Herbivores: Ungulates

Marek Metslaid
October 4, 2021 Tartu
Course: Forest Disturbance Dynamics
How many mammalian species are there in Estonia?

• A.W. Hupel/J.B. Fisher (1777): 33

• K. Greve (1908): Estonia 42 and Livonia 57

• J. Aul, H. Ling, K. Paaver (1957): 59

• Today: at least 63
•
•
1. Selts Insectivora Putuktoidulised
1. Sugukond Erinaceidae Siillased
Estonian
Eesti mammals
imetajad
• 1. Erinaceus europeus Harilik siil
• 2. Erinaceus concolor Kaelussiil
• 2. Sugukond Talpidae Mutlased
• 3. Talpa europea Mutt
• 3. Sugukond Soricidae Karihiirlased
• 4. Sorex araneus Mets-karihiir
• 5. Sorex minutus Väike karihiir
• 6. Sorex minutissimus Kääbuskarihiir
• 7. Sorex caecutiens Laane-karihiir
• 8. Neomys fodiens Vesimutt
• 2. Selts Chiroptera Käsitiivalised
• 4. Sugukond Vespertilionidae Nahkhiirlased
• 9. – 19. 11 liiki
• 3. Selts Rodentia Närilised
• 5. Sugukond Pteromyidae Lendoravlased
• 20. Pteromys volans Lendorav
• 6. Sugukond Sciuridae Oravlased
• 21. Sciurus vulgaris Orav
• 7. Sugukond Castoridae Kobraslased
• 22. Castor fiber Kobras*
• 8. Sugukond Myoxidae Unilased
• 23. Muscardinus avellanarius Pähklinäpp
• 24. Eliomy quercinus Lagrits
• 25. Glis glis Kunel
• 9. Sugukond Zapodidae Hüppurlased
• 26. Sicista betulina Kasetriibik
• 10. Sugukond Muridae Hiirlased
• 27. Rattus norvegicus Rändrott
• 28. Rattus rattus Kodurott
• 29. Mus musculus Koduhiir
• 30. Apodemus agrarius Juttselg-hiir
• 31. Apodemus sylvaticus Metshiir
• 32. Apodemus flavicollis Kaelushiir
• 33. Micromys minutus Pisihiir
• 11. Sugukond Cricetidae Hamsterlased
• 34. Ondatra zibethicus Ondatra*
• 35. Arvicola terrestris Mügri
• 36. Clethrionomys clareolus Leethiir
• 37. Microtus arvalis Põld-uruhiir
• 38. Microtus agrestris .Niidu-uruhiir
• 39. Microtus subterraneus Võsa-uruhiir
 Estonian mammals
Eesti imetajad
• 4. Selts Lagomorpha Jäneselised
• 12. Sugukond Leporidae Jäneslased
• 40. Lepus timidus Valgejänes
• 41. Lepus europeus Halljänes
• 5. Selts Fissipedia Kiskjalised
• 13. Sugukond Mustelidae Kärplased
• 42. Martes martes Metsnugis
• 43. Martes foina Kivinugis
• 44. Mustela putorius Tuhkur
• 45 Mustela lutreola Naarits
• 46. Mustela vison Mink*
• 47. Mustela erminea Kärp
• 48. Mustela nivalis Nirk
• 49. Meles meles Mäger
• 50. Gulo gulo Ahm
• 51. Lutra lutra Saarmas
• 14. Sugukond. Ursidae Karulased
• 52. Ursus arctos Pruunkaru
• 15. Sugukond Canidae Koerlased
• 53. Canis lupus Hunt
• 54. Vulpes vulpes Rebane
• 55. Nyctereutes procyonoides Kährikkoer*
• 16. Sugukond Felidae Kaslased
• 56. Felis lynx Ilves
• 6. Selts Pinnipedia Loivalised
• 17. Sugukond Phocidae Hülglased
• 57. Halichghoerus grypus Hallhüljes
• 58. Phoca hispida Viigerhüljes
• 7. Selts Cetacea Vaalalised
• 18. Sugukond Delphinidae Delfiinlased
• 59.Phocaena phocaena Pringel
• 8. Selts Artiodactyla Sõralised
• 19. Sugukond Suidae Sigalased
• 60. Sus scrofa Metssiga
• 20. Sugukond Cervidae Hirvlased
• 61.Alces alces Põder
• 62. Cervus elaphus Punahirv*
• 63.Capreolus capreolus Metskits
 Ungulates

• Ungulates (Artiodactyla)

• Pigs (Suidae) Deer (Cervidae)

• Pig (Sus) Moose (Alces) Roe deer (Capreolus) Red deer (Cervus)

• Wild boar (S. scrofa) Moose (A. alces) European roe deer (C. Capreolus) Red deer (C. elaphus)
Moose (Alces alces)
Photo: T. Randveer
 Moose abundance and hunting

25000
14000
loendus
tõenäoline 12000
20000
küttimine 10000

8000
15000
6000

10000 4000

2000
5000 0
2015 2016 2017 2018

0 Abundance Hunting
1947 1957 1967 1977 1987 1997 2007

SOURCE: Status of Game populations in Estonia

Green diamond - probable (calculated) abundance and proposal for hunting in 2018
Black diamond - official counting (based on hunters opinion)
Red diamond – hunting
Moose attacked by wolf (Photo: H. Põldsam)
Moose in the swamp (photo: L. Saks)
Photo: T. Randveer
Photo: T. Randveer
Photo: T. Randveer
Photo: T. Randveer
Moose damages in young pine stand (Photo: T. Vahter)
Fenced exclosure (Photo: T. Randveer)
Moose damages in young pine stand (Photos: M. Metslaid)
Moose damages in young pine stand (Photos: M. Metslaid)
Moose damages in spruce stand (Photo: T. Randveer)
Stripped aspen trees by moose (Photo: T. Randveer)
Stripped ash trees by moose (Photo: T. Randveer)
Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) (photo: T. Randveer)
 Roe deer abundance and hunting

160000 140000
140000 120000
100000
120000 80000
100000 60000
40000
80000 20000
0
60000
2015 2016 2017 2018
40000 Abundance Hunting
20000
0 SOURCE: Status of Game populations in Estonia
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 and proposal for hunting in 2018

Light blue triangle - hunting

Dark blue square - official counting (based on hunters opinion)
Red diamond – probable (calculated) abundance
Roe deer damages on spruce seedling (Photo: T. Vahter)
Red deer (Cervus elaphus) (photo: E. Niittee)
 Red deer abundance and hunting

3500 4000

3000 3500
3000
2500
2500
2000
2000
1500 1500

1000 1000
500
500
0
0 2015 2016 2017 2018
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Abundance Hunting

SOURCE: Status of Game populations in Estonia

Dark blue diamond – abundance and proposal for hunting in 2018
Light blue square - hunting
Red deer population dynamics
Red deer damages (Photo: T. Randveer)
Wild boar (Sus scrofa) (photo: T. Randveer)
 Wild boar abundance and hunting

Wild boar

25000 35000
30000
20000 25000
20000
15000 15000
number

counted
10000
culled
10000 5000
0
5000 2015 2016 2017 2018

Abundance Hunting
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 SOURCE: Status of Game populations in Estonia
year and proposal for hunting in 2018
Reference: Apollonio, M., Andersen, R. & Putman, R. 2010:
European Ungulates and TheirManagement in the 21stCentury.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 618 pp.
Ungulate species in the Baltics

• Four species of ungulates in the Baltics:

moose, red deer, roe deer and wild boar
• European bison
• Aurochs (Bos primigenius)
• Wild horses (Equus gmelini sylvaticus)
Moose

• Moose has always been present in the Baltics

(since last glaciation 8 - 10 000 years ago)
• In 1920, there were estimated to be only 25 moose
in Lithuania; in 1924 only 24 moose in Estonia and
< 100 moose in Latvia
• By the 1970s-80s there were about 20 000 moose in
both Estonia & Latvia and 9900 moose in Lithuania
• Moose density: in average from 1.7 ind./1000 ha of
forest in Lithuania to ca. 5 ind./1000 ha in Estonia
Moose

• Hunting is the main cause of moose mortality in the

Baltics
• Summer mortality of calves is about 30 – 40%
• Human-caused accidents and wounding due to missed
shots accounts to two thirds of mortality
• Poaching decreased to around 2%
• Predation and undefined causes constituted one-fifth
of motality in Estonia
Red deer
• Became extinct:
- in Latvia by the 10th century
- in Estonia even earlier
- in Lithuania in the middle of 19th century
• The present Baltic red deer population:
- fully reintroduced
- genetic origin not always known
- brought from different countries (Germany, Poland, Russia)
Red deer

• In Estonia the populations mainly on Saaremaa (ca.

800 ind.) and Hiiumaa islands (ca.500 ind.), and in
south Estonia (ca. 200 ind.)
• On islands the maximum density up to 20 ind./1000 ha
• In Lääne-Viru county in small population with about
40 red deer. all over Estonia.
• The average density of red deer in Lithuania was 6.5
ind./ 1000 ha of forest in 2001 (maximum of 21.4 -
22.9 in two northern districts) and 7.2 ind./ 1000 ha of
forest in 2004.
Roe deer

• In the 17th to 18th centuries the species retreated to the

south, disappeared from Estonia and Latvia and the
density decreased in Lithuania
• A significant increase in wolf numbers at that time may
have facilitated the temporary extinction of the species
• Natural repopulation started in the 19th century
• The severity of winter conditions is one of the crucial
factors to roe deer
Roe deer

• The density of the population is highest in less

forested regions. Densities higher in smaller forest
patches (100 500ha)
• Agricultural landscapes, hedgerows, gardens, etc.
• The average roe deer density in Lithuania was 34.7
(10 - 88.6) ind./l000ha of forest in 2001, and decreased
to 30 ind./1000 ha by 2004
• Roe deer density in the fields may reach 5 - 15
ind./1000 ha
Wild boar

• Around the 17th to 19th centuries specics distribution

range retreated to the south, due to the climate cooling,
high numbers of wolves, and possibly over hunting
• By the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th
century wild boar started to disperse northwards again,
reached Estonia in the 1930s
• After the cold winters of 1939 - 40 wild boar
disappeared again until the end of the 1940s
• In the 1960s the first wild boar reached the islands of
Estonia, where is the highest density today
Wild boar

• In 2001 the average wild boar density in Lithuania was

11.7 (3.4 - 25.6) ind./ 1000 ha of forest
European bison

• Prefers sparse mixed and deciduous forests with

abundant undergrowth, meadows and open areas
glades, and forest edges are important habitats
• ln the anthropogenous landscape bison are used to
open areas, including agricultural fields where they
find food easily
• Mosaic landscape is preferred in winter, giving easy
access to meadows, fields and small forest patches
European bison
Hunting
Hunting
Hunting
Hunting
Hunting
Damages (moose and red deer)
• Moose and red deer in the areas of high local densities
cause damage to forest plantations
• In mixed spruce deciduous stands moose can completely
destroy aspen, oak and ash saplings
• Red deer can cause a high level of damage by stripping
spruce bark in young plantations during winter
• Moose tend to damage pine plantations by breaking the
tops of young trees
• Red deer can cause lots of darnage to ash and browse
heavily on young deciduous shoots
Damages (moose)

• High moose density in the 1970s-80s resulted in

significant damages to pine plantations and to middle-
aged spruce forests was in Estonia and Latvia
• The biggest economic impact of moose-caused
damage is the damage to pine plantations and middle
aged spruce forests
Damages (moose)

• The solution is to keep the density of the moose

population at a lower level
• Fencing and the use of repellent chemicals are not
widely practiced in the Baltics
• Using salt licks can help the problem to some extent
• Natural regeneraion in clear-cuts can help to reduce
the damage
Damages (red deer)

• In Lithuania, red deer cause damage to agriculture

(target rye. wheats, oats, corn, white beets and potato
fields, and clover is preferred in improved meadows)
• ln Estonia, the red deer density is very low and no
significant damage is done to forestry or agriculture
• ln Latvia, red deer cause less damage than moose and
roe deer
Damages (roe deer)

• Roe deer usually do not cause significant damage to

forestry or agriculture
• ln deciduous stands their selective browsing on
saplings of oak, ash and maple can decrease their
value and make them unsuitable for timber production
• In young pine and spruce plantations they browse on
leader shoots of young trees
• By targeting broadleaved species, roe deer may
encourage re-growth of such species as birch and alder
Damages (wild boar)
• Wild boar can cause significant damage to agriculture,
raiding potato fields and other crops (oats, wheat, corn, peas
and white sugar beets)
• The extent of the damage is directly related to the density of
wild boar
• The damage is aggravated by trampling
• In protected areas wild boar can destroy orchids and their
habitats, and can cause damage to ground-nesting
• Wild boar can also damage oak monocultures and uproot
other forest stands
Damages (wild boar)

• In Lithuania, wild boar up root ca. 0.4% pure pine

stands, 2.9% mixed stands, 0.9% mixed spruce-
deciduous stands, and 2.4% deciduons stands every
year
• Wild boar digging activity is favourable for
diversifying forest stands and increasing small scale
biodiversity
Damages (bison)

• Bison damage to forest stands is concentrated in the

limited wintering area where bison feed on branches
and peel bark from trees
• In other forest areas damage is not significant
compared to that by red deer or moose
Thank you for your attention!