URBAN DESIGN

The Elements of Urban Design

The urban environment is made up of a number of elements.

The process of manipulating various elements constitute a
major part of the designer’s concern. To a large extent the
designer's success will depend upon how well he or she is
able to handle all these separate but related elements.
The Space between and around Buildings

 While a skilled designer consider the design of interior and exterior

space to be related, urban design is usually thought of in terms of
design of space outside the building.

 The Urban designer’s responsibility is to give that space a positive

relationship to the adjacent buildings and to relate that space to the
larger urban pattern.

 Exterior space can be manipulated in much the same way as interior

space.
Positive and Negative Form
 The placement of a building in the
environment immediately sets up a
relationship with the space around it. The
addition of other buildings makes the spatial
relationships more complex.
 One of the most complex environments thus
made was Rome. The sense of that
environment was captured by Noli in a map
that shows both the major interior and
exterior spaces between buildings. His map
clearly indicates the relationship interior and
exterior spaces; between the negative space
which has not been filled, and the positive
space which has been filled.
Townscape
 The term townscape was used by Gordon Cullen.
His major concern was describing the physical
appearance of urban space.
 He was interested in identifying those elements
and combinations of elements that give
particular aesthetic satisfaction. Much of that
which gives aesthetic satisfaction is closely tied
to the context of the environment.
 His analysis support research that indicates
there are several factors that remain constant,
regardless of context or cultural variations, in
aesthetic concern.
 Those factors are human perception,
anthropometrics, and stimuli.
Human Perception
 Visual perception is a function
of eye, which receives messages,
and the brain, which translates
those messages into an image.
There are different cultural
meanings given to different
images. Nevertheless, the
perception of space is physically
experienced in much the same
way by everyone having the gift
of sight.
 Kevin Lynch identified five
elements that form people’s
mental images of cities and / or
components.
 There is a useful set of ratios based on the eye’s cone of vision that can be used to determine
the amount of visual enclosure given different ratios of height of wall to width of floor plane.
 ratio of 1:4 --- enclosure is barely perceived
 ratio of 1:3 --- the feeling of enclosure is stronger
 ratio of 1:2 --- produces a definite visual enclosure
 ratio of 1:1 --- produces a very strong enclosure
 These ratios describe what a person actually sees, but a person’s sense of enclosure may
vary depending upon his or her cultural background.
 Color and Hue are also elements that affect visual sensation.
 Light surfaces and bright colors tend to advance, to appear closer to the viewer
 Dark surfaces and muted colors tend to recede.
 By using these simple visual phenomena, one can do much to manipulate the quality of
space.
Anthropometrics

 Anthropometrics play an important role in our sense of the city. The height of
stairs, walls, benches, and so on all directly affect our relationship to the
environment. Some useful dimensions to remember are the heights of walls.
 A wall between 12 inches and 24 inches is easy to sit upon; one lower or
higher makes sitting awkward.
 A wall 36 inches high is comfortable to lean upon, and a person of average
height can look over it.
 Each of these height relationships, whether used in conjunction with a
staircase, wall, ledge, fence, railing, table, or other elements, establishes a
very clear response from a user.
Stimuli

 Our senses also give us stimuli, or responsive clues. The type of

 material used in a space can amplify or absorb sound.
 Concrete reflect sound, while grass and planting absorb sound.
 Smooth surfaces are easier to walk upon than rough surfaces.
Thus, rough textures are often used in lieu of “keep out” signs to discourage or
direct people away from a particular area.
 Concrete and stone reach ambient temperature very quickly, and thus cold or
warm, depending upon the surrounding temperature, whereas wood maintains
a more even temperature.
 Our response to the environment can be quite predictable if we consider the
capabilities and limitations of human beings. These factors should be kept in
mind for effective urban design.
Physical Determinants of Urban Form
ORTHOGONAL FORM
 The introduction of orthogonal, or right – angled, planning is most often
attributed to the Greek architect Hippodamus, who in the fifth century B.C.
proposed that Greek cities be laid out in a grid system so that they might
grow in an orderly fashion.

 The Romans institutionalized the grid system in their castras, or fortified

towns, planted throughout the Roman Empire. Many European cities with grid
system today can trace their origins back to the Roman Empire.

 The grid system can be found in nearly all cultures. It is fairly universal
mechanism for ordering space. The United States is an extreme example of
orthogonal planning.
Organic Form

 Organic form is a large category

used to try to describe
everything not orthogonal. Just
as orthogonal planning is very
apparently self –conscious means
of dividing space, organic
planning is most often thought of
as less planned or less self –
conscious.
 A better description of
organic planning might be
that it responds to other
than geometrically
preconceived notions of
form. Thus, unself–
conscious designs tend
not to be orthogonal,
because the designer is
responding to other
forces. Usually, organic
plans have developed
over time without any
grand plan or notion of
reaching a completed
state.
Geometrical and Axial Organizing Devices

Another ordering device traditionally used to organize the relationships of buildings to

each other and the space around them is the principle of axiality and symmetry. This
is frequently used when new buildings are added to an existing complex.
 Kinetic and Sequential Organizing Devices

 The procession was an important consideration in early urban design. The

movement through space, the kinetic or active involvement of a viewer in a
progression of visual experiences, was used expertly by the Greeks in
organizing the approach to the Acropolis. There are certain visual elements
essential for giving a sense of moving through space. The most important
elements are change and modulation.
Transport Networks
 Movement systems have always been a primary factor in determining urban
form. Since movement systems, or rights – of – way, are usually public, they
not only create the channels along which different kinds of traffic flow, but
they also serve to distinguish between that space which is public and that
which is private.

 Urban transport systems, whether for vehicles or people, usually fall into
one or two geometric forms: a net or a tree. The distinction between these
two are significant. A net work may be cut along any one line, yet the
system is not bisected. If tree geometry is cut along any one line, the system
is broken into two unconnected fragments.
 The tree system of
organization became especially
popular with urban designers
after Clarence Stein and Henry
Wright, two pioneers of urban
design in the United States at
the beginning of the 20th
century, developed a cul de
sac plan for Radburn, N.J. This
plan organized automobile
traffic and pedestrian paths as
separate systems, the dwelling
unit linking the two.
Communication and Service Networks
 Modern technology has introduced other forms of communication besides
physical contact. The electronic network – telephone, radio, television and,
computers, has become an important and accepted method of linking people
in urban areas.

 Over expectations have been raised to the point that we now associate cities
with a certain level of convenience. Much of the convenience is provided by
modern engineering techniques, which service the city through technological
system providing water, sewerage, gas, electricity, telephone, cable TV, and
sometimes heat.

 These networks are increasingly important to urbanization and their presence

greatly affects the density of development. Their cost also represent a
major consideration in designing the geometry of new settlements.
Purpose of Public Space

 Each culture has produced its

own version of a primary public
space. The Greek Agora and
Roman fora served both
commercial and public interests
and were the centers of business
and politics. Maidan or Ahata
served as public space in
traditional South Asian Societies.
 The square of the medieval
period served as the
marketplace, and the church
square was used for religious
gatherings and the exchange
of goods. In some cities the
square was little more than
wider part of the street,
while in others the square
was developed as a separate,
lateral extension of the
street. Often a square
developed at the town gate
where the roads out of the
city came together. In the
planned towns the square
was place in the centre of
the town, where roads
converged.
The Renaissance basically refined the medieval square. Monuments and
fountains were added, and in some instances buildings around the square
were actually altered to create more pleasing exterior space.
 During the Baroque period the civic square became very important and was
used as a device to commemorate people and events, through statues,
arches, columns, and such. The opportunity to link square and roadways into
larger regional networks was taken.
There are two primary ways of relating open space to significant buildings. The
first is to design a public space in front of the building
The second treatment is to actually set the building in the middle of an open
space
Influence of Public Space on Urban Form
 An astonishing amount of the urban fabric is made up of public space. Right –
of – way ----- that is , land devoted to streets and other forms of public
movement, such as sidewalks --- constitute from 30 to 50 percent of the total
land area in most cities.