide
measurement this single, combined, non-speciated ‘umbrella’
measurement. In the case of high hydrogen
air may be needed at the burner, although fuels, these catalytic combustibles detectors
the addition of a combustibles reading would have higher sensitivity to monitor for unburnt
give a fuller picture of the combustion process hydrogen. However, they can also monitor
(which will be described in the next section). for CO if hydrocarbons are present in the
That said, insufficient oxygen at the burner fuel source.
causes incomplete combustion, an obvious That said, the combustibles measurement can
waste of fuel, and a potential safety hazard. be used to monitor the health of the combustion
Through flue gas analysis, operators can process, as combustibles inform the operator of
ensure that the burner has enough air to how much ‘incomplete combustion’ is present. As
maintain a safe and stable flame, and this is the excess oxygen increases, fewer combustibles
especially true when using high hydrogen fuels. are formed. However, if insufficient excess
oxygen is present, the combustibles increase
dramatically. In extreme cases, where the burner
is starved of enough oxygen, the combustibles
Combustibles Excess level hits a point of ‘breakthrough’ and increases
losses air losses exponentially, as shown in Figure 2, creating an
Efficiency unsafe condition.
combined
O2 & O2 only losses
combustibles operating
That said, operators can use the combustibles
Optimum set point measurement (in conjunction with the excess
Control
Point oxygen measurement) to reduce their carbon
emissions and fuel consumption – ultimately
300 ppm
200 ppm
ensuring safety while also optimising their
100 ppm combustion process. As noted earlier, operators
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% use the excess oxygen measurement as a
Excess O2 setpoint for their burners, but excess oxygen
alone does not tell the full story in the flue gas.
Figure 2 Measurement of excess oxygen and Too much excess oxygen, and it reduces fuel
combustibles enables optimised combustion efficiency. Lower excess air levels mean there is
and lower fuel consumption and stack emissions less air and flue gas to heat, and thus less heat
DT4 Ametek.indd 76 28/04/2022 15:05:10

is lost through the stack. Using a combustibles
measurement, operators can reduce their excess
oxygen reading to a safe range well before
reaching the combustibles breakthrough point.
The combustibles measurement provides the
secondary reference point to allow operators
to lower their combustion air levels at the
burner thoughtfully. Together, flue gas analysis
provides the excess oxygen reading and the
combustibles measurement to safely optimise
the combustion process.
Role of process safety

Finally, as its third critical role, flue gas analysis
plays an important part in detecting unsafe
conditions, using a combustibles detector and
a hydrocarbons detector. As noted earlier, a
combustibles detector measures the CO and
H₂ from normal incomplete combustion due
to poor mixing at the burner. However, the
combustibles measurement can also provide
a safety measurement to detect and alert the Figure 3 The Thermox WDG-V is a combustion
onset of combustibles breakthrough. Using flue gas analyser capable of measuring
the combustibles measurement, operators excess oxygen, combustibles, and methane/
have the ppm level visibility to monitor for CO hydrocarbons in one unit
breakthrough and insufficient levels of air at
the burner.
In addition, operators can also use a methane/ combustion flue gas analyser that provides
hydrocarbon catalytic detector to provide all three of these critical measurements
per cent-level measurements of methane, in one sensor to ensure safe and efficient
hydrocarbons, and also unburnt hydrogen in combustion control.
the flue gas. By itself, a combustibles detector
does not run hot enough to measure methane Flue gas analysis for safe, efficient hydrogen
and other small hydrocarbons. However, with combustion
a catalytic design similar to the combustibles Overall, hydrogen will play an important role
detector, a hydrocarbon detector can be used in reducing carbon emissions from scattered
instead to detect and signal high per cent combustion point sources, especially in the
levels of unburnt hydrocarbons in the flue gas, existing installed base. Inherently, hydrogen
often as a result of fuel leaks at the burner, is a much faster moving and burning molecule
process tube leaks, and loss of flame during than methane, and special attention will be
start-up and normal operation. Even when needed to transition to pure hydrogen as a
using high hydrogen fuels, the hydrocarbons fuel source or high hydrogen fuels. In the
detector will respond to any unburnt transition, flue gas analysis will continue to
hydrogen present, and it can be used to play an important role in the combustion
detect these per cent-level unsafe conditions. burner setpoints, fuel efficiency, emission
The catalytic nature of the detector enables reduction, and process safety, especially when
these measurements to include methane, using hydrogen as a fuel source.
hydrocarbons, and hydrogen in a single,
combined, per cent-level value.
The Ametek Thermox WDG-V analyser, Tim Tallon
shown in Figure 3, is an example of a Tim.Tallon@ametek.com
DT4 Ametek.indd 77 28/04/2022 15:05:10

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Repurposing existing process
units to reduce CO2 emissions
Converting an existing hydrotreater or naphtha reformer to a Methaformer can
reduce both CO2 emissions and energy costs
Stephen Sims New Gas Technologies Synthesis (NGTS)

Meritxell Vila MERYT Catalyst and Innovation
M
ethaforming is a lower-cost alternative is inherently more energy efficient, as it does
for upgrading naphtha to gasoline not require the reheat furnaces as in a reformer
blendstock in a one-step process that or any energy for a naphtha hydrotreater. This
reduces energy costs and CO2 emissions. An accounts for 20% of the emission credits,
existing hydrotreater or naphtha reformer equivalent to 0.1t CO2/t naphtha. Then for
can be converted to a Methaformer at a low ethanol co-feed, the hydrocarbon portion that
cost and reduce CO2 emissions by 0.5t CO2/t becomes gasoline, the CO2 emissions due to
naphtha. For a typical 20K BPD (860K tpa) combustion in the automobile are offset by
process unit, the conversion cost will be <$20 the CO2 absorption in growing the crops for
million with CO2 emissions reductions of 430K the ethanol. This is why blending ethanol into
tpa, worth $22 million/year at $50/t of CO2 gasoline is attractive. In essence, using ethanol
or a whopping $62 million/year at the current as the co-feed in the Methaformer enables the
$140/T in California (CA). The conversion may environmental benefit of blending more ethanol
be of either the hydrotreater or the reformer. into gasoline without hitting the blend wall.
For the hydrotreater, the main cost is for two While still following the LCFS methodology, the
reactors (one on-stream while the other is mechanism for CO2 emissions reduction when
regenerated), and for a semi-regen reformer, the ethylene is used as a co-feed is totally different.
main revisions are piping changes. In a common refinery configuration, ethylene
The CO2 emissions credits mentioned above in the FCC dry gas is used as refinery fuel gas.
are in addition to the underlying Methaformer When the ethylene is reactively extracted at
yield advantage, which is worth $40 million/year the Methaformer, its heating value is replaced
compared to a semi-regen reformer (based on with natural gas. This has two benefits. First,
US Gulf Coast long-range prices). Methaformer the hydrogen/carbon ratio for natural gas is
yields are comparable to a semi-regen reformer twice that for ethylene. More of the BTUs come
with isomerisation but without the need for from hydrogen than carbon. Second, the CO2
hydrotreating, while ensuring benzene in the emissions allocated to the ethylene include a
product is <1%. Additionally, Methaforming share of the emissions from the entire value
reactively extracts ethylene from fluid catalytic chain from crude into refining through the FCC,
cracker (FCC) dry gas, which from a companion allocated based on contained heating value.
50K BPD FCC would be worth an additional This is much more than the CO2 emissions from
$10 million/year in upgrading the ethylene from natural gas production. In this way, in essence,
fuel gas to gasoline. natural gas is converted directly into gasoline.
CO2 emissions reduction Methaforming economics vs conventional

The estimation of CO2 emissions savings technology
is based on the California Low Carbon Fuel Methaforming is a one-step process (see
Standard (LCFS) methodology. Methaforming Figure 1). Naphtha and ethanol/methanol or
DT4 MERYT.indd 79 28/04/2022 15:11:44

Naphtha Alcohol 35–85˚C
(35–180˚C) or olefins H2, H2S Isomerisation
(95–356˚F) C1–C4
25–50%
Benzene
50–75% Hydrotreater reduction
Stabiliser
Methaformer Gasoline
Naphtha
Reforming
Gasoline
5 atm (73 psi) blendstock* 85–180˚C
370˚C (700˚F) 90–92 RON
<1% benzene
1
/10 sulphur Figure 2 Conventional naphtha processing
Water
highlighting individual units replaced by
Figure 1 Methaforming: one-step process to Methaformer
upgrade naphtha and ethanol/ethylene
FCC dry gas are upgraded in a unit similar eliminating the need for an isomerisation unit.
to a hydrotreater at modest pressure and In this way, capital and operating costs are
temperature. The product is similar to reformate: reduced to about one-third.
a gasoline blendstock with relatively low Table 1 shows the economics for converting
sulphur and, importantly, <1% benzene. The a 20K BPD (860K tpa) semi-regen reformer into
process flow resembles a hydrotreater in which a Methaformer.
ethanol/ethylene is used instead of hydrogen • The second column shows the economics for
without a recycle compressor. The yields are Methaforming. First, the yields including net
comparable to a semi-regen reformer plus fuel gas, then CO2 credits, followed by other
isomerisation, except that most of the benzene operating expenses, and finally, the estimated
is converted to toluene, and half the ethanol Capex is $20 million. Then, the bottom row
becomes water. Byproducts include hydrogen, shows the total 20-year net present value (NPV)
some light ends, and H2S in the overhead. The for a Methaformer
inexpensive zeolite catalyst does not contain • The third column shows the same values for
precious metals. an existing naphtha hydrotreater plus a semi-
The capital and operating costs are regen reformer without isomerisation
comparable to a single hydrotreater. The • The last column shows the difference
operating costs are much lower than between Methaforming versus this alternative.
conventional processes (see Figure 2) because The Methaformer has $31 million/year better
the Methaformer replaces four units. The yields plus an additional $22 million/year for a
Methaformer can upgrade most naphthas and reduction in CO2 emissions (valued at $50/t)
reduces sulphur by 90%, thereby avoiding the when using ethanol/ethylene as the co-feed
need for a hydrotreater and hydrogen supply to • The fixed and variable Opex is $10 million/
this unit. It replaces the reformer and, because year lower because of less equipment. The
of low benzene production, avoids the need for lower fuel gas requirements are incorporated
benzene reduction steps. Methaforming also into the yields. Finally, the Capex for the
effectively processes light naphtha, thereby conversion to Methaforming is approximately
$20 million. This gives an NPV difference of
Existing 860K tpa Metha- Semi-regen ∆ Methaforming $400 million.
unit (20K BPD) forming reformer semi-regen The CO2 emissions reductions occur to
the extent ethanol or ethylene are used as a
Yields, $million/yr 126 95 + 31
CO2 credits 22 0 + 22
co-feed. When ethylene is used as the co-
Opex, $million/yr 13 23 - 10 feed, the process is called Aroforming. For a
Capex, $million 20 - 20 Methaformer/Aroformer, the co-feed is 15-
Total NPV, $million 890 490 + 400 50% of the naphtha quantity and can be any
mix of light alcohol or light olefins. To what
Table 1 Economics for converting semi-regen extent ethylene is the co-feed, there are added
reformer into a Methaformer economic benefits, as highlighted in Table 3.
DT4 MERYT.indd 80 28/04/2022 15:11:45

Aroforming a full-range naphtha with ethylene ton $/t
from FCC dry gas shows a large net margin
at $247/t of naphtha based on US Gulf Coast Feeds
long-range prices. The naphtha is co-processed Naphtha 1.00 530
with 0.27t of ethylene, priced at its fuel gas Ethylene 0.27 230
value. Aroformate yield is 92% at 90.3 RON, Products
Aroformate* 0.92 730
and LPG/C4 yield is 34%.
LPG 0.19 387
To what extent ethylene is the co-feed, the C4 0.15 447
yield economics are improved by $100/t of CO2 reduction 0.50 50
naphtha. For a refinery with a 50K BPD FCC, Net margin 247
this added benefit is worth $10 million/year.
The Methaforming catalyst and process were * 90.3 RON; higher severity to 95 RON may be achieved
developed and operating parameters optimised with somewhat lower Aroformate yield
in three pilot plants with over 7,000 hours of
processing. A fourth pilot plant, started up in Table 3 Yield economics for Aroforming naphtha
2019, has a 9 litre, three-stage reactor and with ethylene
capacity of a 320 l/d (2 BPD). It has confirmed
the yields from the 100ml pilot plant, which usually because the facilities are located far
has been used for 300 pilot plant tests on 50 from refineries, and there is a local demand for
different naphthas. gasoline. An international EPC and NGTS have
NGTS is in active discussions with several completed the detailed mechanical design for
refiners. A major refiner has included a 480K tpa two versions. The contractor will build these at
(11K BPD) Aroformer into its long-range plan a fixed price of $1.2 million for a 6K tpa unit and
for 2024 based on extensive pilot plant testing. $2.8 million for a 21K tpa unit. These can be
This unit will process aromatics extraction delivered within six and 18 months, and include
raffinate and a benzene precursor stream that all of the equipment necessary inside battery
is bypassed around reforming. Thanks to the limit. The outside battery limit is dependent
pilot plant work with this refinery, our product on existing customer facilities. Much of this
offering has been enhanced by the flexibility to may already be available or available on an
replace alcohol with FCC dry gas. incremental cost basis. These low-cost modular
Many potential customers are interested in Methaformers may be of interest to Western
quick delivery, low-cost, skid-mounted units. refiners who have converted primarily to
Most of these customers are in regions where biodiesel, which produces only a small amount
there is not yet a significant value in CO2 of naphtha. Additionally, a modular Methaformer
emissions reductions. Their economics are may be used to upgrade raffinate from
driven by the availability of low-cost naphtha, aromatics extraction. In both of these situations,
CH3
H Dehydration:
releases 135 kj per kg
H C O H + + H O H
(283 BTU per lb)
H of naphtha*
Methanol Benzene Toluene Water
H H Dehydrogenation:
H3C H H
CH3 + H H
absorbs 129 kj per kg
(269 BTU per lb)
H H of naphtha
N-hexane Cyclohexane Benzene Hydrogen
Figure 3 Methaforming dehydration of methanol and dehydrogenation of hexane, assuming

28.3 wt% share of alcohol co-feed
DT4 MERYT.indd 81 28/04/2022 15:11:45

GC-1 To GFU
Fuel gas
AC-1
AC-2
S-1 S-1 LPG
P-3
HE-1 F-1 Water ST
Water
Naphtha
P-1 HE-4 P-4
HE-2 R-1 R-2
Ethanol Steam
P-2 E
Condensate water
Air
HE-3 F-2 AC-3
Nitrogen T Methaformate
To
GC-2 AC-4 atmosphere
S-2
Water
Figure 3 Methaforming process flow
the Methaformer would be able to upgrade the the catalyst, ensuring a longer catalyst cycle.
ethylene from the FCC dry gas. The catalyst is a specially treated zeolite that
is resistant to degradation from the steam.
Details of the process chemistry The typical run length between regeneration
Naphthas from different sources vary greatly in is one month, so two reactors are provided for
their hydrocarbon composition and, therefore, continuous operation.
in the ease of conversion in isomerisation and The alkyl radical from alcohol dehydration
reforming, and Methaforming. Methaforming can alkylate aromatic groups, for example
will convert most normal paraffins, naphthenes, converting most of the benzene to toluene,
and olefins to isoparaffins and aromatics. xylene, and C9 aromatics, or react with itself to
Numerous chemical reactions occur during make longer-chain radicals, further converted to
the Methaforming process, some of which are higher olefins and aromatics.
highlighted here. The content of fused-ring aromatics (for
Upon contact with the catalyst, alcohol example, naphthalene) in the product remains
converts to a corresponding alkyl radical <0.5%.
in a highly exothermic reaction of alcohol Olefins in the feedstock follow a conversion
dehydration. The heat of this reaction supports pathway similar to that for alcohol. Newly
the subsequent endothermic dehydrogenation formed aromatics can be further alkylated;
of naphthenes (see Figure 3; for simplicity, paraffins and naphthenes can be further
shown with methanol co-feed). The occurrence converted to isoparaffins and aromatics. Every
of the endo- and exothermic reactions in step in the pathways is an equilibrium reaction,
the same vessel translates into a significant and hence the products of the conversion
economic and environmental advantage of process will depend on process parameters.
Methaforming over the traditional methods of
naphtha processing due to the reduced reheat Methaforming process flow
duty. For example, with the full-range naphtha Heating and vaporisation of naphtha and
plus ethanol feed combination, the need for fuel alcohol are performed sequentially in the heat
gas in Methaforming is about one-fifth of the exchanger HE-1 and furnace F-1.
corresponding amount for traditional reforming. After heating to 360-430°C (680-806°F), the
The water formed from alcohol dehydration gaseous feed mixture is fed into reactor R-1 or
becomes steam that reduces coke formation on R-2, which operate alternately (~800 hr on feed
DT4 MERYT.indd 82 28/04/2022 15:11:45

and ~30 hours of regeneration). The catalytic layer is sent to water treating, and hydrocarbons
process occurs in the reactor, converting go to pump P-3. From there, the hydrocarbon
alcohol and naphtha into Methaformate product is preheated in heat exchanger HE-4 and
(gasoline blendstock). directed to stabiliser ST.
The reaction products at a temperature of The stabilised Methaformate is withdrawn from
360-430°C (680-806°F) go to the tube side the bottom of stabiliser ST. The Methaformate,
of the alcohol heat exchanger HE-2, then are after cooling in HE-4 and air cooler AC-3 to 45°C
(113°F), is routed off-site to the product tank.
The overheads of stabiliser ST are cooled in air
The Methaformer can upgrade
cooler AC-2 and fed into the reflux drum S-3, a
most naphthas and reduces three-phase separator. Uncondensed vapours
sulphur by 90%, thereby avoiding from S-3 are routed to the fuel gas system, and
the need for a hydrotreater and the water is discharged to wastewater treatment.
hydrogen supply to this unit The liquid hydrocarbon product is a propane-
butane fraction, which goes to pump P-4 and
is returned to stabiliser ST as reflux with the
cooled further in heat exchanger HE-1, followed balance off-site as LPG.
by air cooler AC-1. The reaction products cooled
to 35°C (95°F) are separated in a three-phase
separator S-1. Hydrogen-rich gas (HRG) from Stephen Sims
S-1 is fed to the off-gas compressor GC-1 and S.Sims@NGT-Synthesis.com
sent off-site.
The liquid phase of the product stream is Dr Meritxell Vila
mvila@meryt-chemical.com
stratified and decanted in S-1. The aqueous
MERYT Improve the profitability of your
Catalysts
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and our outstanding technical
info@meryt-chemical.com
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Catalysts and Technologies
DT4 MERYT.indd 83 28/04/2022 15:11:45

Fuel gas hydrocarbon recovery
as carbon abatement strategy
Fuel or off-gas conditioning represents a winning combination of carbon
abatement and improved financial returns
Justin Stark
Chevron Corporation
MACC framework and process improvement development cycles, and the lack of viable
According to the International Energy Agency commercial-scale lower-carbon replacement
(IEA), direct industrial process emissions process technologies.
comprised 8.7 Gt CO2 in 2020, and this is That said, there are opportunities for
expected to increase due to a recovering global operational and process improvement in
economy (IEA, 2021). However, these emissions industrial process facilities that are profitable
must fall by roughly 1.2% annually to align with endeavours while cutting significant carbon
the IEA’s Sustainable Development Scenario emissions. The Marginal Abatement Cost Curve
(IEA, 2021). Emissions from energy-intensive (MACC) framework is often employed to track
industries are generally considered some of and prioritise such projects, as shown in Figure 1
the most arduous to decarbonise due to their in a study by McKinsey (McKinsey & Co, 2007).
need for high-grade process heat, long project Initiatives are tracked by cost of abatement,
Commercial buildings – Residential buildings –

Abatement cost <$50/ton HVAC equipment efficiency HVAC equipment
Industrial Commercial buildings – efficiency
90 process Control systems Afforestation
Fuel economy improvements of cropland
packages – Residential
Light trucks buildings – Coal power plants –
Coal mining – CCS rebuilds with EOR Solar CSP
60 methane Shell retrofits
Residential Commercial
electronics management Active forest Distibuted
buildings –
solar CSP
Cost Real 2005 dollars per ton CO2e
Combined management
Residential Nuclear
30 Commercial heat and new-build
buildings – power water heaters
Lighting
Potential Gigatons/year
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2
Onshore Car hybrid-

-30 Industry – wind – Low Onshore Industry- isation
combined penetration wind – High CCS new
heat and penetration builds on Coal-to-gas
power carbon- shift – Dispatch
-60 Conservation Biomass power – intensive of existing
Cellulosic Cofiring
tillage processes plants
biofuels
Coal power plants –
Manufacturing Coal power plants –
Residential Existing power CCS new builds
-90 buildings –
– HFCs mgmt
with EOR CCS rebuilds
plant
New shell conversion
Commercial improvements Onshore wind –
electronics efficiency Natural gas and Medium penetration
-120 improvements petroleum systems
Commercial
Commercial management Winter cover crops
buildings – Coal power plants –
buildings – CFL lighting
LED lighting Reforestation CCS new builds
-230
Fuel economy packages – Cars Afforestation of pastureland
Figure 1 Depiction of MACC from McKinsey study entitled Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas
Emissions: How Much at What Cost?
DT$ GLG.indd 84 28/04/2022 15:24:54

Diesel steam Atmos cond
Preflash vapour AGO steam
Off gas
Rich fuel CO2 emissions Waste
Raw crude Preflash Molar flow 2790 kgmole/h water
Master comp mass flow (CO2) 12462.6891 kg/h
Naphtha
Pre flsh liq Rich fuel CO2 emissions Atm
Temperature 232.2 C Condensate feed
Pressure 517.1 kPa inj Steam out Kerosene
Molar flow 2042 kgmole/h
Steam in Superheated steam out Mixer
Mass flow 5.134e+005 kg/h
Diesel
Pre flsh liq Hot cude
Air Rich fuel Q-trim
furnace T-100 AGO
Rich fuel gas stream Main steam
Residue
Rich fuel gas stream Lean fuel CO2 emissions
Temperature 30.00 C Molar flow 2840 kgmole/h
Pressure 200.0 kPa Master comp mass flow (CO2) 11698.4229 kg/h
Molar flow 201.4 kgmole/h
Master comp mole frac (Ethane) 0.2480
Master comp mole frac (H2O) 0.0200 Pre flsh liq-2 Lean fuel gas stream
Master comp mole frac (Hydrogen) 0.0580 Lean fuel CO2 emissions Temperature 30.00 C
Master comp mole frac (i-Butane) 0.0140 Condensate Pressure 200.0 kPa
Master comp mole frac (Methane) 0.5480 inj-2 Steam out-2 Molar flow 273.3 kgmole/h
Master comp mole frac (n-Butane) 0.0150 Master comp mole frac (Ethane) 0.0825
Master comp mole frac (CO2) 0.0090
Steam in-2 Superheated steam
Master comp mole frac (H2O) 0.0200
Master comp mole frac (Nitrogen) 0.0090 out-2 Master comp mole frac (Hydrogen) 0.0850
Master comp mole frac (i-Butane) 0.0000
Lean fuel
Air furnace Hot Master comp mole frac (Methane) 0.7800
cude-2 Master comp mole frac (n-Butane) 0.0000
Master comp mole frac (CO2) 0.0140
Rich fuel gas stream Master comp mole frac (Nitrogen) 0.0140
Figure 2 Aspen HYSYS model with feedstream compositions and CO2 emissions (rich and lean)
with the cheapest and highest priority projects recovery units are designed to economically
on the left-most part of the graph and higher recover some amount of propane or butane
abatement cost initiatives to the right. As from the natural gas stream before that gas is
shown, industrial process improvements mostly then burned as fuel (or sold to be burned as
have ‘negative’ abatement costs associated fuel by some other entity). It is common for the
with them, meaning they provide positive overall recovery of propane to be less than 50%.
earnings or cash for the responsible enterprise. In contrast, the recovery of ethane was often
The use of critical benchmarking, through a ignored in older facilities due to the high cost of
firm such as Solomon Associates, can provide recovery and lower margin of direct ethane sales
insights that facilitate project prioritisation and when the facility was built.
further process intensification studies (Solomon Unfortunately, the heavier the overall fuel or
Associates, 2022). natural gas stream is, generally the higher its
carbon intensity as a fuel. Data from the U.S.
Gas recovery and process heat management Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) report
Although many processes fit in the ‘industrial the emissions intensity in kg/MMBTU of CO2 by
process improvement’ bucket in Figure 1, gas hydrocarbon molecule (U.S. EPA, 2014). Natural
recovery is one such process employed in gas gas, primarily methane with some residual
plants, large refineries, and chemical plants. ethane, has an emissions intensity of 53.06
Through Solomon Associates benchmarking on kg CO2/MMBTU, while the emissions intensity
gas processing facilities, insights can be gained of heavier molecules is higher; for example,
on heavy molecule recovery plant efficiency, butane is 64.77 kg CO2/MMBTU (JISEA, 2016).
including energy and non-energy efficiencies. For fired heaters that demand millions of BTU
Three key components that can cut scope 1 per hour, such a range of intensities can lead to
emissions significantly are the degree of heavy differences in stack emissions on the order of
molecule recovery (i.e. removing propane and several thousand metric tonnes of CO2 per year.
butane out of a heavy natural gas stream), The impact can be staggering, with overall gas
the extent of heat integration, and the energy and other fuel-fired process heat and steam
efficiency within a unit. Typically, these gas generation representing the lion’s share of direct
DT$ GLG.indd 85 28/04/2022 15:24:54

Component Rich refinery Lean refinery
The much leaner fuel gas stream is
(dry basis) fuel gas (mol%) fuel gas (mol%) representative of that found from conditioned
process gas in an oil refinery, with membrane or
Methane 55% 80% cryogenic processing pretreatment to remove
Ethane/ethylene 25% 10%
almost all the C3+ and much of the ethane/
Propane/propylene 8% 0.5%
Butane/Iso-butane/C4 olefins 3% 0%
ethylene content. The resulting reduction in
C5+ 1% 0% furnace CO2 emissions is on the order of ~6% or
Hydrogen 6% 9% near 6,700 tonnes per year of CO2. The impact
Other Impurities (CO2, N2, etc.) 2% 3% can be significant depending on the particulars
of the plant configuration. The emissions
Table 1 Dry compositions of the two different reduction above is compounded across many
fuel gas streams modelled with Aspen HYSY process heaters in the facility since they typically
draw from the same fuel gas source or header.
industrial carbon emissions at 52%, according to For demonstration purposes, two similarly sized
the EPA. crude unit feed furnaces and a corresponding
With new incentives for carbon emissions delayed coker could see an emissions reduction
reduction, along with changing and tightening of roughly 45,000 tonnes per year of CO2, with
markets for many commodities compared to the the same change in fuel composition as above.
prevailing market conditions when many facilities This does not include any other support fired
were built, recovering these heavy molecules heaters or gas-fired steam generators required
from the natural gas stream leads to profitable to operate these units.
reductions in scope 1 carbon emissions. As one
demonstration of this, two natural gas streams Example process schema and available
were modelled in Aspen HYSYS as fuel for a technologies
conventional furnace, with a process line-up as Many available technologies and processes can
shown in Figure 2. The furnace in this model be used to recover these heavier molecules from
represents the fired heater at the front of a crude natural gas streams, with their typical recoveries
distillation unit processing 4.8 MTPA, heating presented in Table 2.
this crude from 230°C to 340°C. The stream In most cases, cryogenic separation plants
compositions and the resulting emissions for the are already designed for near-maximum
same overall energy consumption are shown in recovery of ethane, while improved recovery
Figure 2. The detailed stream compositions are is possible through operational changes or
shown in Table 1. modest upgrades. Cryogenic separation uses a
combination of refrigeration (often with propane)
and a large pressure drop followed by separation
Gas recovery process Typical target
technology recoveries
in a demethaniser column. Pressure reduction
occurs with a machine called a turboexpander
Lean oil absorption Ethane rejected to cool the gas to -85°C or lower, removing
>60% C3 recovery much of the ethane. Conversely, refrigeration
90% C4 recovery with propane for dewpoint control cools a gas
>95% C5+ recovery
stream to near -35°C to remove almost all C3
Membrane separation ~40-70% C2 recovery
and heavier molecules. Although it is difficult to
70-90% C3 recovery
>95% C4+ recovery improve this process further, the following are
Cryogenic separation or Can be designed for ethane some ideas for better C2+ recovery or energy
refrigerated dewpoint rejection (dewpoint control) efficiency overall:
control process 70% C² recovery • Lower demethaniser pressure – the higher
95% C³ recovery the pressure drop across the expander, the lower
~100% C4+ recovery the demethaniser operating temperature will be,
resulting in improved recovery
Table 2 Example gas recovery technologies and • ‘Re-wheeling’ the turboexpander – in many
typical recovery performance cases, the expander is not operating in its most
DT$ GLG.indd 86 28/04/2022 15:24:54

Increase lean oil circulation rate with modest Lean fuel/process gas
hydraulic inprovements, such as pump impeller /
Process motor resizing and absorber internals replacement Sponge oil
gas (e.g. diesel,
Gas naphtha)
compressor
Absorber
Rich oil to air cooler inlet
Cooled lean Make-up lean oil
T = ambient oil (˜20˚C)
Process Reflux condenser
unit
LPG
product
Stripped gas
Improve front-end air cooler
performance with fan speed
increase or wavy fins Debutaniser Process
Refrigerated
De-ethaniser cooling water heat
(˜10˚C) Reboiler source
Reboiler C5+ Product

Reduce energy consumption by integrating Significantly increase hydrocarbon recovery
de-ethaniser reboiler heat source with other hot with lean oil chiller / cooling water
process streams in facility (e.g. debutaniser bottoms) exchangers. Steam-driven chillers are
available if there is excess steam available
in the facility
Figure 3 Typical lean oil recovery process with potential recovery improvement upgrades in green
efficient range or has high recycle flow to prevent hydrocarbons. In the column, the heavy
surge. Discussing rotor replacement or other hydrocarbons are more soluble overall in the lean
modifications with the manufacturer can improve oil, resulting in a richer oil and leaner gas leaving
lead to augmented efficiency that improves the column. An example schematic is shown in
recovery (by reducing outlet temperature) while Figure 3, with the ultimate products being gas,
reducing compressor horsepower simultaneously LPG, and C5+ streams.
• Improving heat integration and recovery – Many opportunities for improvement are
using process heat for column reboiler duty or available that can elevate recovery to the next
introducing an economiser in the refrigeration level. These are all depicted in green as possible
loop can, again, improve energy efficiency and improvements in the schematic and assume the
recovery. Improving refrigeration compressor desire to reject ethane while capturing maximum
operation by converting to an electric machine propane and propylene or heavier molecules.
or changing compressor parameters (for Improvements shown include:
example, installing automatic unloaders on a • Increased lean and sponge oil circulation
reciprocating machine or increasing capacity to – increasing absorbent oil circulation up to
reduce chiller pressure) absorber hydraulic limits, along with absorber
Lean oil separation plants are capable of less internals upgrading as needed, can drastically
overall recovery than cryogenic separation, but increase recovery
this technology usually has significant room • Reduced lean and sponge oil temperatures or
for recovery improvement above the original changing solvent composition – use of cooling
nameplate recovery. Often designed for ~50% water or lean oil chilling to maintain lean/sponge
propane recovery, these processes are capable oil temperatures around 20°C will generally lead
of >80% propane recovery with the proper to profitable recovery improvement; substituting
modifications. with ‘leaner’ lean oil that is devoid of C3-C5 will
Lean oil plants work by absorption of heavy also augment the equilibrium in the absorber
hydrocarbons in a packed or trayed absorber • Advanced heat integration – replacement
column, where a heavy gas is contacted of steam condensing reboilers with process
with a liquid lean oil that is ‘lean’ in heavier heat integration (for example, feed/effluent
DT$ GLG.indd 87 28/04/2022 15:24:54

improve recovery. If recovery is below desired
10
performance, additional membrane modules
21
Feed 17 can be added in series or parallel to improve
gas
1 TEG ultimate recovery. Naturally, the ‘permeate’
unit stream of heavier hydrocarbons is not simply
20
15 wasted. These can either be sent to an existing
18 heavy hydrocarbon stream or additional liquefied
14
petroleum gas (LPG) recovery system to ensure
they are economically recovered. In some cases,
Slip stream to membranes they can be recycled back to the process as
Mem inlet Cond. fuel depicted in Figure 4, depending on the unit
2 3 4 operations available to further separate these
To
Filter engines compounds. Depending on the local market, this
22 5
coalescer stream could be sold directly, either as a cheaper
Membrane
7 skid feedstock or it could be mixed into a mixed
Permeate condensate/natural gas liquid.
Figure 4 Depiction of membrane unit module on Available markets and disposition

a facility fuel gas ‘slipstream’ One challenging aspect of planning gas
recovery projects is that no two processing
exchangers, debutaniser bottoms used as de- facilities are exactly alike, and the composition
ethaniser reboiler heat). Replacing only 450 kg/h of the gas streams could necessitate entirely
of 1,000 kPa steam production can save near different solutions or commercial arrangements
750 TPA of CO2 emissions while reducing overall to monetise the opportunity fully. Even as
project cost carbon markets develop, ‘negative cost’ carbon
Lastly, membrane and other solid medium abatement projects still require revenue streams
transport technologies represent a generally from selling or moving product out of fuel gas
more energy-efficient, smaller footprint method into another product. There are myriad options
for fuel gas conditioning. Although it is tough out there to best monetise ‘heavy hydrocarbons’,
to obtain the same level of C2+ recovery with a though a few key examples are listed:
membrane-based system as with a cryogenic • Gas plants with nearby pipeline infrastructure
unit, these systems can be modularised and – pipelines are often the cheapest and easiest
scaled to treat only a fuel gas stream for a way to ship out liquefied petroleum gases, and
facility, whether small or large. This makes if all compounds can be sold as a combined
the technology useful for facilities small and natural gas liquid or mixed condensate, then the
large, whether complex refineries or remote avoidance of additional fractionation capacity can
drilling sites. significantly reduce Capex
Membranes work via a principle called • Gas streams with high olefins or branched
selective permeability, with ultimate separation compounds – olefins and branched molecules
being a function of the membrane material, have value, and it is often economical to
solubility of the gas components in that install additional infrastructure to meet local
material, the differential process pressure or international pure compound quality
across the membrane, and the surface area/ specifications. Refineries may also have uses
size of the membrane itself. In Figure 4, a fuel for these molecules in alkylation or other octane
gas slipstream is depicted being sent to the boosting units
membrane system, where a high differential • Chemical complexes – this is one of the few
pressure and selective spiral wound membrane complexes where separating out the ethane
separates impurities, including H2S, CO2, makes sense. There is a market for ethane, but
propane and heavier molecules, from the fuel. it is often most profitable to be used directly via
The pressure drop and membrane surface ethane cracking/chemical value chains. Otherwise,
area can be most easily manipulated to ethane is usually left in the fuel gas stream.
DT$ GLG.indd 88 28/04/2022 15:24:54

Ultimately, the best way is to discuss Conversely, however, organisations should
the different options with the enterprise’s heed their overall scopes 1, 2, and 3 emissions
commercial team before evaluating a potential when considering the carbon impacts of
project in depth. The technology is there as long these enhancements. Although they hold
as the value chain can be established efficiently. clear advantages when considering scope 1
emissions, the impacts on scope 3 emissions
Conclusions and word of caution and overall organisation lifecycle emissions
Given the crucial importance of removing should be known before a final investment
carbon from industrial process heat, especially decision is made on any carbon abatement
from chemical, refinery, and gas processing project. Not all enterprises are closely tracking
operations, overall fuel or off-gas conditioning or limiting Scope 3 emissions at this time.
represents a winning combination of carbon However, in many cases, a reduction in fuel
abatement and improved financial returns. gas carbon intensity results in an increase
Although markets for the associated products in fuel product sales that can raise overall
vary, organisations tracking carbon emissions scope 3 emissions, albeit perhaps still
more closely and employing programmes such lowering carbon emissions intensity of those
as the MACC framework will find employing the products simultaneously. Regardless, LPG and
technologies described above to be attractive hydrocarbon recovery will need to be a strongly
projects moving forward. These types of considered tool for short-term carbon emissions
optimisation efforts are routine in the process that the globe needs to advance rapidly.
industries and, in many cases, have already been
partially scoped at one time when the market VIEW REFERENCES
for certain projects was more favourable. These
projects will likely hold even more promise as Justin Stark
carbon markets and taxes develop globally. jrstark12@gmail.com
Take the road to
Servomex solutions for cleaner industry

Build a better, cleaner world with Servomex gas analysis.
Our expert systems will help enable you to reach your
carbon reduction goals.
Learn more at servomex.com/cleanair
_SER-RET-359_HEDecarbAd-AW.indd 1 05/04/2022 17:01
DT$ GLG.indd 89 28/04/2022 15:24:54

Geothermal sulphur removal
Vent gases from a geothermal power plant have consistently met H2S
emissions specifications for over 25 years
David Jackson Merichem Company

Mark Kolar Coso Operating Company
D
ubbed “the sun beneath our feet”, pressures range from 85-500 psig. Produced
geothermal energy has moved from fluids are moderately saline chloride brines
being a niche player to becoming a viable with total dissolved solids from 7,000-18,000
contender in making 100% clean electricity ppm. Non-condensable gases account for 6%
available to the world. It is a reliable source of the gas fraction, with 98% of that from CO₂.
of power that has a small land footprint Hydrogen sulphide ranges from <10-85 ppm.
compared to other renewable sources and can After the wells are tapped and gathered,
be harnessed at both large and small scales. the steam wells produce electricity from the
The industry is expanding, and its infrastructure renewable geothermal energy source. The
is long-lasting. produced steam passes through a set of turbines/
In the eastern portion of Central California on generators, and the non-condensable vapours
the military-owned Naval Air Weapons Station are separated from the condensed steam (water)
near China Lake, the Coso Geothermal Field, at low pressure. Finally, the brine is reinjected
operated by Coso Operating Company, has into the geothermal field.
been producing geothermal power continuously The non-condensable vapours cannot be
since 1987. It is one of the top three producers vented to the atmosphere until the particles of
of geothermal electrical power in the US. Coso hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) are removed. During
provides power to the southern California power the initial facility start-up, the H₂S-laden vapours
grid and plays an important role in supporting the were reinjected into the geothermal field with
State’s mandated Renewable Portfolio Standard the water. Over time, this H₂S abatement
(RPS). It also supplies approximately 8% of the method became more costly, mostly due to
entire geothermal power in the US. compressor maintenance. In 1993, a Merichem
The Coso generating facility consists of four Lo-Cat unit was installed, the first of three. Post-
separate but interlinked geothermal power start-up, the non-condensable carbon dioxide
plants with nine 30 MW turbine-generator sets (CO2)and H₂S are flashed, compressed, and
for a total of 270 MW of rated capacity, enough routed to the Lo-Cat unit for sulphur removal
power to supply 250,000 homes. Due to the high before being emitted into the atmosphere. The
pressures and temperatures encountered in the Lo-Cat process has been removing H₂S at this
field, which allow the units to operate above their facility for over 25 years and has significantly
initial rated capacity, the net running capacity is reduced sulphur emission exceedances and
higher than the rated capacity at 302 MW. operating costs compared to other technologies
Between 80 and 90 production wells operate previously employed.
at any given time, producing a mass flow The site now has a total of four power
rate of more than 14 million pounds per hour. generation facilities, two of them containing Lo-
Depending on the volume of fluid that needs Cat units: the Navy 1 power plant and Navy 2
to be handled and where pressure support power plant with three Lo-Cat units (see Tables
is required, the Coso field can employ 30-40 1 and 2). There are two Lo-Cat units at the
injection wells. Because of the high-temperature Navy 2 site: Navy 2 and Navy 210. Only Navy
fluids, the power plants utilise double-flash 210 will be discussed here because Navy 2 is
technology for steam extraction. Wellhead operated periodically.
DT4 Merichem - Geothermal Sulfur Removal - COSO Article - Final.indd 90 28/04/2022 15:28:20
Plant Power Year Lo-Cat Currently Plant Raw gas flow Inlet H2S LTPD recovered
name generated (MW) installed operating name rate (LGFR) (vol%) sulphur
Navy 1 75 1993 24/7 Navy 1 3688 1.18 2.4

Navy 2 90 1993 On standby Navy 2 6774 1.55 5.8
Navy 210 90 1996 24/7 Navy 210 6228 3.00 10.0
Table 1 Year built and current status Table 2 Unit design parameters
Lo-Cat process to a filter that separates the sulphur from the

The Lo-Cat process converts H₂S contained in catalyst solution and washes the filter cake. The
the following equation: sulphur is discharged into a sulphur bin while the
clarified solution (i.e., filtrate) is returned to the
H₂S (g) + 1/2 O₂ (g)  H₂O + S0 auto-circulation vessel.
Even with water washing of the sulphur filter
Before entering the Lo-Cat unit, raw feed cake, some catalyst solution exits with the solid
gas passes through an activated carbon bed to sulphur. Makeup catalyst is added to maintain the
absorb mercury and other heavy metals. The solution at optimum concentrations. A surfactant
raw gas then enters the auto-circulation vessel, is also added to help prevent foam and floating
where the H₂S is absorbed into a proprietary Lo- sulphur. Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is added for
Cat catalyst solution. The catalyst is deactivated pH control.
in the absorber section, where H₂S is converted
to elemental sulphur. Subsequently, the catalyst Operations review
is regenerated in the oxidiser section of the same Two key parameters ensure consistent Lo-Cat
auto-circulation vessel. Regeneration is achieved operations as follows: (1) Prevent sulphur from
by contacting the catalyst solution with oxygen settling in undesired locations, and (2) Maintain
contained in air. The air and sweetened gas exit proper solution chemistry. Catalyst makeup and
into the atmosphere as vent gas. The solution chemical addition rates are discussed later.
is circulated between the absorber and oxidiser The main method to prevent undesired
sections via a system of baffles and weirs with sulphur settling is to use ‘air blasts’ placed
density difference as the driving force. strategically throughout the unit in regions of
Elemental sulphur formed via the reaction low flow. Nozzles send bursts of air into these
becomes suspended in the catalyst solution. A areas within the auto-circulation and settler
circulation pump sends a slipstream of solution to vessels, preventing sulphur build-up. When feed
a settler vessel to remove the elemental sulphur gas flows through the unit at the process design
from the process, which allows the sulphur to rate, undesired sulphur settling is less likely
concentrate and form a slurry The slurry is routed to occur.
Vent gas
Catalyst
Settler
vessel Proprietary
Autocirculation vessel Sulphur filter
Raw gas Sulphur cake
(Absorber / Oxidiser) package
Solution
(Circulation)
Air pump
Air blowers Filtrate return line
Figure 1 Simplified flow diagram of the Lo-Cat unit
3 100
December 2000 90
2.5
80
LTPD and inlet H2S, mol%
70
H2S in vent gas, ppm

2
Sulphur production,
60
1.5 50
40
1
30
20
0.5
10
0 0
5
96
01
11
4
l-9
r-9
-0
t-0
-0
l-0
-0
-1
-1
c-
g-
n-
v-
g-
c-
ay
ar
ay
pt
b
Ju
Ju
Ap
Oc
De
De
No
Ja
Au
Au
Fe
Se
M
M
Sulphur production LTPD Inlet gas H2S vol% H2S in vent gas ppm
Poly. (Sulphur production LTPD) Linear (inlet gas H2S vol%) Linear (H2S in vent gas ppm)
Figure 2 Sulphur data for Navy 1 unit
Coso and Merichem have developed special 1.3 vol% (8,000 to 13,000 ppmv) with average
flushing and ‘sparger shuffling’ methods to concentrations close to 1.0 vol%.
prevent sulphur settling when the unit is Navy 1 initially produced sulphur at design
operating at low flow rates. The gas flow is rates of 2.4 LTPD with spikes up to 2.7 LTPD.
routed to selected distributors to maintain the Over time, average sulphur production increased
desired flow patterns. Water is then periodically before declining to the current sulphur production
flushed through these distributors to keep them of 1.25-1.75 LTPD. The reason for sulphur
clean. This ‘shuffling’ is done approximately every production decreasing over time is that water
4-8 hours to each sparger in rotation. condensed from the steam wells (now free of
These specifics allow Coso to consistently sulphur) is injected into the geothermal reservoir.
run both active Lo-Cat units for an entire year This dilutes the sulphur content of the produced
between shutdowns Over the year, the raw steam. The Lo-Cat unit was adapted to turndown
gas back pressure tends to increase. This is conditions via the sparger shuffling procedure
an indicator of sulphur build-up in the auto- mentioned earlier.
circulation vessels. The shutdown and turnaround During the early years of operation, Navy 1
are always completed, even if the unit may not experienced periodic high H₂S in the vent gas.
need it. This prevents unexpected shutdowns These few instances of exceedance were lower
during the year. The annual turnaround takes 2-3 than for other technologies employed to meet
days from gas-off to gas-in. environmental standards before the Lo-Cat unit
The H₂S removal performance of the Navy 1 was installed. One incident occurred in December
and Navy 210 units is summarised in Figures 2 2000 when the vent gas H₂S was reported at
and 3. 90 ppmv. As shown in Figure 4, this happened
Navy 1 was designed for 1.2 vol% H₂S in the because the solution chemistry was out of
feed gas, but experienced highs of 1.4-1.5 vol% balance. All readings above 30 ppmv correlate
during its first five years of operation. Those to rapid changes in the feed gas conditions that
peaks came less often over the last 17 years. The required operator response. Since early in 2001,
inlet H₂S has been consistent between 0.8 and the vent gas H₂S has rarely exceeded 30 ppmv.
10 45
9 40
8 35
LTPD and inlet H2S, mol%
H2S in vent gas, ppm

30
Sulphur production,
6
25
5
20
4
15
3
10
2
1 5
0 0
6
97
02
05
07
08
13
5
-9
-0
l-0
r-0
t-0
-1
l-1
r-1
n-
v-
c-
p-
n-
n-
v-
ar
b
b
Ju
Ju
Ap
Ap
Oc
De
No
No
Ju
Ja
Ju
Fe
Se
Fe
M
Sulphur production LTPD Inlet gas H2S vol% H2S in vent gas ppm
Poly. (Sulphur production LTPD) Linear (inlet gas H2S vol%) Linear (H2S in vent gas ppm)
Figure 3 Sulphur data for Navy 210 unit
Typical performance measures about 15 ppmv, the working catalyst solution within a defined
which maintains the unit within environmental range of alkalinity, catalyst concentration,
permit requirements. and sufficient regeneration. Trending daily
Navy 210 was designed for 3.0 vol% H₂S in solution analysis results helps operations
the feed gas, but H₂S levels have never exceeded keep the solution within an optimum range.
2.8 vol%. Today, inlet H₂S has declined from an However, rapid changes in the inlet gas rate and
average of 2.0 vol% to about 1.0 vol%. composition can cause excursions that could
At start-up, Navy 210 initially produced sulphur result in off-specification treating. Additional
at rates of 4-6 LTPD with spikes up to 7.2 LTPD. solution testing immediately after measurable
Over time, average sulphur production declined inlet gas changes helps operations maintain
to 3-4 LTPD. solution chemistry during the ‘upset’ and
The start-up and operations experience from mitigate any adverse treating effects.
Navy 1 helped the start-up and operation of Merichem recommends detailed monthly
Navy 210. Initially, the H₂S in the vent gas analysis, but Coso decided to send a sample
averaged 15 ppm with occasional spikes ranging to Merichem every two weeks. This generated
from 30-40 ppmv. Since 2007, the vent gas H₂S a large amount of operating data for analysis.
has averaged less than 10 ppm with occasional Merichem’s detailed analyses show that the
spikes up to 20 ppm. Despite these spikes, the proprietary chemicals solution concentrations
treated gas has consistently complied with have stayed relatively stable throughout the
environmental permit requirements. years of operating both Lo-Cat units.
Coso measures the alkalinity and oxidation-
Solution maintenance reduction potential (ORP) of the regenerated Lo-
In general, Lo-Cat units offer robust, consistent Cat solution daily. This ensures the unit operates
performance that meets unit design criteria over reliably because these measurements determine
a wide range of operating conditions, including the chemical addition rates needed to keep the
varying inlet gas flow rates and composition. solution chemistry within the required guidelines.
This performance is possible by maintaining Coso also performs a shake test that measures
how quickly the sulphur particles sink to adjust pH measurement a less responsive indicator of
the rate of surfactant addition. the solution’s H₂S solubility. In addition, raising
ORP measurements indicate whether the the alkalinity is known to reduce the solubility of
catalyst solution is properly regenerated in the CO₂ in the solution.
oxidiser, a key parameter for determining catalyst In December 2000, Navy 1 data (see Figure
activity. As shown in Figures 4 and 5, ORP 4) indicated that solution alkalinity was at an
typically stayed within the optimum operating all-time low. This corresponded to the highest
range. If the catalyst is over regenerated (for treated gas H₂S content of 90 ppm shown in
example, data points above the optimum range), Figure 2. The low alkalinity caused the solubility
chemical usage is higher. Under regenerating of the H₂S in the solution to become so low that
the catalyst (for example, data points below significant amounts of H₂S were measured in the
the optimum range) reduces the active catalyst vent gas.
available for sulphur reaction and may cause off- The alkalinity and ORP in Navy 210 were more
specification treating in the absorber section. It tightly controlled over Navy 1 due to the lessons
appears this was the case early in the operation learned during early operations.
of Navy 1, which may have caused some of the
high H₂S in the vent gas noted in Figure 2. Sulphur product
During the early years of Navy 1 unit The two outputs from the Lo-Cat unit are the
operations, the importance of alkalinity as vent gas (discussed previously) and the sulphur
an operating variable rather than pH was cake. The sulphur cake is approximately 65%
discovered. Where most Lo-Cat units monitor pH sulphur and 35% moisture. Washing the slurry
only, that is not the case when treating streams during the drying process minimises the loss of
with high concentrations of CO₂. chemicals (and operating cost). The elemental
Large amounts of acidic CO₂ in solution reach sulphur produced by the unit is sold to Hondo
equilibrium with the basic Lo-Cat solution and Incorporated in lieu of going to landfill. Hondo
serve as a buffer, stabilising the pH. This makes blends the sulphur with gypsum and sells it as a
ORP Alkalinity
Optimum range
December 2000 Minimum alkalinity

Optimum range
5
96
01
03
10
11
14
l-9
r-9
-9
-0
-0
l-0
-0
-1
c-
n-
t-
v-
g-
c-
p-
ay
ar
ay
g
b
Ju
Ju
Ap
De
De
No
Ja
Oc
Au
Au
Fe
Se
M
M
Figure 4 Solution analyses for Navy 1 unit
ORP Alkalinity
Optimum range
Optimum range
6
97
02
05
07
08
5
-9
-0
l-0
-0
t-0
-1
l-1
r-1
n-
v-
c-
p-
n-
n-
v-
ar
b
b
r
Ju
Ju
Ap
Oc
De
No
No
Ap
Ju
Ja
Ju
Fe
Se
Fe
M
Figure 5 Solution analyses for Navy 210 unit
Major electricity user Navy 1 Navy 210 Operating cost US$/long ton US$/pound
Air blowers (kW) 50 300 Air blowers (kW) 420 0.19

Circulation pump (kW) 20 30 Circulation pump (kW) 93 0.04
Belt filter (kW) 15 20 Belt filter (kW) 130 0.06
Total electricity (kW) 85 350 Major operating cost 643 0.29
Table 3 Electrical demand Table 4 Operating cost per amount of sulphur

removed
soil ‘amendment’. The Coso Lo-Cat sulphur has
recently been certified as meeting the guidelines Conclusion
for use in fertilising organically grown crops. The three Lo-Cat units at the Coso facility have
been and continue to be an economical and
Cost of operation environmentally beneficial solution for more than
The two largest operating cost components 25 years of continuous operation. The data show
of Lo-Cat units are chemicals consumption the units consistently meet H₂S specifications,
and electrical usage. Tables 3 and 4 show the with operating costs in the range of just 29 cents
current operating costs of the two units at the per pound of sulphur removed. Additionally, Navy
Coso facility. 210 achieved significant throughput turndowns
The electrical demand is constant, even with of 25-35% without adverse process effects, with
changing sulphur load. Navy 210 has a larger only minor operational adjustments.
inventory of solution, and therefore requires more
air to regenerate the catalyst.
VIEW REFERENCES
The basis for the values above is a total of 5.6
LTPD: 1.6 produced by Navy 1 and 3.9 from David Jackson
Navy 210. Minor costs include 2-3 hours per day djackson@merichem.com
of operator time to conduct solution testing and
other operator tasks. Operator responsibilities Mark Kolar
include activities for other process units within mkolar@cosoenergy.com
the power plant in addition to the Lo-Cat unit.
Decarbonisation through innovation
effectiveness, technological maturity, and

Chromalox medium voltage established infrastructure. However, many
DirectConnect electrical system consumers are only looking at the upfront costs
associated with leveraging fuel-fired systems
Reduce carbon emissions with a medium and not the long-term economics and carbon
voltage electrical system footprint impact.
The drive to shift from fossil fuel-fired equipment
to alternative forms of energy is a global trend Thermal conversion and operational efficiency
aimed at minimising carbon emissions. Many Burner systems do not convert to heat energy
process heating techniques require temperatures as efficiently as electric heaters that operate well
greater than 1,100ºC (2,000ºF) to perform over 95% efficiency; this is because heat is lost
effectively, while nearly half of industrial through the exhaust. Gas-fired heating systems
process heating (IPH) is used for low to medium are typically oversized for the heat demand duty
temperature processes at or below 400ºC to account for these losses. Start-up, turn-down,
(750ºF) — processes that could easily shift from and shutdown are all processes that take time
oil, natural gas, and coal to electricity. and reduce operational efficiency. In some cases,
facilities will install multiple boilers at reduced
Electric resistance steam generation vs fuel- capacity to compensate for the significant loss
fired steam generation in efficiency at low loads. This is not the case for
Minimising an industrial facility’s carbon footprint electric heating; the silicon-controlled rectifier
means shifting from fuel-fired systems used (SCR) is able to respond to dynamic loads with
to generate electricity and steam to electrically a rapid heat response time and improve overall
powered steam generation, while relying on energy usage and efficiency.
alternative forms of energy to supply electricity.
Gas and oil-based systems are continually System complexity and upkeep
utilised for their apparent abundance, cost- These systems are inherently more complex
Critical
Sustainable manufacturing / materials Direct thermal energy conversion materials,
Flow of materials through industry devices and systems
Combined heat and power systems Wide bandgap semiconductors for

power electronics
Waste heat recovery systems Materials for harsh service conditions
Advanced sensors, controls, platforms Advanced materials manufacturing

and modeling for manufacturing
Process heating Additive manufacturing
Process intensification Composite materials

Roll-to-roll
processing
Figure 1 Process heating is critical for many industrial processes Source: Energy.gov
TECH.indd 96 28/04/2022 15:56:41

than their electric resistance
heating counterparts, opening
more avenues for failures.
Burners require an ideal oxygen
mixture that must be regulated
properly to operate efficiently,
but achieving stoichiometric
combustion is unrealistic such
that excess levels of air must be
introduced to ensure complete
combustion. This excess air is
counter-productive by directing
heat straight to the flue stack.
However, it is a necessary evil
since the exhaust temperature Figure 2 Installation savings Source: Chromalox
must be maintained above dew
points to prevent the formation of corrosive and operational expenditures (Opex) should
mixtures, which can degrade equipment at consider making the switch.
an accelerated rate. Internally, the firetubes
can be coated with soot, resulting in lower Reducing carbon emissions and improved
thermal efficiency. The upkeep for these efficiency with DirectConnect medium
systems is extensive because of the complexity voltage for industrial electrification
of the design – burners, fans, fuel mixtures, Electric resistance heating elements have
exhaust stack temperature, scale build-up, been utilised within the industry for over
and pollution treatment. Where a fuel-fired a century due to their simple but effective
steam boiler or any other fossil fuel-based design methodology. Chromalox has
IPH operates properly with a predictable pioneered the medium voltage DirectConnect
maintenance schedule, the proper inspection electrical system designed for rated voltages
takes weeks with highly experienced up to 7,200 V AC.
technicians and specialised tools. This means Most electric resistance heating elements
production downtime, the most significant cost are low voltage (up to 1,000 VAC), requiring a
to industrial facilities. In cases where there step-down transformer and heavy amperage
are unexpected failures, plant shutdown can cable to operate within an industrial facility.
take even longer, contributing to even more For a plant looking to scale up its electrical
opportunity cost. IPH, it would previously have had to lean on
Electric systems are straightforward by more low voltage equipment, meaning more
design and easily scalable. A resistance wire circuits, conduit, power wiring, and steam
passes the current and generates heat where plumbing. The DirectConnect medium voltage
an insulator and container protect the wire, system eliminates the need for a step-down
and a cold pin and termination allow for power transformer, connecting directly to the site’s
to be passed through the wire. There are no voltage with higher operational efficiency.
parasitic losses as there is no combustion, and There is also far less installation with a lower
highly efficient operation can occur without component count, making this system both
issue. Maintenance includes a blowdown cheaper and more scalable, as shown in
vessel, inspecting electrical connections and Figure 2. This way, larger IPH functions can
ensuring there are no water or steam leaks. also switch over to electric resistance heating
Annual maintenance involves pulling out the to decarbonise.
element to clean – a process that can be done
in a few hours. For maintenance and downtime James Lewis
reasons alone, industrial facilities that want james.lewis@chromalox.com
to minimise their capital expenditures (Capex)
TECH.indd 97 28/04/2022 15:56:42

Honeywell UOP - Carbon Footprint
Reduction of FCC
Decarbonising FCC units through innovation

In a typical fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
based refinery, around 20-30% (IHS Markit,
2021), (Carbon Capture Project, 2013),
(WoodMckenzie, 2021) of the total Scope 1 and
2 emissions originate from the FCC unit. Most of
those emissions, approximately 70%, come from
the flue gas as a result of coke burn operation to
satisfy the unit heat balance and regenerate the Opex, which translates into 10-15 $/tonne
catalyst (UOP, 2021). From a carbon footprint lower cost of captured CO2 compared to prior
reduction perspective, this presents an excellent generation solvents (UOP, 2022). It is a ready-
opportunity for refiners to significantly reduce now technology that has been extensively
their footprint by doing carbon capture on a tested and validated at the US National Carbon
single point source. The remaining emissions Capture Center. ASCC can be integrated with
come from utility requirements, which can be existing FCCs or included as part of a new
significantly reduced via intelligent process and FCC unit.
equipment design tailored towards increased The approximately 30% residual Scope 1 and
energy efficiency, optimised heat integration, 2 emissions from the FCC can be addressed
and minimised hydraulic requirements. by enhancing the energy efficiency of the unit
A key enabler for market adoption of CO2 (UOP, 2021). Some examples for achieving
capture on FCC flue gas will be a differentiated this include the installation of proprietary
technology that provides the lowest cost of equipment and increasing both the degree
CO2 capture. Financial incentives like the EU of heat integration and energy recovery via
Emissions Trading System, 45Q US federal the implementation of high-efficiency column
tax credits and state-level incentives such as internals and heat exchangers. Further energy
California’s Low Carbon Fuel Standard boost optimisation can be achieved by installing power
the bankability of these projects. However, a recovery turbines and dividing wall columns.
state-of-the-art, low Capex, and ready now A key advantage apart from carbon footprint
technology solution is still required to make reduction of these solutions will be improved
these projects bankable. unit profitability as a result of reduced utility
To address this challenge, Honeywell UOP, requirements, which will be especially impactful
in collaboration with the University of Texas, is in regions with higher utility costs. For all these
offering the Advanced Solvent Carbon Capture spaces, Honeywell UOP has offerings that are
technology (ASCC), which uses a combination ready now and have been commercialised to a
of a proprietary solvent, high-efficiency column large extent.
internals, and a novel heat exchanger system By leveraging its extensive design, service,
resulting in several features: and innovation experience in FCC and the oil
• The ability to regenerate the solvent using and gas industry, Honeywell UOP can provide
low-level heat (LP steam rather than MP) FCC operators with a portfolio of solutions and
• High mass transfer solvent that enables a roadmap for decarbonising both the FCC unit
higher pressure stripper operation for greater and the refinery as a whole to most effectively
solvent stability and lower consumption address the energy transition.
• High mass transfer stripper internals that
enable faster regeneration in a smaller column VIEW REFERENCES
• Optimised heat integration via a novel heat
exchanger system Jan De Ren
These features result in reduced Capex and Jan.DeRen@Honeywell.com
TECH.indd 98 28/04/2022 15:56:42

AMETEK Thermox WDG-V
flue gas analyser
Safe, optimised combustion with three

critical measurements in one analyser
The AMETEK Thermox WDG-V is a combustion
flue gas analyser designed to measure excess
oxygen (O2), combustibles (CO+H2), and
hydrocarbons (CH4+) in fired heaters, boilers,
thermal oxidisers, and other combustion
processes. Designed for safety and reliability,
the WDG-V provides an additional layer of
safety in burner management systems and
safety systems with a SIL-2 capable excess
oxygen measurement. Operators choose the
WDG-V to ensure fast, safe, and efficient
control of their combustion processes, even measurement, by itself, offers an operational
when using high hydrogen fuels. setpoint for the air-fuel ratio. However, the
Providing the operational air-fuel setpoint for combustibles measurement provides context
the burner, the WDG-V leverages the highly to lower the excess oxygen setpoint to a safe
reliable zirconium oxide technology to make yet more optimal point. At this optimised
the critical excess oxygen measurement. Unlike oxygen setpoint, less fuel is needed from the
the ‘total oxygen’ concentration, the excess burner, and as a result, fewer carbon emissions
oxygen measurement represents the oxygen are generated. The WDG-V provides both
concentration after all combustible compounds measurements in one sensor to ensure safety,
in the stream are consumed, correlating directly energy efficiency, and optimised combustion.
with the ratio of air to fuel in the burner. Most In addition to the combustibles detector,
fired equipment is operated with a slight excess a methane/hydrocarbons detector can be
of oxygen in the flue gas, and plant operators included as a third measurement to the
use the excess oxygen measurement as an WDG-V. Unlike the ppm measurements of
important setpoint for safe combustion control. the combustibles detector, the methane/
For process safety, fuel efficiency, and hydrocarbons detector provides per cent
emission reduction, a combustibles detector level measurements of hydrocarbons, and it
can be added as a secondary measurement operates hot enough to crack and measure
to the WDG-V. By measuring the ppm methane as well. With its catalytic elements,
levels of partially combusted emissions this third detector can also measure per cent
or ‘combustibles’ within the flue gas, the levels of hydrogen if end users are using pure
combustibles measurement offers a means hydrogen or high hydrogen fuels. This detector
to monitor and alert the onset of incomplete is especially useful in the event of major fuel
combustion during normal operation. High leaks or loss of flame during start-up and
combustibles levels can cause potentially normal operation, as the combustibles detector
unsafe conditions and signal insufficient air at does not operate hot enough to monitor for
the burner. The combustibles detector provides methane or other small, unburnt hydrocarbons.
a tangible safeguard in a single measurement Ultimately, through these three measurements
and greater process visibility. in one unit, the WDG-V empowers end
In addition to monitoring for safety, the users with full visibility of the health and
Le
combustibles detector can also unlock a safe operation of their combustion process.
mechanism for fuel efficiency and emission
reduction when monitored together with the www.ametekpi.com
excess oxygen reading. The excess oxygen sales.pit-pa@ametek.com
TECH.indd 99 28/04/2022 15:56:43

Taking this to the next level, companies
Sulzer Chemtech MellapakCC committed to larger investments can go carbon
structured packing neutral by building post-combustion carbon
capture facilities, which are able to prevent up
Decarbonisation is a leading opportunity to to 90% of produced CO2 from entering the
drive oil plant competitiveness atmosphere. These units remove CO2 from flue
It is well established that changing customer gases by leveraging chemical separation methods,
and production requirements led by a focus thus the same considerations on mass transfer
on achieving a net-zero future are shaping the components apply here.
oil sector. By leveraging advanced separation To deliver optimum performance in these
technologies, companies can turn this into an columns, Sulzer Chemtech has developed
opportunity and adapt their existing equipment to MellapakCC structured packing, which was
future-proof operations, improve environmental designed specifically for carbon capture
footprints, and create new revenue streams. applications (Sulzer, 2022). More precisely, this
Understanding the benefits of the available cost-effective technology increases efficiency by
solutions and which ones are most suitable are 20% compared to conventional structured packing.
key steps to thriving in an evolving market.
The decarbonisation of hydrocarbon processing Adapting oil processing operations
plants should not be seen solely as a requirement Oil processors can also modify their existing
that is expected to meet net-zero targets. In facilities to process more sustainable feedstocks
fact, there are multiple options for emissions effectively. Advanced separation solutions can
reductions that offer key opportunities to advance help plants process more economical alternatives
and intensify existing processes. to crudes as well as renewable, plant-based
oils or upcycle waste materials, which typically
Cutting energy use and emissions feature higher concentrations of impurities and
With separation activities being among the harsh chemicals.
most energy intensive, oil facilities should first In addition to handling new input materials,
look at how to improve them in order to cut advanced separation solutions can help
their environmental footprint. Perhaps the most hydrocarbon processing facilities deliver highly
intuitive step that can be taken is increasing the profitable petrochemicals, making the entire
efficiency of these processes, which can be easily downstream sector more sustainable. For example,
achieved by leveraging the latest generation of pyrolysis gasoline (pygas), a byproduct from steam
mass transfer components within columns. crackers, can be used to extract styrene monomers
For example, the replacement of third- from renewable resources.
generation structured packing with fourth- All these enhancements drive eco-friendly
generation alternatives, such as Sulzer practices while developing flexible operations,
Chemtech’s MellapakPlus, can maintain leading to quick returns on investment (ROI).
the same energy consumption rates while Even more, they often require limited, economical
increasing capacity by 30-50% within existing adjustments to existing separation columns,
manufacturing footprints (Moser & Kessler, 2000). maximising profitability.
Similarly, the upgrade from third-generation Thanks to its extensive expertise in cutting-
random packing to fourth-generation rings, such edge mass transfer applications, Sulzer Chemtech
as Sulzer Chemtech’s NeXRing, can expand is helping refineries worldwide convert their
column capacity by 10% without increasing existing facilities and upgrade them with
energy usage (Ausner, et al., 2018). custom processing equipment to drive up their
When these most recent solutions are used sustainability and competitiveness.
to replace even older equipment, plants benefit
from much greater improvements. Ultimately, VIEW REFERENCES
with limited capital expenditure, even already
energy-efficient plants can achieve more while Uwe Boltersdorf
enhancing their throughput. dorota.zoldosova@sulzer.com
TECH.indd 100 28/04/2022 15:56:43

They are going!
ERGY
• AT L A S COPCO • EN
• PETROBRA
S SOL
C O N C A W E G IE S V E N T URES • REP
INDE • TALENER NCRETE
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• GLO B A A T T T O B A T) •
SHELL • BP • T N O • JOHNSON M E E N E R G Y • GCCA (GL O GY (M A IR E TECNIMON
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• HIVE ENER A D ID A R C H ITECTS • DE
• ZAHA H
CHRYSALIX
Join these and more leading organisations to

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technology experts developing solutions for all.
Our audience draws experts from: Industry

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Watch Miguel A. Calderón, Carbon Watch Maurits van Tol, CTO,

Jim Heverin Syrie Crouch Concetto Fischetti Chris Manson

Our team is here for you

Christina Wood, Event Development Director

Are you looking for a discount?

decarb con dps.indd 3 28/04/2022 16:23:22

Through an extensive technology,

technip.indd 1 27/10/2021 13:49:53

What is your Decarbonisation SCORE?

CORALIS: industrial symbiosis in energy-intensive industries

21 Decarbonisation transformation of Shell’s Pernis refinery

Value of investment, partnerships and policy in growing CCS market

IN FOCUS Delivering the Global Methane Pledge

Hydrogen pathways for a clean energy future

Distributed hydrogen hubs

Economic viability of biomass to liquid via Fisher-Tropsch

All roads leading to sustainable aviation fuel

Carbon capture application to ethylene plants

Repurposing existing process units to reduce CO2 emissions

Fuel gas hydrocarbon recovery as carbon abatement strategy

Geothermal sulphur removal

contents and intro.indd 3 29/04/2022 12:32:21

Learn more at catalysts.shell.com/decarbonisation

shell.indd 1 04/02/2022 13:42:05

contents and intro.indd 5 29/04/2022 17:52:15

Our Thermox® WDG-V combustion analyzer is field-serviceable and monitors

Learn more about optimized combustion by watching our

© 2021, all rights reserved by AMETEK, Inc.

ametek.indd 1 04/02/2022 13:36:59

DT4 Wood.indd 7 28/04/2022 11:23:16

Objectives/ Baseline Target Cost Economic Decarbonisation Implement

Policy impacts Insight / advisory (recycle)

Figure 1 Wood’s Decarbonisation SCORE methodology

DT4 Wood.indd 8 28/04/2022 11:23:16

DT4 Wood.indd 9 28/04/2022 11:23:16

DT4 Wood.indd 10 28/04/2022 11:23:16

Learn more at www.atlascopco-gap.com

atlas.indd 1 28/04/2022 16:04:59

DT4 Wood.indd 12 29/04/2022 17:21:42

Driver = Marine Fuel Usage 0.0M

Cutter Suction Dredger

Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger Marine

Figure 3 Screenshot of the Carbon Column toolkit

DT4 Wood.indd 13 29/04/2022 17:21:58

crystaphase.indd 1 04/02/2022 13:39:18

Danai Antonaki White Research

CORALIS - Industrial Symbiosis in Energy Intensive Industries.indd 15 28/04/2022 12:48:10

NISP UK Z.E.P. Kaiserslautern

Essenscia Brussels Lagny-sur-Marne Green Tech

Figure 1 Main EU hotspots for exploiting IS in Europe (Domenech et al., 2019)

many industries have been reducing their

CORALIS - Industrial Symbiosis in Energy Intensive Industries.indd 16 28/04/2022 12:48:10

Technological Symbiotic value chain demonstration

Key enabling technologies for IS

9 Decarbonisation of industrial parks

Circular economy principles at industrial level

Process redesign for adaptation to IS

4 Business models and distribution of benefits

Contractual issues (IS facilitator figure)

Awareness creation among stakeholders

Figure 2 CORALIS project concept and approach