MONTFORT SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL ( CBSE ) Certificate This is to certify that , the original and genuine investigation work has been carried out to investigate about the subject matter and the related data collection and investigation has been completed solely , sincerely and satisfactorily by VELUMANI .M, of GRADE XII, MONTFORT SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL ( CBSE ), regarding the project titled " PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT " DATE: PRINCIPAL INTERNAL EXAMINAR EXTERNAL EXAMINARACKNOWLEDGEMENT We express our sincere thanks to our beloved Principal Rev. Bro. Alexander , and the institute MONTFORT SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL (CBSE) for guiding us to cause the successful outcome of this project work . We wish to express our deep and profound sense of gratitude to our guide teacher Mrs. SASIKALA , PGT ( BIOLOGY) for her expert help and valuable guidance , comments and suggestions . We also place on record our sincere gratitude to one and all who directly or indirectly have lent their helping hand in this venture.INDEX S.no Content Pg. no. 1) Introduction 01 2) Pre-embryonic and Embryonic Development e Fertilisation e Cleavage and blastulation e Implantation and placentation e Extra-Embryonic membranes e Formation of the three primary germ layers e Growth and differentiation e Embryonic acquisition of external for 02 3) Fetal Development 4) Development of organism e Eco-friendly derivatives e@ Mesodermal derivatives e Endodermal derivatives 13 5) Abnormal development e Multiple births Fetal deviations e Teratology 20 6) Conclusion 22 72) BibliographyPRENATAL DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION Prenatal development, also called antenatal development, in humans, the process encompassing the period from the formation of an embryo, through the development of a fetus, to birth (or parturitioneed by the union of a male and female gamete (or sex cell). This union marks the beginning of the prenatal period, which in humans encompasses three distinct stages: the pre-embryonic stage, the first two weeks of development, which is a period of cell division and initial differentiation (cell maturation), the embryonic period, or period of organogenesis, which lasts from the third to the eighth week of development, and the fetal period, which is characterized by the maturation of tissues and organs and rapid growth of the body. The prenatal period ends with parturition and is followed by a long postnatal period. Only at about age 25 years are the last progressive changes completed. PRE - EMBRYONIC AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT : Much of the embryonic developmental machinery (the cellular apparatus) used in human development is similar to that used by other vertebrates as well as some invertebrates. The machinery is essential for four processes: cell proliferation, cell specialization, cell interaction, and cell movement. During these processes, the approximately 20,000- 25,000 genes in the human genome give rise to as many as 100,000 different proteins, which give the conceptus form and substance. = Fertilization - The development and liberation of the male and female gametes are steps preparatory to their union through the process of fertilization. Active movements first bring some spermatozoa into contact with follicle cells adhering to the secondary oocyte (immature egg), which still lies high in the uterine tube. The sperm then propel themselves. past the follicle cells and attach to the surface of the gelatinous zona pellucida enclosing the oocyte. Some sperm heads successfully penetrate this capsule by means of an enzyme they secrete, hyaluronidase, but only one sperm makes contact with the cell membrane and cytoplasm of the oocyte and proceeds further.This is because the invading sperm head releases a substance that initiates surface changes in the oocyte that render its membrane impermeable to other spermatozoa The successful sperm is engulfed by a conical protrusion of the oocyte cytoplasm and is drawn inward. Once within the periphery of the oocyte, the sperm advances toward the centre of the cytoplasm; the head swells and converts into a typical nucleus, now called the male pronucleus, and the tail detaches. It is during the progress of these events that the oocyte initiates its final maturation division. Following the separation of the second polar body (one or two polar bodies are produced during division), the oocyte nucleus typically reconstitutes and is then called the female pronucleus of the ripe egg. It is now ready to unite with its male counterpart and thereby consummate the total events of fertilization The two pronuclei next approach, meet midway in the egg cytoplasm, and lose their nuclear membranes. Each resolves its diffuse chromatin material into a complete single set of 23 chromosomes. Cleavage of ovum Oo @ © © "zona peltucida~ morula Blastocyst development uterine cavity inner cell mass (endoderm) invading cells lining of (endoderm) 9 trophoblast iaerae free blastocyst attached blastocyst (© 2012 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ine. Each chromosome is composed of two chromatids held together by a centromere. During mitosis (ordinary cell proliferation by division), the centromeres attach to a bundle of microtubules known as the mitotic spindle, which is formed by centrioles (cylindrical cell structures). This climax in the events of fertilization creates a joint product known as the zygote, which contains all the factors essential for the development of a new individual. * The fundamental results of fertilization are the following: (1) reassociation of a male and female set of chromosomes, thus restoring the full number and providing the basis for biparental inheritance and for variation) (2) establishment of the mechanism of sex determination for the new individual (this depending on whether the male set of chromosomes included the X or the Y chromosome) (3) activation of the zygote, initiating further development.= Cleavage and Blastulation - Through the process of mitosis, the relatively enormous zygote directly subdivides into many smaller cells of conventional size, suitable as early building units for the future organism. This process is called cleavage and the resulting cells are blastomeres. The tendency for the progressive increase in cell numbers to follow a doubling sequence is soon disturbed and then lost. Each blastomere receives the full complement of paternal and maternal chromosomes. Subdivision of the zygote into blastomeres begins while it is still high in the uterine tube. The cohering blastomeres are transported downward chiefly, at least, by muscular contractions of the tubal wall. Such transport is relatively rapid until the lower end of the tube is reached, and here cleavage continues for about two days before the multicellular cluster is expelled into the uterus. The full reason for this delay is not clear, but it serves to retain the cleaving blastomeres until the uterine lining is suitably prepared to receive its prospective guest. Since the human egg contains little inert yolk material and since this is distributed rather evenly throughout the cytoplasm, the daughter cells of each mitosis are practically equal in size and composition. This type of cleavage is known as total, equal cleavage. The sticky blastomeres adhere, and the cluster is still retained for a time within the gelatinous capsule —the zona pellucida—that had enclosed the growing and ovulated oocyte. There is no growth in the rapidly dividing blastomeres, so that the total mass of living substance does not increase during the cleavage period .By the fourth day after fertilization, a cluster of about 12 blastomeres passes from the uterine tube into the uterus. At this stage the cluster is called a morula. By the time some 30 blastomeres have been produced, pools of clear fluid accumulate between some of the internal cells, and these spaces soon coalesce into a common subcentral cavity. The resulting hollow cellular ball is a blastula of a particular type that occurs in mammals and is called a blastocyst; its cavity is the blastocoel.An internal cellular cluster, eccentric in position and now named the inner cell mass, will develop into the embryo. The external capsule of smaller cells, enveloping the segregated internal cluster, constitutes the trophoblast. It will contribute to the formation of a placenta and fetal membranes. During its stay within the uterine cavity, the blastocyst loses its gelatinous capsule, imbibes fluid, and expands to a diameter of 0.2 mm (0.008 inch); this is nearly twice the diameter of the zygote at the start of cleavage. Probably several hundred blastomeres have formed before the blastocyst attaches to the uterine lining. = Implantation and Placentation - Six to 10 days after fertilization, the naked sticky blastocyst comes into contact with the uterine lining and adheres to it. The site of attachment is variable and not predetermined. The uterine lining has already been preparing, under the influence of ovarian hormones, for the reception of the blastocyst. Among these preparations has been the elaboration and expulsion, by the uterine glands, of a secretion that serves as nourishment for the blastocyst, both when itis free and during its implantation. (a)implantation : The trophoblast of the blastocyst exerts an enzymic, destructive influence on the swollen uterine lining, leading to erosion of both the superficial epithelium of the uterine lining and also its deeper connective tissue. This early stage of invasion ends in a few days. The blastocyst is then completely buried within a more superficial and compact layer of the total uterine lining. While the blastocyst is completing this phase of implantation, its original shell of cellular trophoblast steadily proliferates a multitude of cells that lose their outermost membranes and merge. The result is a thick peripheral layer consisting of a common mass of cytoplasm in which many nuclei are embedded. This external investment is called syncytial trophoblast.The implanted blastocyst next proceeds to establish itself as dependent upon the uterus. The syncytial trophoblast becomes a spongy shell containing irregular cavities. This expanding mass destroys connective tissue and glands encountered in its path. Both the cellular and derivative syncytial trophoblast have the capacity of destroying such tissue. The erosive process also taps uterine capillaries connected to spiral arteries; blood liberated from the capillaries is taken up into the trophoblastic lacunae. The spiral arteries are then invaded by the trophoblast and increase in diameter; they are now known as uteroplacental arteries and are no longer under maternal vasomotor control. This conversion process ensures that an adequate volume of blood reaches the implanted embryo. (Altered uteroplacental blood flow is a core predictor of abnormal pregnancy and intrauterine growth restriction.) Erosive activities decline in intensity by the end of the third week of development, and at this time the sac is completing the first phase of its specialization Occasionally a fertilized egg fails to reach the uterus, implanting and beginning to develop elsewhere. This outcome is called an ectopic, or extrauterine, pregnancy.(b)Placentation : The irregular strands of invasive syncytial trophoblast constitute a first stage in the formation of true villi, which form part of the placenta . Primitive connective tissue soon lines the interior of the blastocyst wall, and this complex of trophoblast and connective tissue is then named the chorion. Connective tissue promptly grows into the trophoblastic strands, and blood vessels develop in the tissue.The result is the production of many chorionic villi, each resembling a tiny, branching bush .|n fourth week of development, the essential arrangements that make possible of physiological exchanges between mother and fetus that characterize the remainder of pregnancy. The deepest embedded portion of the chorionic wall becomes the so-called chorionic plate of the developing placenta. From the plate the main stems of chorionic villi which give off progressively subdividing branches. In general, the side branches are free, whereas apical ones tend to attach to the maternal tissue and serve as anchors. The villous trees occupy a labyrinthine space between the villi that was created by erosion of the uterine lining. Trophoblast not only covers the chorionic plate and its villi but also spreads like a carpet over the eroded surface of the maternal tissue.Tapped uterine arteries open into the trophoblast-lined intervillous space, their blood bathing the branches and twigs of the villous trees. This blood drains from the intervillous space through similarly tapped veins. Arterial blood of the embryo, and later fetus, passes through vessels of the umbilical cord to the chorionic plate. Development of amnion and human embryo 23 days 21 days (back view) 23 days amnion body stalk yolk aii edge brain vil wie 8 of amnion sac cut edge. ‘of amnion neural fold clk somites noural Bac tube spinal allantoic: ‘cord, exoctelon chorion somites duct with vill umpiliéal blood vessels, growth of amnion ‘embryo with embryo with yolk sac amnion cut open and amnion cut open Hence it is distributed to the villous stems, branches, and twigs through vessels in their connective-tissue cores. Return of this blood to the fetus is by a reverse route .The circulation of maternal blood through the intervillous space is wholly separate from fetal blood coursing through the chorion and its villi. Communication between the two is solely by diffusive interchange.The barrier between the two circulations consists of the trophoblastic covering of villi, the connective tissue of the villous cores, and the thin lining of the capillaries that are contained in the villous cores. The placenta serves the fetus in several ways, most of which involve interchanges of materials carried in the bloodstreams of the mother and fetus.* These functions are of the following kinds: (1) nutrition (2) respiration (3) excretion (4) barrier action (e.g., prevention of intrusions by bacteria) (5) synthesis of hormones and enzymes. = Extra - Embryonic Membranes - The way in which the encapsulating membrane of the blastocyst becomes the chorion, and the most deeply embedded part of it becomes the fetal placenta, has already been described. There are still other important membranes that develop from those portions of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst that are not directly involved in becoming an embryo. (a)Yolk sac : Cells split off from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst and fashion themselves into a primitive yolk sac. The roof of the sac then folds into a tubular gut, whereas the remainder becomes a vascularized bag that attains the size of a small pea. In other vertebrates, such as amphibians and birds, the yolk sac is large and contains a store of nutritive yolk, but in humans and other true mammals there is practically none.A slender neck, the yolk stalk, soon connects the rapidly elongating gut with the fast-growing yolk sac proper. The stalk detaches from the embryo intestine early in the second month, but the shrunken sac commonly persists and can be found in the expelled afterbirth. (b)Amnion : Acleft separates the outermost cells of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst from the remainder, which then becomes the embryonic disk. The split-off, thin upper layer is the amnion, which remains attached to the periphery of the embryonic disk .As the disk folds into a cylindrical embryo, the amniotic margin follows the underfolding, and its line of union becomes limited to the ventral (frontward) body wall, where the umbilical cord attaches. The amnion becomes a tough, transparent, nonvascular membrane that gradually fills the chorionic sac and then fuses with it. At the end of the third month of pregnancy, the nonplacental extent of this nearly exposed double membrane comes into contact with the lining of the uterus elsewhere. Fusion then obliterates the uterine cavity, which has been undergoing progressive reduction in size. ()Allantois: The allantois, a tube of endoderm (the innermost germ layer), grows out of the early yolk sac in a region that soon becomes the hindgut. The tube extends into a bridge of mesoderm (the middle germ layer) that connects embryo with chorion and will become incorporated into the umbilical cord. The human allantoic tube is tiny and never becomes a large sac with important functions, as it does in many other mammals and in reptiles and birds. In the second month it ceases to grow, and it soon is obliterated. Blood vessels, however, develop early in its mesodermal sheath, and these spread into the chorion and vascularize it.(a)Umbilical cord : As the ventral body wall closes in, the yolk stalk and allantois are brought together, along with their mesodermal sheaths and blood vessels. Enclosing everything is a wrapping of amnion. In this manner a cylindrical structure, the umbilical cord, comes to connect the embryo with the placenta. The mature cord is about 1.3 cm (0.5 inch) in diameter, and it attains an average length of nearly 50 cm (1.6 feet). = Formation of the three primary germ layers - The inner cell mass, attached to the deep pole of the implanted blastocyst, is sometimes called the embryoblast, since it contains the cells that will form an embryo. The cellular mass enters into the process of gastrulation, through which the three primary germ layers segregate. First, cells facing the cavity of the blastocyst arrange into a layer known as the hypoblast. The thick residual layer, temporarily designated as epiblast, is the source of a definitive uppermost sheet, the ectoderm, and an intermediate layer, the mesoderm. Second phase of gastrulation, some cells of the epiblast migrate to the midline position, then turn downward and emerge beneath as mesoderm. Such cells continue to spread laterally, right and left, between the endoderm and the residue of epiblast, which is now definitive ectoderm.The site where the migratory mesodermal cells leave the epiblast is an elongated, crowded seam known as the primitive streak. Similar migrating cells produce a thick knob at one end of the primitive streak. Their continued forward movement from this so-called primitive knot produces a dense band that becomes the rodlike notochord The germ layers are not segregated sheets whose cells have predetermined, limited capacities and inflexibly fixed fates in carrying out organ-building activities . Rather, the layers represent advantageously located assembly grounds out of which the component parts of the embryo emerge normally, according to a master constructional plan that assigns different parts to definite spatial positions and local sites. Thus, although the germ layers have developmental potencies in excess of their normal developmental fates, their ordinary participation in organ forming does not deviate from a definite, standard program. Only the principal functional tissue is designated in the name of each primary germ layer. In a few instances, such as the suprarenal (adrenal) glands and the teeth, a compound organ has important parts of different origin. = Growth and Differentiation - Growth is an increase in size, or bulk. Cell multiplication is fundamental to an increase in bulk but does not, by itself, result in growth. It merely produces more units to participate in subsequent growing. Growth is accomplished in several ways. Most important is synthesis, by which new living matter, cytoplasm, is created from available foodstuffs. Another method utilizes water uptake; a human embryo of the early weeks is nearly 98 percent water, while an adult is 70 percent fluid. A third method of growth is by intercellular deposition in which cells manufacture and extrude nonliving substances, such as jelly, fibres, and the ground substance of cartilage and bone.Because of these activities, a newborn baby is several thousand million times heavier than the zygote from which it developed.Uniform growth throughout the substance of a developing organism would merely produce a steadily enlarging spherical cellular mass. Local diversities in form and proportions result from differential rates of growth that operate in different regions and at different times. The particular program of starting times and growth rates, both externally and internally in the human embryo, constitutes its characteristic growth pattern.Abnormal growth occurs occasionally, and growth may be excessive or deficient. Ina developing organism, differentiation implies increasing structural and functional complexity. One kind of differentiation concerns changes in gross shape and organization. Such activities, related to molding the body and its integral parts into form and pattern, comprise the processes called morphogenesis. ectoderm 5 neural groove notecnora - You sac © 2008 Eneyclopsedia Britannies, Ine. *The processes of morphogenesis are relatively simple mechanical acts:- (1) cell migration, (2) cell aggregation, forming masses, cords, and sheets, (3) localized growth or retardation, resulting in enlargements or constrictions, (4) fusion, (5) splitting, including separation of single sheets into separate layers, formation of cavities in cell masses, and forking of cords, (6) folding, including circumscribed folds that produce inpocketings and outpocketings, (7) bending, which, like folding, results from unequal growth. The final resutt of histogenesis is the production of groups of cells similar in structure and function. Each specialized group constitutes a fundamental tissue. = Embryonic acquisition of external form - (a)Development between the second and fourth weeks : At the end of the second week, the embryonic region is a nearly circular plate within its well- embedded, differentiating chorionic sac.Human embryonic disk at 18 days three-quarter view body stalk yolk sac. ‘embryonic ea primitive streak amniotic cavity cross section amniotic cavity ectoderm: notochord ‘mesoderm yolk sac. ‘endoderm, (©2013 Encyctopapcia Brtannica, Inc. This embryonic disk consists of two layers—epiblast and hypoblast. A hollow, dome-shaped amnion sac attaches to the margin of the upper layer of the disk, and a hollow yolk sac is similarly continuous with the lower layer. A broad cellular bridge attaches the complex to the chorion. The most important event during the third week is the gastrulation process. Early in the third week, the embryonic disk has enlarged and become pear-shaped in outline, and a well-formed primitive streak occupies the midline of its caudal (hind) half, which is narrower. Cells from the epiblast are passing through the streak and spreading laterally in both directions beneath the uppermost layer, now ectoderm. In this way the embryonic disk acquires three distinct layers, and the gastrula stage of development comes to an end. At the middle of the week, a thickening, known as the head process, is extending forward from a knoblike primitive knot located at the head end of the primitive streak. These linear thickenings define the median plane of the future embryo and thus divide the embryonic disk into precise right and left halves.Toward the end of the week, the disk elongates and becomes slipper-shaped in outline; a slight constriction demarcates it from the attached yolk sac. Growth has lengthened the region ahead of the now receding primitive streak. Here, in the midline, the ectoderm bears a definite gutterlike formation called the neural groove, which is the first indication of the future central nervous system. Beneath the groove, the mesodermal head process presently rounds into an axial rod, the notochord, that serves as a temporary “backbone.” By the end of the third week, a head fold, paired lateral body folds, and a tail fold become prominent, demarcating a somewhat cylindrical embryo from the still broadly attached yolk sac. Through the process of neurulation, the neural folds, flanking the neural groove, converge and begin to meet midway of their lengths, thereby producing a neural tube at that level. Cells called neural crest cells will dissociate from the neural tube and undergo an epithelial- to-mesenchymal transition (mesenchyme is a loose mass of cells that gives rise to various forms of connective tissue). Mesoderm, alongside the notochord, begins to subdivide into paired blocks called somites, and the outlines of the somites show externally. From them, muscles and vertebrae will differentiate later. This stage, when the embryo is fashioning a neural tube, is often designated as a neurula.In the fourth week the embryo goes beyond the external characteristics of vertebrates in general and becomes recognizable as a mammal. The week is marked by profound changes during which the embryo acquires its general body plan. There is an increase in total length from about 2 to 5 mm (about 0.08 to 0.2 inch), but size is quite variable among smaller specimens. Better correlated with the degree of development is the number of mesodermal somites, which attain their full number of about 42 during the fourth week. Some of the head of an early embryo arises from the embryonic disk in front of the primitive knot. But as the primitive streak shortens and its caudal retreat continues, such structures as the neural tube and notochord are added progressively in the wake of that retreat, and additional somite pairs also appear in steady succession. The most important maneuver in the establishment of general body form is the transformation of the flat embryonic disk into a roughly cylindrical early embryo, which is attached to the yolk sac by a slender yolk stalk. *Three factors cooperate in producing this change: (1) There is more rapid expansion of both the embryonic area and the yolk sac than in the region joining the two. The enlarging embryonic area at first buckles upward and then overlaps the more slowly growing margin. Since growth is particularly rapid at the future head end and tail end, the embryo becomes elongate. (2) In conjunction with this overgrowth there is important underfolding, again most pronounced at the front and hind ends. Underfolding is produced by differential elongation in the regions of the brain and tail bud Conspicuous is the change in the future cardiac (heart) and foregut region, which swings beneath the brain as on a hinge. (3) Acertain amount of true constriction, through growth, gathers all of these parts at the site of the future umbilicus. (b)Developmental changes in the fifth to eighth weeks :A five-week embryo is about 8 mm (0.32 inch) long, whereas at six weeks the length is about 13 mm (0.52 inch). New external features are olfactory pits at the tip of the bent head. An umbilical cord becomes a definite entity, its proximal end occupying a low position on the abdominal wall. The sharply bent head joins the rest of the body at an acute angle. The first pair of branchial arches branch Y-fashion into maxillary and mandibular processes (primitive upper and lower jaws). The external ears are forming around the paired grooves located between each half of the mandible and each second branchial arch. The heart, which was previously the chief ventral prominence, now shares this distinction with the rapidly growing liver . A constriction on each bud separates a paddlelike hand plate or foot plate froma cylindrical segment attached to the body wall. Human embryological and fetal development six weeks. six weeks. three months allantoic chorion, tye, duct chorion inter- umbilical cord Placenta villous amnion yolk on ‘space —_ amnion. fetus vil Villi eae exocoelom cavity uterine cavity ‘shorion umbilical cervical cord cervical canal ‘umbilical cord amnion canal embryo within halved amnion, formation of fetus within halved amnion, Chorion, and uterus umbilical cord ‘chorion, and uterus Predictably, the upper limbs are somewhat further advanced than the lower pair. In the latter weeks of the second month, developmental changes advance from those that distinguish primates to a state that is recognizably human. At the end of the second month (when it is about 30 mm [1.2 inches] in length) the embryo stage ends; henceforth, until birth, the term fetusis used to describe the developing conceptus. FETAL DEVELOPMENT: In the seventh and eighth weeks of development, the head becomes more erect, and the previously curved trunk becomes straighter. The heart and liver, which earlier dominated the shape of the ventral body, yield to a more evenly rounded chest-abdomen region.The tail, which at an earlier time was one-fifth of the embryo’s length, becomes inconspicuous both through actual regression and through concealment by the growing buttocks. The face rapidly acquires a fairly human appearance; eyes, ears, and jaws are prominent. The eyes, previously located on the sides of the head, become directed forward. The nose lacks a bridge and so is of the “pug” type, with the nostrils directed forward instead of downward. A mandibular branch of each Y-shaped branchial arch combines with its mate to form the lower jaw. The maxillary branch on each side joins an elevation on the medial (inner) side of the corresponding nostril to produce the more-complicated upper jaw.Branchial arches, other than those forming the jaws and external ears, are effaced through incorporation into an emerging recognizable neck. Limbs become jointed, and the earlier hand plates and foot plates differentiate terminal digits. Primitive external genitalia appear, but in a nondistinctive, sexless condition. Almost all of the internal organs are well laid down at the end of eight weeks, when the embryo is little more than 25 mm (1 inch) long. The characteristic external features are established, and subsequent growth merely modifies existing proportions without adding new structure. Similarly, the chief changes undergone by internal organs and parts are those of growth and tissue specialization. At eight weeks the neuromuscular mechanism attains a degree of perfection that permits some response to delicate stimulation.During the third month the young fetus clearly resembles a human being, although the head is disproportionately large. The previous protrusion of much of the intestine into the umbilical cord is reduced through the return of its loops into the abdomen. The ears rise to eye level and the eyelids fuse shut . Nails begin forming; ossification (bone-forming) centres appear in most of the future bones; and the sex of external genitalia becomes recognizable. At four months individual differences between the faces of fetuses become distinguishable. The face is broad but the eyes are now less widely separated. The umbilical cord attaches higher on the abdominal wall; this location is above an expanding region between the cord and the pubis (front bones of the pelvis) that scarcely existed previously. At five months downy hairs (lanugo) cover the body, and some head hairs appear. The skin is less transparent. Fetal movements (“quickening”) are felt by the mother. At six months eyebrows and eyelashes are clearly present. The body is lean, but its proportions have improved. The skin is wrinkled.ts reddish, wrinkled skin is smeared with a greasy substance (vernix caseosa). The eyelids reopen. At eight months fat is depositing beneath the skin. The testes begin to invade the scrotum. At nine months the dull redness of the skin fades and wrinkles smooth out. The body and limbs become better-rounded. At full term (38 weeks) the body is plump and proportions are improved, although the head is large and the lower limbs are still slightly shorter than the upper limbs. The skin has lost its coat of lanugo hair, but it is still smeared with vernix caseosa. Nails project beyond the finger tips and to the tips of the toes. The umbilical cord now attaches to the centre of the abdomen. The testes of males are usually in the scrotum; the greater lips of the female external genitalia, which previously gaped, are now in contact. Cranial bones meet except at some angular junctions, or “soft spots.’The average time of delivery is 280 days from the beginning of the last menstrual period, whereas the duration of pregnancy (age of the baby) is about 266 days (38 weeks). Pregnancy may extend to 300 days or even more, in which case the baby tends to be heavier. Premature babies born under 27 weeks of age are less likely to survive, even when treated in a neonatal unit, whereas those more than 30 weeks old usually do survive.DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISM : » Ectodermal derivatives - (a)Integumentary system : The skin has a double origin. its superficial layer, or epidermis, develops from ectoderm. The initial single-layered sheet of epithelial cells becomes multilayered by proliferation, and cells nearer the surface differentiate into a horny substance. Pigment granules appear in the basal layer. The epidermis of the palm and sole becomes thicker and more specialized than elsewhere. Cast-off superficial cells and downy hairs mingle with a greasy glandular secretion and smear the skin in the late fetal months the pasty mass is called vernix caseosa The deep layer of the skin or dermis, is a fibrous anchoringbed differentiated from mesoderm. In the later fetal months the plane of union between epidermis and dermis becomes wavy. The permanently ridged patterns are notable at the surface of the palm and sole.Nails develop in pocketlike folds of the skin near the tips of digits. During the fifth month specialized horny material differentiates into proliferating ectodermal cells. The resulting nail plate is pushed forward as new plate substance is added in the fold. Fingernails reach the fingertips one month before birth. Hairs, produced only by mammals, begin forming in the third month as cylindrical buds that grow downward from the epidermis into the dermis. Cells at the base of the hair bud proliferate and produce a horny, pigmented thread that moves progressively upward in the axis of the original cylinder. This first crop of hairs is a downy coat named lanugo. It is prominent by the fifth month but is mostly cast off before birth. Unlike nails, hairs are shed and replaced periodically throughout life. Sebaceous glands develop into tiny bags, each growing out from the epithelial sheath that surrounds a hair. Their cells proliferate, disintegrate, and release an oily secretion Sweat glands at first resemble hair pegs, but the deep end of each soon coils. In the seventh month an axial cavity appears and later is continued through the epidermis. The mammary glands, unique to mammals, are specialized sweat glands.In the sixth week a thickened band of ectoderm extends between the bases of the upper and lower limb buds. In the pectoral (chest) region only, gland buds grow rootlike into the primitive connective tissue beneath. During the fifth month 15 to 20 solid cords foretell the future ducts of each gland. Until late childhood the mammary glands are identical in both sexes. Sn an myelin eet (b)Mouth and anus : The mouth is a derivative of the stomodaeum, an external pit bounded by the overjutting primitive nasal region and the early upper and lower jaw projections. Its floor is a thin membrane where ectoderm and endoderm fuse (oropharyngeal membrane). Midway in the fourth week this membrane ruptures, making continuous the primitive ectodermal mouth and endodermal pharynx (throat). Lips and cheeks arise when ectodermal bands grow into the mesoderm and then split into two sheets . (c)Central nervous system : Both the brain and the spinal cord arise from an elongated thickening of the ectoderm that occupies the midline region of the embryonic disk. The sides of this neural plate elevate as neural folds, which then bound a gutterlike neural groove. Further growth causes the folds to meet and fuse, thereby creating a neural tube.The many-layered wall of this tube differentiates into three concentric zones, first indicated in embryos of five weeks The innermost zone, bordering the central canal, becomes a layer composed of long cells called ependymal cells, which are supportive in function.The middle zone becomes the gray substance, a layer characterized by nerve cells, The outermost zone becomes the white substance, a layer packed with nerve fibres. The neural tube is also demarcated internally by a pair of longitudinal grooves into dorsal and ventral halves. The dorsal half is a region associated with sensory functioning and the ventral half with motor functioning.(d)Peripheral nervous system: In general, each craniospinal nerve has a dorsal (posterior) root that bears a ganglion (mass of nerve tissue) containing sensory nerve cells and their fibres and a ventral (anterior) root that contains motor nerve fibres but no nerve cells. Ganglion cells differentiate from cells of the neural crest, which is at first a cellular band pinched off from the region where each neural fold continues into ordinary ectoderm. Each of these paired bands breaks up into a series of lumps, spaced in agreement with the segmentally arranged mesodermal somites. Neuroblasts within these primordial ganglia develop a single stem and hence are called unipolar. From this common stem, one nerve process, or projection, grows back into the adjacent sensory half of the neural tube. Another projection grows in the opposite direction, helping to complete the dorsal root of a nerve. Neuroblasts of motor neurons arise in the ventral half of the gray substance of the neural tube. They sprout numerous short, freely branching projections, the dendrites, and one long, little-branching projection, the axon. Such a neuron is called multipolar. These motor fibres grow out of the neural tube and constitute a ventral root. (e)Autonomic nervous system : The autonomic nervous system is made up of two divisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. It controls involuntary actions, such as the constriction of blood vessels. Some cells of the neural crests migrate and form paired segmental masses alongside the aorta, a principal blood vessel. Part of the cells become efferent multipolar ganglion cells (cells whose fibres carry impulses outward from ganglions, or aggregates of nerve cells), and others merely encapsulate the ganglion cells. These autonomic ganglia link into longitudinal sympathetic trunks. Some of the neuroblasts migrate farther and assemble as collateral ganglia—ganglia not linked into longitudinal trunks. Still others migrate near, or within, the visceral organs that they will innervate and produce terminal ganglia. These ganglia are characteristic of the parasympathetic system. Some cells of certain primitive collateral ganglia leave and invade the amassing mesodermal cortex of each adrenal gland. Consolidating in the centre, they become the endocrine cells of the medulla. (f)Sense organs : Olfactory organ Paired thickenings of ectoderm near the tip of the head infold and produce olfactory pits. These expand into sacs in which only a relatively small area becomes olfactory in function. Some epithelial cells in these regions remain as inert supporting elements. Others become spindle-shaped olfactory cells. One end of each olfactory cell projects receptive olfactory hairs beyond the free surface of the epithelium. From the other end a nerve fibre grows back and makes a connection within the brain.Gustatory organ Most taste buds arise on the tongue. Each bud, a barrel-shaped specialization within the epithelium that clothes certain lingual papillae (small projections on the tongue), is a cluster of tall cells, some of which have differentiated into taste cells whose free ends bear receptive gustatory hairs. Sensory nerve fibres end at the surface of such cells. Other tall cells are presumably inertly supportive in function. Eye The earliest indication of the eyes is a pair of shallow grooves on the sides of the forebrain. The grooves quickly become indented optic cups, each connected to the brain by a slender optic stalk. Most of the cup will become the retina, but its rim represents the epithelial part of the insensitive ciliary body and iris..The lens arises as a thickening of the ectoderm adjacent to the optic cup. It inpockets to form a lens vesicle and then detaches. The cells of its back wall become tall, transparent lens fibres. Mesoderm surrounding the optic cup specializes into two accessory coats. The outer coat, the tough, white sclera, is continuous with the transparent cornea. The inner coat, the vascular choroid, continues as the vascular and muscular ciliary body and the vascularized tissue of the iris. The eyelids are folds of adjacent skin, and from the inside of each upper lid several lacrimal glands bud out. Ear The projecting part (auricle) of the external ear develops from hillocks on the first and second branchial arches. The ectodermal groove between those arches deepens and becomes the external auditory canal. The auditory tube and tympanic cavity—the cavity at the inner side of the eardrum—are expansions of the endodermal pouch located between the first and second branchial arches. The area where ectodermal groove and endodermal pouch come in contact is the site of the future eardrum. The chain of three auditory ossicles (small bones) that stretches across the tympanic cavity is a derivative of the first and second arches. = Mesodermal derivatives - (a)Skeletal system : Except for part of the skull, all bones pass through three stages of development: membranous, cartilaginous, and osseous. The earliest ossification centres appear in the eighth week, but some do not arise until childhood years and even into adolescence. (b)Muscular system : Much of each somite differentiates into myoblasts (primitive muscle cells) that become voluntary muscle fibres. Aggregations of such fibres become muscles of the neck and trunk. Muscles of the head and some of the neck muscles originate from the mesoderm of branchial arches. Muscles of the limbs seemingly arise directly from local mesoderm.(c)Vascular system : All hollow organs, including arteries, veins, and lymphatics, are lined with epithelium—the principal functional tissue—and are ensheathed with muscular and fibrous coats. Blood vessels Primitive blood vessels arise in the mesoderm as tiny clefts bordered by flat endothelial cells. Growth and coalescence produce networks, out of which favoured channels persist as definite vessels, while others decline and disappear. A bilaterally symmetrical system of vessels is well represented in embryos four weeks old. This early plan is profoundly altered and made somewhat asymmetrical during the second month by fusions, atrophies, emergence of new vessels, and rerouting of older ones. The alterations reflect adjustments to changing form and pattern within the developing organ systems. Arteries cranial to the heart (headward of the heart) are mostly products of the paired aortic arches, which course axially within the branchial arches, thus interconnecting the ventral aorta with paired dorsal aortas. The third pair of aortic arches becomes the common carotids; the fourth pair, the aortic arch and brachiocephalic artery; the fifth pair, the pulmonary arteries and ductus arteriosus. The dorsal aortas fuse into the single descending aorta, which bears three sets of paired segmental branches. The dorsal set becomes the subclavian, intercostal, and lumbar arteries. The lateral set becomes arteries to the diaphragm, the adrenal glands, the kidneys, and the sex glands. The ventral set becomes the celiac, mesenteric, and umbilical arteries. Axial arteries to both sets of limb buds emerge from an original plexus, but they undergo drastic alteration and extensive replacement. Lymphatic vessels Differentiation of external genitalia in the human embryo and fetus glans area undifferentiated stage eae urogenital fold genital tubercle’ urogenital groove lateral buttress anal pit male at 12 weeks il (oul female at 12 weeks tail (cut) Se Oe clo lans area. site of future origin of prepuce: urethral fold urogenital groove lateral buttress. labioscrotal swelling: anus urethral folds partly fused (urethral raphé) “nal tubercle’ ‘anal tubercle female at 36 weeks male at 36 weeks ee glans penis urethral opening shaft of penis vaginal opening labium minus scrotum labium majus he. anus ne anus © 2012 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.The lymph vessels develop independently in close association with the veins. Linkages produce the thoracic duct, which is the main drainage return for lymph. Masses of lymphocytes accumulate about lymphatic vessels and organize as lymph nodes. The spleen has somewhat similar tissue, but its channels are supplied with blood. Heart Fusion combines two endothelial tubes, and these are surrounded by a mantle of mesoderm that will become the muscular and fibrous coats of the heart. At three weeks the heart is a straight tube that is beginning to beat.Starting at the head end, four regions can be recognized: bulbus, ventricle, atrium, and sinus venosus. Since the heart is anchored at both ends, rapid elongation forces it to bend. In doing this, the sinus venosus—atrium and bulbus- ventricle reverse their original relations. Further development concerns the transformation of a single-chambered heart into one with four chambers.Birth initiates breathing, and the abandonment of the placental circulation follows. These changes entail a drastic rerouting of blood through the heart. As a result, the two atrial septa fuse and no longer permit blood to pass from the right atrium to the left atrium. Blood in the pulmonary artery no longer bypasses the lungs; previously it had passed to the aorta directly through a shunt offered by the ductus arteriosus. As a sequel to these changes, the abandoned umbilical arteries, umbilical vein, ductus venosus, and ductus arteriosus all collapse . (d)Urinary system : Vertebrates have made three experiments in kidney production: the pronephros, or earliest type; the mesonephros, or intermediate kidney; and the metanephros, or permanent kidney. Allarise from the cellular plates called nephrotomes that connect somites with the mesodermal sheets that bound the body cavity. The vestigial pronephros is represented solely by several pairs of tubules; they join separately formed excretory ducts that grow downward and enter the cloaca, the common outlet for urine, genital products, and intestinal wastes. Next tailward arise some 40 pairs of nephric (kidney) tubules that constitute the mesonephros; these tubules join the same excretory ducts, hereafter called the mesonephric ducts. The two sets of mesonephric tubules serve as functioning kidneys until the 10th week.Each permanent kidney, or metanephros, develops still farther tailward. A so-called ureteric primordium buds off each mesonephric duct near its hind end. The ureteric stem elongates and expands terminally, thereby forming the renal pelvis and calices; continued bushlike branching produces collecting ducts. The early ureteric bud invades a mass of nephrotome tissue. (e)Genital system : The genital organs begin to develop in the second month, but for a time the individual's sex is not grossly distinguishable. A double set of male and female ducts arise, and not until later does the unneeded set decline. Hence, this period is commonly called the indifferent stage.(f)Coelom : The lateral mesoderm, beyond the somites and nephrotomes, splits into two layers: the somatic layer and, underlying the somatic layer, the splanchnic layer. The intervening space is the coelom. As the embryo’s body folds off, its coelom becomes a single closed cavity. In it can be recognized, regionally, a provisional pericardial cavity (cavity for the heart), two pleural canals (for the lungs), and a peritoneal cavity (for the abdominal contents). A thick plate of mesoderm, the transverse septum, constitutes a partial partition just ahead of the developing liver. Two pairs of membranes grow out from the septum. One set separates the pericardial cavity from the two pleural cavities; these membranes later expand into the pericardium and enclose the heart. The other pair of membranes separates the pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen. The definitive diaphragm is a composite partition, much of which is furnished by the transverse septum; lesser contributions are from the lateral body walls and the paired membranes that separated the pleural and peritoneal cavities. * Endodermal derivatives - (a)Pharynx : The tongue is a product of four branchial arches, whose ventral ends merge in its midplane. Papillae elevate from the surface, and taste buds arise as specializations within the covering epithelium of some of them. Pharyngeal pouches are early lateral expansions of the local endoderm, alternating with the branchial arches. The first pair elongate as the auditory tubes and tympanic cavities. The second pair mark the site of the tonsils. The third pair give rise to the halves of the thymus, and the third and fourth pairs produce the two sets of parathyroid glands. The thyroid gland buds off the pharyngeal floor in the midplane and at the level of the second branchial arches. (b)Digestive tube : As the embryo folds off, the endoderm is rolled in as the foregut and hindgut. Continued growth progressively closes both the midbody and the midgut. The esophagus remains as a simple, straight tube. The stomach grows faster on its dorsal side, thereby forming the bulging greater curvature; the stomach also rotates 90° so that its original dorsal and ventral borders come to lie left and right. The intestine elongates faster than the trunk, so that its loops find temporary room by pushing into the umbilical cord. Later the loops return, completing a rotation that gives the characteristic final placement of the small and large intestines.When the gut folds into a tube, it is suspended by a sheetlike dorsal mesentery, or membranous fold. In the region of the stomach, it forms an expansive pouch, the omental bursa. Secondary fusions of the bursa and of some of the rest of the mesentery with the body wall produce lines of attachment from stomach to rectum inclusive, different from the original midplane course. Such fusions also firmly anchor some parts of the tract. A ventral mesentery, beneath the gut, exists only in the region of the stomach and liver.(c)Major glands : The liver arises as a ventral outgrowth of the foregut that invades the early transverse septum. Although rapid growth causes it to bulge prominently away from this septum, it remains attached to the septum and hence to the definitive diaphragm. The differentiating glandular tissue takes the form of plates bathed by blood channels. The stem of the original liver bud becomes the common bile duct, whereas a secondary outgrowth produces the cystic duct and the gallbladder The pancreas takes its origin from a larger dorsal bud and a smaller ventral bud, both off the foregut. The two merge and their ducts communicate, but in humans it is the lesser, ventral duct that becomes the stem outlet. Secretory acini are berrylike endings of the branching ducts. Pancreatic islets arise as special sprouts from the ducts; these differentiate into endocrine tissue that secretes insulin. (d)Respiratory system : Nasal cavity The first part of the respiratory system is ectodermal in origin. The olfactory sacs become continuous secondarily with a passage captured from the primitive mouth cavity. This addition is produced by a horizontal partition, the palate. It arises from a pair of shelflike folds that grow out from the halves of the primitive upper jaw and then unite. The final nasal passage extends from the nostrils to the back of the pharynx. Larynx, trachea, and lungs A hollow lung bud grows off the floor of the endodermal pharynx, just caudal (tailward) to the pharyngeal pouches and in the midline. It has the form of a tube with an expanded end. The entrance to this tube is the glottis, and the region about it becomes the larynx. The tube proper represents the trachea (or windpipe). Its terminal expansion divides into two branches, and these tubes elongate as the primary bronchi, Continued growth and budding produce two side branches from the right bronchus and one from the left. These branches and the blind ends of the two parent bronchi indicate the future plan of the lungs, with three right lobes and two left lobes. Through the sixth month, continued branchings produce bronchioles of different orders. In the final months the smaller ducts and early respiratory alveoli (air sacs) appear, the lungs losing their previous glandular appearance and also becoming highly vascular. Until breathing distends the lungs, these organs remain relatively small ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT: = Multiple births - It is both unusual and abnormal for the human species to produce more than one offspring at a time . Twins and twinning are used as general terms for multiple births of any number, as the same basic principles apply.Fraternal twins stem from multiple ovulations in the same cycle. Each oocyte develops singly in a separate follicle, is shed and fertilized individually, develops within its own chorionic sac, and forms an individual placenta. In some instances, two blastocysts implant close together, and the expanding placentas meet and fuse. In such double placentas, however, the two blood circulations rarely communicate. The word dizygotic technically designates two-egg twins. Such pairs are independent in sex determination and bear no more resemblance than do other children of the same parents. Nearly three-fourths of all ‘American twins are dizygotic, whereas the Japanese ratio is only one-fourth. A tendency toward such multiple births exists in some family lines.Wholly different are those true twins who are always of the same sex and are strikingly similar in physical, functional, and mental traits. Such close identity is enforced by their derivation from a single ovulated and fertilized egg and hence by their acquisition of identical chromosomal constitutions. This twin type is named monozygotic. Three-fourths of such pairs develop within a common chorionic sac and share a placenta, while one-fourth have individual sacs and placentas. The latter condition results from events before implantation, when the cleavage cells separate into two groups and then become individually implanting blastocysts. There is no discernible hereditary tendency toward the production of monozygotic twins. *Several atypical processes involving the inner cell mass or embryonic plate can produce separate embryos within a single sac: (1) The inner cells of a blastocyst may segregate into two masses. (2) Somewhat later in time, two embryonic axes may become established on a single embryonic disk. (3) A single axis may subdivide by binary fission or budding. (4) Duplication of any sort may combine with secondary subdivision; the Dionne quintuplets (the first quintuplets to have survived infancy) are believed to have followed this sequence, which is also normal for the regular quadruplets of the Texas armadillo. = Fetal deviations - Human embryos are subject to disease, abnormal development, and abnormal growth. Decline and death can occur at any stage, but most deaths occur in the first two or three weeks of development usually escape notice. Probably little more than half of all zygotes reach full-term birth. Most abnormalities resulting from faulty development originate during the embryonic period. During the pre-embryonic period, if a severe chromosomal abnormality is present, the conceptus will die. Indeed, abnormalities that do occur in living infants tend toward the milder types, since the severe mishaps commonly terminate development before birth. Defective health of the mother can in some instances become a cause of the physical impairment or death of a fetus. Certain infectious diseases, for example, may result in fetal injury; such related causative organisms can be a virus (German measles), a spirochetal microorganism (syphilis), or a protozoan parasite (toxoplasmosis).= Teratology - Teratology is concerned with all features of abnormal generation and development of the embryo (embryogenesis) and their end products. The incidence of defective development is high. One infant in 14 that survive the neonatal period bears an abnormality of some kind and degree, and half of these babies have more than one malformation. Internal, concealed defects are more numerous than external ones, and some defects do not become apparent until childhood. Some types of abnormality are more common in males (e.g., pyloric stenosis, the narrowing of the opening between the stomach and the intestine), while other types predominate in females (e.g., dislocated hip). Important among causes of abnormalities are hereditary factors. Such include gene mutations, which may be Mendelian dominant (e.g., fused fingers need be inherited from only one parent to appear in the offspring), recessive (e.g., albinism does not become evident unless its gene is inherited from both parents), or sex-linked (e.g., hemophilia). An unequal distribution of chromosomes during meiosis, leading to abnormal assortments, occurs in somatic (non-sex) chromosomes (e.g., Down syndrome) and in sex chromosomes (e.g., Klinefelter syndrome). Environmental factors, both external and internal, are also important. Various chemical agents, alcohol, drugs of abuse, and even some prescribed medications are highly teratogenic (producing physical defects within the uterus). Examples of teratogens include drugs such as thalidomide and phenytoin, the synthetic hormone diethylstilbestrol, and infection with varicella (chickenpox). CONCLUSION: The end result of a successful pregnancy is that miracle called a child, which begins as a simple zygote and becomes a fertilized ovum during the first of three stages, or trimesters, of prenatal development. During the nine months, or approximately 266 days, of prenatal development, the zygote divides into billions of cells, which eventually become differentiated from one another while new systems and parts become integrated. Never before has the importance of prenatal care for the developing child been so. apparent. With increases in research and knowledge of what factors can affect the zygote, embryo, and fetus, the likelihood that such factors can have a negative impact on the well- being of the child and the mother is greatly decreased.BIBLIOGRAPHY NCERT Grade 12 https://en.wikipedia.org//Prenatal_development.com Britannica. com / science/ Prenatal - development