Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Wise Et Al. 1984 (Fault-Related Rocks)
Wise Et Al. 1984 (Fault-Related Rocks)
D. U . W i s e
D e p a r t m e n t of G e o l o g y a n d G e o g r a p h y , University of M a s s a c h u s e t t s , A m h e r s t , M a s s a c h u s e t t s 0 1 0 0 3
D. E. Dunn
D e p a r t m e n t of Earth S c i e n c e s , University of N e w Orleans, N e w Orleans, Louisiana 7 0 1 4 8
J. T. Engelder
L a m o n t - D o h e r t y G e o l o g i c a l Observatory, Palisades, N e w York 1 0 9 4 6
P. A. Geiser
D e p a r t m e n t of G e o l o g y , University of C o n n e c t i c u t , Storrs, C o n n e c t i c u t 0 6 2 6 8
R. D. Hatcher
D e p a r t m e n t of G e o l o g y , University of South Carolina, C o l u m b i a , South C a r o l i n a 2 9 2 0 8
S. A. Kish
D e p a r t m e n t of Geology, Florida State University, T a l l a h a s s e e , Florida 3 2 3 0 6
A. L. Odom
D e p a r t m e n t of Geology, Florida State University, T a l l a h a s s e e , Florida 3 2 3 0 6
S. Schamel
Earth S c i e n c e s a n d R e s o u r c e s Institute, University of South Carolina, C o l u m b i a , South C a r o l i n a 2 9 2 0 8
r COHERENT BUT UNFOUATED ROCKS PRODUCED BY MICRO- AND/OR MACRO-FRACTURING AND SHOWING LITTLE OR NO
FRICTIONALLY PRODUCED THERMAL EFFECTS.
^ M A T R I X RECRYSTALLIZATION INCREASES
i AVERAGE GRAIN SIZE TO EQUAL OR
\ E X C E E D THAT OF T H E PROTOLITH.
STICK-SLIP FAULT
MOTION (SEISMIC)
STABLE SLIDING
(ASEISMIC)
RATE OF RECOVERY
Figure 1. Terminology of fault-related rocks. Horizontal and vertical scales are variable depending on composition, grain size, and fluids.
tained because slickenfibers suggest aseismic creep displacement during augen (German = eyes) may begin to form by rapid growth of new min-
their development. (However, healed cracks in some fibers may indicate eral grains ( neocrysts) or by overgrowths of new mineral material onto
interruptions by seismic events during their growth (Durney and Ram- survivor megacrysts. When the matrix grain size of such a megacrystic
say, 1973). rock exceeds 0.5-1 mm, it can be called a porphyroblastic gneiss or
augen gneiss, depending on the nature of its megacrysts. It may or may
MYLONITES not form in a fault zone as defined in the next section. In some terminol-
Mylonites compose the region shown in Figure 1 that is marked by ogies this same rock has been called a blastomylonite, a term we prefer
relatively high strain rate combined with appreciable recovery rate. The to avoid because of confusion in its past multiple uses (White, 1982) and
most common characteristic of the suite is the presence of mylonitic because we wish to restrict mylonitic terms to rocks dominated by tex-
foliation, sometimes called fluxion structure, subparallel to planes of tural destruction and grain-size reduction. Where the recovery processes
maximum shear strain. Despite the Greek root of the word (mylon = become so effective that average grain size exceeds 0.5-1 mm and ap-
mill), mylonites have relatively little to do with clastic milling and break- proaches that of the protolith, ordinary metamorphic rock terminology
age. For the most part, they represent diminution of grain size by syntec- should be used.
tonic recrystallization associated with ductile strain or crystal-plastic
processes (Bell and Etheridge, 1973; Hatcher, 1978). Larger crystals or FAULTS, SHEAR ZONES, AND EUPHEMISMS
mineral grains contained within the foliation are termed "megacrysts." In the common phrase "fault-related rocks," the term "fault" can
Those formed by growth are termed "porphyroblasts"; those produced as have many definitions and applications. In the present era of environ-
survivors of incomplete megacryst destruction by either breakage or mental impact statements and seismic risk assessments, an amazing
crystal-plastic processes are termed "porphyroclasts." number of euphemisms have been devised to avoid use of the word
In the proposed system, mylonite is a general term for coherent "fault," with all its legal and public-relations implications. Examples
rocks with at least microscopic foliation, with or without porphyroclasts, include: shear zones, displaced zones, zones of offset, shattered zones,
characterized by intense syntectonic crystal-plastic grain-size reduction of discontinuities, and disturbed zones. Other complications include
the country rock to an average diameter less than 50 microns (0.5 mm) mechanical healing of some faults to make them stronger than the coun-
and invariably showing at least minor syntectonic recovery/recrystalliza- try rock and thus alter the seismic risk.
tion. Absence of the word "fault" in this definition means that most but Some would restrict "fault" to zones exhibiting both loss of cohe-
not necessarily all mylonites are associated with faults or fault zones as sion and tangential displacement. In cases where there has been no loss
defined in the next section. of cohesion across displacement zones, the terms "ductile fault zones" or
The most common members of the mylonitic suite are characterized "ductile deformation zones" (Mitra, 1978) have been applied. For many
by megacrysts representing survivors from destruction of preexisting less laboratory experiments and some classes of perfectly exposed field exam-
ductile mineral grains. If these survivors show little sign of significant re- ples, such distinction between a "ductile shear zone" and a "fault" is rela-
crystallization, constitute more than 50% of the rock, and are dispersed tively straightforward. For the exposure quality of most field examples
within a fine-grained matrix in which original grains or texture of the such distinction is impractical. Further, even with perfect exposure, there
protolith have been destroyed by syntectonic recrystallization, the rock is must ultimately be some limiting case where the width of the ductile
a protomylonite. If the megacrysts in such a rock are distinctly lenticular, zone is so small in relation to its displacement that determination of
the term "lenticular protomylonite" may be used. whether cohesion has or has not been lost across the zone is difficult or
To distinguish intermediate members of this suite from the more impossible. Beyond this limit, the structure is a "ductile fault," even
general term "mylonite," we propose the term "orthomylonite": a coher- though many purists would argue that such a term is a non sequitur.
ent rock with foliated, moderately recovered matrix in which syntectonic We suggest that the term "fault" be retained for that entire class of
recrystallization has reduced grain size of the country rock to less than phenomena characterized by relatively tabular or planar discontinuities in
0.5-mm diameter and left 10% to 50% of that material as surviving meg- which the zone as a whole or any macroscopic part of it contains dis-
acrysts. In many quartz-rich rocks of this type, megacrysts may be flat- placement parallel to the zone greater than 0.5 to 1 cm and displacement
tened or stretched to axial ratios of 10:1 or even 100:1. For these rocks, at least five to ten times greater than the width of that part regardless of
the modifier "ribbon quartz" is commonly applied. For rocks in which whether the zone is marked by loss of cohesion or extreme ductile defor-
ductile processes have destroyed essentially all the texture of the protolith mation. This minimum displacement criterion is suggested here to elimi-
(survivor megacrysts compose less than 10% of the rock) and extensive nate arguments about ratios for very tight joints or other features having
recrystallization of the matrix has produced grains less than 0.1 mm, the essentially no finite width. The fuzziness of 0.5 to 1 cm or ratios of 5:10
term "ultramylonite" is applied. is intentional to preclude courtroom arguments as to whether a particular
The above definitions focus on the matrix but include porphyroclast disturbed zone has a ratio of 9.7 or 10.3 and thus legally is or is not a
content as aids in preliminary field identification. Unfortunately, many fault. Also, under this definition, highly deformed limbs of some severely
monomineralic protoliths such as quartzites and marbles are unlikely to attenuated folds would be termed faults, a reasonable distinction consid-
yield numerous megacrysts. These are difficult to fit into the above no- ering that some highly asymmetric folds ultimately must have displace-
menclature using a porphyroclast criterion. For megascopic identification ments transitional into faults.
of these, the modifier "mylonitic" should be used (e.g., mylonitic quart- Further subdivisions important for seismic risk analysis may be
zite and mylonitic marble). If subsequent microscopic examination indi- based on style of yield and strength contrasts between fault zone and
cates only minor subgrain formation and essentially no recrystallization, country rock. Ductile faults involve permanent strain without loss of
the term may be refined to protomylonitic marble, etc.; with more exten- cohesion normal to the fault. Brittle faults are characterized by loss of
sive recovery and recrystallization, the rock would be an orthomylonitic cohesion normal to the fault at the time of last motion and may be sub-
marble; with extreme recrystallization and grain-size reduction, an ultra- divided into three categories: unhealed brittle faults, which have re-
mylonitic marble would result. mained essentially unchanged since their last motion; filled brittle faults,
Under high rates of recovery, syntectonic crystal growth processes which have been modified by new mineralization partially or totally fill-
play an increasingly important role in the formation of rock texture. The ing and cementing open spaces, but having a shear or tensile strength
matrix may begin to show increasingly coarser grain size as a result of below that of the country rock; and healed brittle faults, which have been
extensive syntectonic or posttectonic grain growth; porphyroblasts or modified by new mineralization and/or recrystallization such that shear
and tensile strengths of the fault zone are essentially equal to or greater SUMMARY
than those of enclosing rocks. The attempt here has been to establish a practical framework for
Within ductile fault zones, mylonite production may occur in zones terminology of fault-related rocks and the zones in which they occur,
centimetres to kilometres in thickness, but within them younger brittle a framework within which both the field geologist and the rock-
features may be concentrated in thin bands representing only a small per- deformation specialist can operate. The distinction of foliated versus non-
centage of the total thickness of the main zone. These late-stage, brittle foliated texture for separating mylonitic and cataclastic rocks follows
components, though easily overlooked because of poor recovery in drill White (1982) as a relatively simple field criterion. Additional refinements
core and poor surface exposure, are among the most critical features for using porphyroclast to matrix ratios follow Higgins (1971) as guides to
seismic risk analysis. Too often, investigators at sensitive locations have field identification. Ultimately, the terminology relies on field determina-
expended great effort in defining and dating ductile and mylonitic aspects tions being verified by microscopic identification of strain and recovery
of a major fault zone while largely ignoring these small but critical un- mechanisms in the matrix, details of which are beyond the scope of this
healed brittle faults that indicate the younger and most dangerous brittle short paper.
behavior of the overall zone. Some specialists undoubtedly will be displeased with the simplifica-
tions of some of these proposals. Nevertheless, faults and fault-generated
STRAIN AND RECOVERY HISTORY materials are being described constantly by a hodgepodge of terminolo-
The history of deformation and metamorphism of a rock mass gies for many geologic purposes, including critical engineering analyses
commonly extends over a considerable period of time during which sev- of seismic risk. Our discipline urgently needs some updated, practical
eral stages of strain may occur under differing rates and conditions. The framework for these descriptions. This is one possible version for consid-
result can be a complex array of superimposed strain and recovery fea- eration by the profession.
tures or textures varying from ductile to brittle.
The evolutionary history of a rock in the vicinity of a major fault
zone might follow the path illustrated in Figure 2. The main rock mass REFERENCES CITED
might pass through a series of deformations involving generally low Bell, T. H., and Etheridge, M. A., 1973, Microstructure of mylonites and their de-
strain rates in going to high metamorphic grade and back to surface con- scriptive terminology: Lithos, v. 6, p. 337-348.
ditions. Superimposed on this general pattern could be a number of brief Durney, D. W., and Ramsay, J., 1973, Incremental strain measured by syntec-
tonic crystal growth, in DeJong, K. A., and Scholten, R., eds., Gravity and
pulses of high strain rates, as indicated by the spikes in Figure 2. Fric- tectonics: New York, John Wiley & Sons, p. 67-96.
tional heating at higher strain rates might cause temporary, slightly in- Engelder, J. T., 1974, Microscopic wear grooves on slickensides: Indicators of pa-
creased recovery rates, as suggested by curvature of the spikes to the leoseismicity: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 79, p. 4387-4392.
right. Early-formed breccia and gouge [(A) in Fig. 2] or mylonite (B) Engelder, J. T., Logan, J. M., and Handin, J., 1975, The sliding characteristics of
would be homogenized and in part camouflaged by later metamorphism sandstone on quartz fault-gouge: Pure and Applied Geophysics, v. 113,
p. 68-86.
and ductile flowage. Mylonitic and cataclastic rocks produced after the Fleuty, M. J., 1975, Slickensides and slickenlines: Geological Magazine, v. 112,
metamorphic peak would be much more likely to survive in recognizable p. 319-322.
form. Some of the early-formed mylonites (D) would be likely to have a Hatcher, R. D. Jr., 1978, Reply to Comment on 'Eastern Piedmont fault system:
variety of younger deformational features superimposed on them, such as Speculations on its extent': Geology, v. 6, p. 580-582.
foliation, kink bands, and passive and/or flexural folds, or they might be Higgins, M. W., 1971, Cataclastic rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 687, 97 p.
slickensided or brecciated by late fault motions (E). Thus, a typical my- Lapworth, C., 1885, The Highland controversy in British history: Its causes,
lonitic specimen should be considered the end result of a long history of course, and consequences: Nature, v. 32, p. 558-559.
these types of deformations and metamorphisms under a variety of pres- Maddock, R. H., 1983, Melt origin of fault-generated pseudotachylytes demon-
sure, temperature, and strain conditions. strated by textures: Geology, v. 11, p. 105-108.
Mitra, G., 1978, Ductile deformation zones and mylonites: The mechanical proc-
esses involved in the deformation of crystalline basement rocks: American
Journal of Science, v. 278, p. 1057-1084.
Odom, A. L., Dunn, D. E., Engelder, J. T., Geiser, P. A., Kish, S. A., Hatcher,
PSEUDOTACHYLITES R. D., Schamel, S., and Wise, D. U., 1980, A characterization of faults in the
Appalachian foldbelt: Washington, D.C., Nuclear Regulatory Commission
PROTOMYLONITES Publication NUREG/CR-1621, 314 p.
Sibson, R. H., 1977, Fault rocks and fault mechanisms: Geological Society of
1
BRECCIAS ^ J // London Journal, v. 133, p. 191-213.
Tullis, J., Snoke, A. W., and Todd, V. R., 1982, Penrose Conference report on
I (Bl / MYLONITES significance and petrogenesis of mylonitic rocks: Geology, v. 10, p. 227-230.
(A) I • / Wenk, H. R. , 1978, Are pseudotachylites products of fracture or fusion?: Geol-
< ogy, v. 6, p. 507-511.
cr White, S., 1982, Fault rocks of the Moine Thrust Zone: A guide to their nomen-
l'-
en clature: Textures and Microstructures, v. 4, p. 211-221.
Zeck, H. P., 1974, Cataclasites, hemiclasites, holoclasites, blastoditto and
LL myloblastites—Cataclastic rocks: American Journal of Science, v. 274,
o ORDINARY p. 1064-1073.
METAMORPHIC
LiJ
h- ROCKS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
< We thank Leo Hall, Arthur Snoke, Jan Tullis, and Robert Twiss for incisive
cr review and many helpful suggestions. (This does not necessarily imply their com-
plete accord with all ideas and statements contained in the paper.) The paper is an
outgrowth of a research project originally supported by the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission Contract NRC Fin. No. B1053-8.
RATE OF RECOVERY
Manuscript received February 28, 1983
Figure 2. Hypothetical history of typical fault-related rock passing Revised manuscript received February 28, 1984
through coordinates of Figure 1. Manuscript accepted March 13, 1984
Geology
Geology 1984;12;391-394
doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1984)12<391:FRSFT>2.0.CO;2
Email alerting services click www.gsapubs.org/cgi/alerts to receive free e-mail alerts when new articles
cite this article
Subscribe click www.gsapubs.org/subscriptions/ to subscribe to Geology
Permission request click http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/copyrt.htm#gsa to contact GSA
Copyright not claimed on content prepared wholly by U.S. government employees within scope of their
employment. Individual scientists are hereby granted permission, without fees or further requests to GSA,
to use a single figure, a single table, and/or a brief paragraph of text in subsequent works and to make
unlimited copies of items in GSA's journals for noncommercial use in classrooms to further education and
science. This file may not be posted to any Web site, but authors may post the abstracts only of their
articles on their own or their organization's Web site providing the posting includes a reference to the
article's full citation. GSA provides this and other forums for the presentation of diverse opinions and
positions by scientists worldwide, regardless of their race, citizenship, gender, religion, or political
viewpoint. Opinions presented in this publication do not reflect official positions of the Society.
Notes