Wallaga University

School of Graduate study

College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Food Technology and Process Engineering
Masters in Food Technology Program

Nutritional, Antinutritional and Functional Properties of Okra (edible green Leave and
Pods) grown in Abol district, Gambella Region, Ethiopia

Master’s thesis

Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
in Food Technology

By:
Gatwech Both Puot

Advisor: Dr. Wondu Garoma (PhD, Associate Professor)

June, 2022
Nekemte, Ethiopia

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APPROVAL SHEET FOR SUBMITTING THESIS
This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Gatwech Both Puot; entitled: Nutritional,
Antinutritional and Functional Properties of Okra (Edible green Leave and pods) grown
in Abol district, Gambella Region, Ethiopia and submitted in partial fulfilments for the
requirements for the degree of masters of science of Food technology complies with the regulations
of the university and meets the accepted standards concerning originality and quality.

Name: Gatwech Both Puot

Signature: . Date: ____________________
The undersigned members of the thesis examining boards appointed to examine the thesis of
Gatwech Both Puot and submitted for the degree of Master of Science in Food technology
confirmed that the thesis fulfils the requirements of the program and approved it to be accepted.

Chairman, School’s Graduate Committee: Signature date

Internal Examiner: signature date

External Examiner: signature date

Advisor: signature date

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STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
I, Mr.Gatwech Both hereby declare and affirm this thesis entitled: Nutritional, Antinutritional
and functional Properties of okra (Edible green Leave and Pods) grown in Abol district,
Gambella Region, Ethiopia. Is my own conducted under my advisor Dr. Wondu Garoma (Ph.D.
Associate Professor).I have followed all the ethical principles of scholarship in the preparation,
data collection, data analysis and completion of this thesis. All scholarly matter that is included
in the thesis has been given recognition through citation. I have adequately cited and referenced
all the original sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty
and integrity and I have not misrepresented, fabricated, or falsified any ididea/data fact / source
in my submission. This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for a degree
from the Post Graduate Studies at Wollega University. This research study is my original work
and has not been presented for any organization, any diploma or degree program in this or any
other institutions /university, and all sources of materials used for accomplishing this thesis has
haven appropriately acknowledged.

Name: Gatwech Both Puot Signature .

Date: June/2022

College: Engineering and Technology

Department: Food Technology and Process Engineering

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
The author, Gatwech Both Puot was born on 03/06/1988.G.C. at Wanthoa Woreda in Gambella
Region, Ethiopia. He attended Elementary school in Yoak wuol and preparatory school in
Matar high school. He has successfully passed the Ethiopichool Leaving Certificate
Examination (ESLCE) in 2012, and joined Adama Science and Technology University,
College of agriculture and environmental science in 2013. Then after four years of study; he
graduated with B.Sc. degree in food science and postharvest technology. After graduation, he
had worked for one year from august 2019 and in September 2020 he joined the School of
Graduate Studies at Wollega University College of engineering and technology to pursue
Master of Science in food technology.

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AKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, thanks to almighty God, for helping me in all circumstances to complete the course
work and my thesis research successfully, blessing my life and giving me the knowledge, and
patience to accomplish this study. My deepest gratitude goes to my Advisor: Wondu Garoma
(PhD, Associate Professor) for his critical advice and professional comments, constructive
criticism, suggestion and useful that have improved the quality of my work. I would like to
express my deepest gratitude to department head Mr.Tamirat Endale (M.Sc.) for genuine way
he treated me while learning. I would like to express my appreciation for the academic staff of
the food technology and process engineering department at Wollega University.

Gambella University is acknowledged for allowing my monthly salary. Wollega University is

highly acknowledged for it’s all round support during my study period. I am indebted to Mr.
Gatwech Makuach (M.Sc.) for his assistance in helping me on how to analyses the data and
keeping me faithful to statistical task when I floundered.

I also extend my sincere gratitude to all individuals who directly or indirectly helped me to
analyse this thesis. On again my specially thank goes to the laboratory staff of Bless Agri-
laboratory PLC by helping me for analysis (proximate and minerals). I would also thank the
Ethiopian public health institute for their unwavering task by helping me to analysis
(antinutrient and functional properties). I would like to thank my parents especially my Mom,
Nyayiech Yuot who experience pain of my life and my wife Nyahoth Majiok and Marry
Nyachoap Mut for nurturing love that has been the solid ground I have walked on through the
years and bring this thesis to fruition. Words are not enough to express my little brother
Mr.Chan Both for wish, pray and encouragement. Lastly but not least, I would like to thank
my kids, Mabil, Chudier, Gatluak, Nyajima and Nyawargak for their joy and loving kindness
guided my heart.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS
AAS : Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
BD : Bulk Density
BHA : Butylated Hydroxy Anisole
BHT : Butylated Hydroxy Toluene
CA : Calcium
CHO : Carbohydrate
DWB : Dry Weight Basis
GAPLZ : Gambella Agro-Pastoral Livelihood Zone
GARI : Gambella Agricultural Research Institute
GCHACLZ : Gambella Coffee, Honey and Cereal Livelihood Zone
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GLO : Gambella Landraces okra
GPNRS : Gambella Peoples‟ National Regional State
IV : Indigenous vegetables
K : Potassium
Na : Sodium
Ox : Oxalate
P : phosphorus
PC : Principal Component
Phy : Phytate
ROS : Reactive Oxygen Species
TFC : Total Flavonoid Content
TPC : Total Phenolic Content
UV-VIS : Ultraviolet-Visible
WAC : Water absorption capacity
WU : Wollega University
Zn : Zinc

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Table of Contents
Approval sheet for submitting thesis ................................................................................ ii
Statement of the author ........................................................................................................iii
Biographical sketch ............................................................................................................. iv
Aknowledgement .................................................................................................................. v
List of abbreviations/acronyms ......................................................................................... vi
Abstract..................................................................................................................................xiv
Chapter one ............................................................................................................................. 1
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Background ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of problems ................................................................................................. 4
1.3. Objective of the study .................................................................................................. 6
1.3.1. General objective ....................................................................................................... 6
1.3.2. Specific objective ....................................................................................................... 6
1.4. Research questions ........................................................................................................ 6
1.5. Significance of the study ............................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................... 8
2. Review of literature .................................................................................... 8
2.1. Production, processing and economic importance of okra: overview.......... 8
2.2. Processing of okra leave and pods ............................................................ 9
2.3. Economic importance of okra ................................................................ 10
2.3.3. Growth and development of okra leave and pods ................................. 12
2.3.4. Harvesting and yields of okra leave and pods ....................................... 12
2.4. Traditional processing of okra leave and pods......................................... 14
2.5. Health benefits and nutritional values of okra ......................................... 16
2.5.1. Nutritional value of okra leaves ........................................................... 17
2.5.1.1. Proximate composition of okra leave ................................................ 18
2.5.2. Nutritional value of okra pods ............................................................. 19
2.5.2.1. Proximate composition of okra pod .................................................. 20
2.5.2.2. Minerals contents of okra pods ......................................................... 22

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2.5.2.3. Anti-nutritionts in okra pod .............................................................. 22
2.6. Functional properties of okra ................................................................. 23
2.6.1. Bulk density ....................................................................................... 23
2.6.2. Water and oil absorption capacity........................................................ 24
2.7. Okra seeds ............................................................................................ 24
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................ 26
3. Materials and method .................................................................................................... 26
3.1. Materials ......................................................................................................................... 26
3.1.1. Description of sampling site and collection area. ............................................ 26
3.2. Sample collection and reagents ................................................................................ 28
3.3. Preparation of okra flour ............................................................................................ 29
3.4. Proximate composition ............................................................................................... 32
3.4.1. Moisture content ...................................................................................................... 32
3.4.2. Crude protein ............................................................................................................ 33
3.4.3. Crude fat..................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.4. Crude fiber ................................................................................................................. 34
3.4.5. Ash content ................................................................................................................ 35
3.4.6. Total carbohydrate content .................................................................................... 36
3.5. Mineral contents.................................................................................... 36
3.5.1. Preparation for standard solution ......................................................... 36
3.5.2. Microwave digestion procedure........................................................... 37
3.5.3. Determination of minerals ..................................................................................... 37
3.6. Anti-nutrients constituents ..................................................................... 38
3.6.1. Phytate ............................................................................................... 38
3.6.2. Tannin ............................................................................................... 38
3.6.3. Oxalates ............................................................................................. 38
3.7. Functional properties ............................................................................. 39
3.7.1. Bulk density ....................................................................................... 39
3.7.2. Water absorption capacities................................................................. 39

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3.8. Statistical analysis ........................................................................................................ 40
CHAPTER FOUR............................................................................................................... 41
4. Result and discussion..................................................................................................... 41
4.1. Proximate composition ............................................................................................... 41
4.1.1. Moisture ..................................................................................................................... 41
4.1.2. Protein......................................................................................................................... 42
4.1.3. Fat ................................................................................................................................ 42
4.1.4. Ash............................................................................................................................... 43
4.1.5. Fiber ............................................................................................................................ 43
4.1.6. Carbohydrate ............................................................................................................. 44
4.1.7. Gross energy values ................................................................................................ 44
4.2. Mineral content ..................................................................................... 45
4.2.1. Potassium ........................................................................................... 45
4.2.2. Calcium ............................................................................................. 46
4.2.3. Iron.................................................................................................... 46
4.2.4. Copper ............................................................................................... 47
4.2.5. Zinc ................................................................................................... 47
4.2.6. Sodium .............................................................................................. 48
4.2.7. Magnesium ........................................................................................ 49
4.2.8. Manganese ......................................................................................... 50
4.3. Mineral ratios of dried leave and pods flour of okra landrace................... 50
4.3.1. Sodium to potassium ratio ................................................................... 51
4.3.2. Calcium to potassium ratio .................................................................. 51
4.4. Antinutrients ......................................................................................... 51
4.4.1. Phytate ............................................................................................... 52
4.4.2. Oxalate .............................................................................................. 53
4.4.3. Tannin ............................................................................................... 53
4.5.1. [phytate] to [calcium] molar ratios....................................................... 54
4.5.2. [phytate] to [iron] molar ratios ............................................................ 55

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4.5.3. [phytate] to [zinc] molar ratios ............................................................ 55
4.5.4. [oxalate] to [calcium] molar ratios ....................................................... 55
4.5.5. [phytate][calcium]/ [zinc] molar ratios. ................................................ 56
4.6. Functional properties ............................................................................. 56
4.6.1. Bulk density ....................................................................................... 57
4.6.2. Water absorption capacity ................................................................... 57
CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................... 58
5. Conclusion and recommendation .............................................................. 58
5.1. Conclusion ............................................................................................ 58
5.2. Recommendation ......................................................................................................... 59
6. References ............................................................................................... 60
Appendices............................................................................................................................ 67

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 List of tables

Tables’ pages

Table: 3 1. Samples of landraces Okra and collected area. ...................................................... 28

Table: 4. 1. Proximate composition (g/100g, dwb) of Leave and pods flour of landrace

Okra………………………………………………………………..………………………....41

Table: 4. 2.Total mineral content (mg/100g, dwb) of Leave and pods flour of landrace okra.

.................................................................................................................................................. 45

Table:4. 3. Mineral ratios of dried leave and pods of landrace okra. ....................................... 50

Table:4. 4. Anti- nutritional constituent of dry Leave Okra and pods flour of landrace okra. . 52

Table: 4. 5. Calculated mineral ratios to photochemical of dry Leave and pod flour of

landrace okra. ........................................................................................................................... 54

Table:4. 6. Functional properties of dry Leave Okra and pods flour of landrace okra. ........... 56

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 List of figure

Figures Pages

Figure: 2. 1. Local farm of landrace Okra, Gambella (Ethiopia). ............................................ 13

Figure: 2. 2. Edible green leave of Okra Gambella, (Ethiopia). .............................................. 16

Figure: 2. 3. Edible green pods of Okra. .................................................................................. 20

Figure:2. 4. Okra seeds (Gambella Agricultural Research Institute, 2020). ............................ 25

Figure: 3. 1. Map of Ethiopia and study site (Gambella)…………………………...………..27

Figure: 3. 2. Fresh samples of leave and pods ......................................................................... 28

Figure: 3. 3. Selected nutritrients, antinutrient and function properties. ................................. 29

Figure: 3. 4. Sliced samples of raw materials. ......................................................................... 30

Figure: 3. 5. Flowchart for preparation of okra flour (leave and pods). .................................. 31

Figure: 3. 6. Powder sample of Okra (leave and Pods). .......................................................... 32

Figure: 3. 7. Analysis of Protein content used Kjeldhal Digestion Unit. ................................. 40

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 List of Appendix

List Page

Appendix: 1. 1. Local farm of landrace Okra, Gambella (Ethiopia) ....................................... 13

Appendix: 1. 2.Edible green leave of Okra.............................................................................. 15

Appendix: 3 1. Map of study site (Gambella)..........................................................................26

Appendix: 3 2. Photo of powder sample.................................................................................. 29

Appendix: 3 3. Photo during analysis. ..................................................................................... 40

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Abstract
The agro ecological conditions of Ethiopia are favorable for home garden and commercial
production of okra. Okra is an economically important vegetable crop grown in different part
of Ethiopia. The national production and consumption of okra both leave and pods is negligible
and the crop has been considered as a minor crop which is traditionally cultivated in some parts
of the country like Benishangul Gumuz, Gambella and Humera. Lack of scientific information
on the nutritional quality, phytochemical and functional properties of okra is a major constraint
in in Ethiopia, particularly in Gambella Region. Therefore, the study was aimed to determine
nutritional, anti-nutritional and functional properties of Okra (edible green leave and pods) grown
in Abol district, Gambella Region, Ethiopia. The leave and pods of okra landrace, namely
GLO48 for leave and GLO49 – GLO50 for pods, were collected from the December 2022
during main okra harvesting time. The proximate composition in g/100g on dry weight basis
of the leave and pods of okra landrace were significantly (P<0.05) high in crude protein, crude
fiber and utilize carbohydrate and gross energy in leave than pods respectively, whereas low in
crude fate and total ash from the following ranges in leave and pods. Moisture value 9.41 -
12.67, the protein content 19.51 - 27.16; crude fat 1.99 - 4.31; total ash 1.96 - 5.06; crude fiber
11.94 - 17.56; carbohydrate 39.53 - 43.06 and gross energy value 292.27 kcal/100g – 305.60,
respectively. There was a significant difference (p<0.05) in mineral contents in mg/100g of
leave and pods of okra landrace from the following ranged potassium 147.11 - 243.37; calcium
96.79±0.30 - 276.93; Iron 1.55 - 4.20; copper 0.31 - 0.72; Zinc 4.84 - 5.40; Sodium 10.95 -
41.92; magnesium 364.29 - 388.61 and manganese 2.73 - 9.54, respectively. The molar ratios
of the leave and pods in this study were below the standard reference and which show the high
mineral bioavailability in all edible with significant difference (p<0.05) in contents. The
phytochemical in mg/100g was a significant difference (p<0.05) in leave and pods of okra
landrace with following ranged Phytate 0.26 - 3.11; Oxalate 0.19 - 0.50; tannin 1.02 – 1.99
respectively, the amount that were detected from photochemical were low in oxalate and
phytate. The functional properties in (g/ml) was ranged from Bulky density 0.30 - 0.44 and
Water absorption 0.86 - 3.15 respectively. The proximate composition indication that the leave
and pods of okra landrace can be an important nutrient to both human and livestock. Generally,
the results of this research indicated that okra contains essential nutrients and phytochemicals
as compared to the commonly consumed green vegetables in Ethiopia. Further studies are
recommended to determine the active ingredients.
Key words: Okra leave, nutritional, phytochemical and functional properties, okra landrace.

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 CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
1.1.Background

Food and nutrition are closely associated with human health and the world population growth
has led to an increase in nutritional deficiencies and diseases related to the lack of essential
nutrients in human diet, particularly affecting vulnerable populations. One of the world’s
greatest challenges is to secure sufficient and healthy food for all, and to do so in an
environmentally sustainable manner. In order to reduce these conditions, the attention has been
increasingly focused on exploring non-conventional food sources that provide nutritional and
pharmaceutical benefits, highlighting dark-green leafy vegetables, good sources of minerals
and vitamins Raju, et al., (2011). Plant photosynthetic is obtained via three main recourses
including current photosynthesis in the leaves, photosynthesis in green parts of plants excluding
the leaves and transferring from the storing parts. If the rate of transfer of photosynthetic
materials is slightly higher than utilized, photosynthetic would be stored as starch in deferent
part of plant, such as in the okra pods. In addition, okra has attributes that could permit it to be
used for other purposes. Okra leaves, buds, and flowers are edible; it could provide oil, protein,
vegetable curd, and a coffee additive or substitute Burchi et al., (2011).Vegetables have long been
part of diets in communities worldwide and contribute substantially to food security Aja et al.,
(2010). Okra is scientifically known as Abelmoschus esculentus; also Hibiscus esculentus”.
Additionally known by diverse names around the world as: Okra is called Wegee in Nuer and
Amula in Anuak, Bamya in majang and oppo, and in the eastern Mediterranean and Arab
countries bamies, majock wutchok, te.al, (2020).

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) is a vegetable native to the tropical and subtropical regions
of the world which belongs to Malvaceae family and the leaves and seeds are also edible with
less common use Adetuyi, & Gaset, (2011) Okra is originates widely and spread all over
tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus
L.) is one of the oldest cultivated crops and presently grown in many countries and is widely
distributed from Africa to Asia, southern Europe and America. (Saifullah.et al. , 2009). It is
one of the most widely known and utilized species of the family Malvaceae. The higher ranker
production of Okra is India, it produces more than 6350.3 million tonnes and the productivity
is 12.0 million tonnes per hectare 70% which is total world production of okra from 2013-14.
It plays an important role in the human diet and is a good source of primary and secondary

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metabolites such as protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, enzymes, and various minerals which are
often lacking in the diet of developing country. Naveed, et al., (2009).

Okra fruits are a green capsule containing numerous white seeds when not matured Jesus,et al.,
(2008) and the flowers and upright plants give okra an ornamental value. Okra has several
potential health beneficial effects on some of the important human diseases like cardiovascular
disease, type 2 diabetes, digestive diseases and some cancers. Overall, Okra is an important
vegetable crop with a diverse array of nutritional quality and potential health benefits. It usually
occurs in the roots, bark, and seeds, but is also found in the flowers, leaves and cell walls Shui
G, Peng LL. , 2004).The edible part of okra is the immature pod, which is harvested when
tender. The leaves, buds and flowers are also edible. Dried okra can also be stored and used
later for soup or stew. In West Africa, okra is utilized mainly because of its high mucilage
content which is used in the thickening of soup Schippers, 2000; Uzo and Ojiakor1980). Okra
fruit also present significant antioxidant properties, mostly due to their high content in vitamin
C, carotenoids and flavonoids, as well as therapeutic properties against diabetes,
hyperlipidaemia, microbes, ulcers and neurodegenerative diseases Atawodi, et al.,(2009).
Dried seed from okra are the richest part of the okra plant, although oil from okra seed is
nutritious and significantly rich in protein, it is not only processed for oil or protein as the
production of seed is limited to seedling and regeneration purposes. However large quantities
of okra seeds are discarded as unfit for seedling purposes reported that a high protein meal
remains after oil extraction of okra seed similar to that of cottonseed meal. Okra seed is made
up of oligomeric catechins (2.5 mg/g of seeds) and flavonol derivatives (3.4 mg/g of seeds),
while the mesocarp is mainly composed of hydroxycinnamic and quercetin derivatives (0.2 and
0.3 mg/g of skins). The pods and seeds are rich in phenolic compounds with important
biological properties like quartering derivatives, catechin oligomers and hydroxycinnamic
derivatives Arapitsas, P., (2008). These properties, along with the high content of
carbohydrates, proteins, glycol-protein, and other dietary elements enhance the importance of
this foodstuff in human diet Arapitsas and Manach et al., (2005).

Okra leaves, is botanically classified as vegetables natives, grow on an annual flowering plant
and it is used as a part of vegetable among the possible alternatives food sources Doreddula et
al., (2014). Okra leave are commonly used both as cooked stew and for curative purposes,
showing good calories, a good source of edible fiber, contains important bioactive compounds
such as carotene, folic acid, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, oxalic acid and amino acids
Roy et al., (2014). Besides, the nutritional properties mentioned above, some authors have

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reported a variety of functional activities attributed to okra leaves are such as anti-diabetic,
anti-hyperlipemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal and antioxidant Khomsug et al., (2010). The
antioxidant activity of the fruit is due to its content of phenolic compounds, which are effective
antioxidants and can be used in the prevention of degenerative processes such as cancer,
cardiovascular diseases and diabetes Doreddula et al., (2014). Moreover, vegetal sources may
contain substances harmful for human health, affecting the bioavailability of nutrients. Among
these substances, lectins, tannins and saponins stand out.

Okra leaves contains trace amount of vitamins A and K. According to the office dietary
supplements, vitamin A is essential for bone growth, reproduction, cell division eye health and
immune system function. Vitamin K is essential to the body’s ability to form blood clots in
response to injury. Vitamin K is also necessary for bone strength especially in older
populations. Okra leaves contains trace amount of minerals and phytonutrients such as Fe and
Mg. Fe is important for the formation of protein use to make blood cell and hemoglobin, the
component of the red blood cell that caries oxygen. Magnesium is important for many
enzymatic activities throughout the body and contributes to health of the immune system, the
central nervous system and bone Naveed et al., (2009) and Tiwari et al., (2016).

Seedpods can be consumed in many ways as fresh (raw), dried, cooked, frozen, fried and
pickled. Okra also has industrial applications and is used in confectionary Adetuyi, et al. ,
(2011).The edible fruit is widely grown from Africa to Asia, in Southern Europe, the
Mediterranean and South America. Total commercial production of okra in the world is
estimated at over 4.8 million tons with India and Nigeria as the leading producers followed by
Sudan Gulsen et al., (2007). Okra cultivation and production is widely practiced across all agro-
ecological zones of Nigeria because of its importance to food security, and can be found in
almost every market in the country (Christo and Onuh, 2005). Okra leaves and pod of okra
(Abelmoschusesculentus (L) Moench) are edible and consumed in many societies. There is no
complete record on production area and production of okra in Ethiopia, but it is a traditional
crop in south western, western and north western Ethiopia Mihretu,et al., (2014).

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1.2.Statement of problems

Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Africa with fast population growth rate
Mohammed et al., (2014) and had food deficit. The high intake of plant product is associated
with reduced risk of a number of chronic, diseases such as atherosclerosis and cancer Gosslau
and Chen (2004). The agro ecological conditions of Ethiopia are favorable for home garden
and commercial production of okra. Okra is an economically important vegetable crop grown
in different part of Ethiopia. Okra is a popular vegetable consumed predominantly as food
among the various ethnic groups in Gambella Region, Ethiopia. Its most crop next to maize
and sorghum production in Gambella region. The national production and consumption of okra
both leave and pods is negligible and the crop has been considered as a minor crop which is
traditionally cultivated in some parts of the country like Benishangul Gumuz, Gambella and
Humera.

Household food availability is the most important determinant for the community intake and it
influenced by local food production. Okra is like other vegetable crops in terms of the area
coverage at the regional level and land allocated. The protection that fruits and vegetables
provide against these maladies has been attributed to the presence of essential nutrients and
several antioxidants Garcia-Salas et al., (2010) and offer advantages over dietary supplements
because of low cost and wide availability. Increasing vegetables utilization and consumption
are away to reduce incidence of nutritional deficiencies. Furthermore, according to the
information from Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey EDHS, Rochville, (2016), the
severe acute malnutrition still increases in Gambella regional state’ due there is lack of
comprehensive information regarding nutritional knowledge, food diets. Programs and other
materials specifically related to nutritional value, antinutritional and function properties
contents of Okra leave and pods are not known.

Diet in most part of Ethiopia is characterized as monotonous and over-dependence on cereals

and grains as the primary source of energy Baye, (2014). Cereals and grains are the major food
crops in terms of the area coverage (77%) at the national level and land allocated for vegetables
is only 1% Taffesse et al. (2012). The protection that fruits and vegetables provide against these
maladies has been attributed to the presence of essential nutrients and several antioxidants
Olana, (2001); Garcia-Salas et al., (2010)and offer advantages over dietary supplements
because of low cost and wide availability Dias, (2012).

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In Gambella region, okra like many other vegetable crops, is eaten in a raw or processed form,
but cassava, maize and sorghum varieties had comprehensive nutritional profiles and the
quality of Okra leaves and pods is not study. Therefore, there’s limited information on the
nutritional value, antinutritional value, and function properties of Okra leave and pods grown
in Abol district, Gambella Region. Knowing the Okra leave and pods nutritional diversity
would have a direct impact on the improvement of Okra for quality and for food product
development to reduce the prevalence of food insecurity, especially for those low-income
communities. To the best of our knowledge, there is no single published report currently
available on nutrients of Ethiopian okra leave. However, to use plant leaves as an alternative
source of nutrients, the current study was present the nutritional, antinutritional and functional
properties of okra leave and pods.

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 1.3.Objective of the study
1.3.1. General objective
The present study was to determine nutritional, anti-nutritional and functional properties
of Okra (edible green leave and pods) grown in Abol district, Gambella Region, Ethiopia.

1.3.2. Specific objective

To determine proximate composition of edible green leave and pods of okra landrace.
To evaluate mineral contents of edible green leave and pods of okra landrace.
To determine anti-nutritional contents of edible green leave and pods of okra landrace.
To determine functional properties of edible green leave and pods of okra landrace.

1.4.Research questions

The present research has identified the following questions to be addresses:

I. Is there any significant difference in nutrients and antinutrients composition of the edible
green leave of okra and pods okra landraces grown in Abol district, Gambella region,
Ethiopia?
II. Is there any significant difference in phytochemical profile of the leave and pods of okra
landrace?
III. Is there any significant difference in functional properties of the edible green leave and
pods of okra landrace?

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1.5. Significance of the study

Exploring of this research, it expecting to fill the gap concerning Gambella communities on
okra to determine the scientific information on proximate composition and functional
properties of edible green leave and pods. It would benefit researchers and consumers with
okra in Gambella, (Ethiopia) and the rest of regional state at large. Some okra composition
have been identified in Ghana, Sudan, South Africa, Egypt and others site in Ethiopia as well.

There is the need to evaluate and explore alternative uses for edible green leaves and pods of
Okra based on the quality attributes in Gambella. Because when the nutritional composition of
the edible green leaves and pod of Gambella okra are known, as usually, the society will use
it as a staple food, and this is where will help in combating food insecure, reducing poverty and
ensuring food diets in the region. By determining the compositional, it will provide the possible
information about functional properties that would contribute to human health and it will be
used as functional food ingredients. Therefore, the result of the study will help the society to
know the nutritional, anti-nutritional which will increase the absorbability of nutrients. It will
help to understand economically with a potential to increase the farm income of small
producers. This will introduce the popular of Okra because it’s easy to grow and valuables with
average details.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2. Review of Literature
2.1.Production, Processing and Economic Importance of Okra: Overview

World production of okra both species as fresh fruit-vegetable is estimated at 6 million t/year.
Common okra makes up 95% of this amount. It is only in West and Central Africa (accounting
for about 10% of world production) that common okra and West African okra are both used
Nilesh Jain, et.al, (2012). Okra is commonly grown in the South due to its robust nature. Okra
holds up well to pests, scarce water, and even intense heat. Additionally, the plant produces
high yields throughout its season, making it a very rewarding experience for even the least
experienced gardeners Schalau J., et. al, (2002). The plant grows preferably in well-drained
humus rich fertile soil in full sun with pH ranging from 6 to 6.7, but it can tolerate a wide range
of soil types and pH from 5.5 to 8.0 N. Jain, R. Jain, V. Jain, & S. Jain, (2012). The leaves are
long-petiole, orbicular or orbicular-ovate around 10–20 cm long, broad and rough, palatably
lobed with 5–7 lobes. Flowers of this plant are axillary and solitary, 4–8 cm in diameter having
five white to yellow petals, often with a red or purple spot at the base of each petal. Fruit is
elongated, 10 to 25 cm long, 1.5 to 3 cm in diameter, tapering to a blunt point and containing
rows of rounded, and kidney shaped seeds. The entire plant is edible and is used to have several
food and okra leaves are to some extent edible and are used as salad when fresh or cooked for
edible purposes as the greens of beets or dandelions Maramag, et.al, (2013) and non-food
applications.

Fruit production have increased significantly on the domestic and international markets due to
their attractive sensory properties and a growing recognition of its nutritional and therapeutic
value Samadderet, (1990). In many cases the raw fruit is not consumed directly by humans, but
first undergoes processing to separate the desired value product from other constituents of the
plant tissue. Like tropical crops such as jackfruit, pineapple, papaya and mango are typically
valued for their fruit. Processing of these crops typically involves separating the valuable fruit
part from by products such as skin and seeds Aguilar et al, (2010). Okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus L.) is a plant of the Malvacae family cultivated for its immature pods. The crop is
grown in many tropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate regions around the world. Okra
originated in Ethiopia Olana,et al., (2001) and was distributed to North Africa, Mediterranean,
Arabia and India in the 12th century Nzikou et al., (2006).It is mainly cultivated for its
immature fruits which are eaten after cooking. The plant is also cultivated because the leaves
can be consumed and the stem used for fiber and rope.

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The top ten major okra producing countries in the world are India, Nigeria, Iraq, Cote d’Ivoire,
Pakistan, Egypt, Benin, Cameroon, Ghana and Saudi Arabia, Oyelade et al., (2003). This
vegetable is an important part of the diet of Africans and Indians as well as of other countries
with the worldwide production of okra estimated to be close to 7 million Mt whereas that of
Ghana alone is about 60,000 M. The vegetable is known by several names in West and Central
Africa and some of these names are Gombo (French), Miyan-gro (Hausa), La (Djerma), Layre
(Fulani), Gan (Bambara), Kandia (Manding), Nkruma (Akan) and Fetri (Ewe) ( Negi and Mitra,
1999). In Ghana, Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, Northern, Volta, Greater Accra and Central regions
are the largest producers of okra. Nowadays, it is widespread throughout the world, while in
Europe its cultivation and consumption is more common around the Mediterranean basin, and
especially Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, and Turkey where it is a basic ingredient in many local and
traditional dishes, (Çalişir, Özcan, Haciseferoğullari, & Yildiz,, (2005). In Greece and Turkey,
they are considered as minor vegetable crops, however they are important vegetable species
and the small immature fruit are very popular in various summer dishes. Thus, the high
production of okra the world over should be utilized to some extent in the large-scale
production of okra-based nutraceuticals, which could also be used to alleviate the problem of
malnutrition in underdeveloped countries. Worldwide production of okra as fruit vegetable is
estimated at six million tonnes per year. In the peak season, it is produced in large quantities
much more than what the local populace can consume. Proper processing, preservation,
marketing and utilisation of okra is necessary to arrest the wastage being experienced during
the peak season. Such efforts should involve the development of appropriate technologies for
processing and preserving okra to produce products of high market value.

2.2.Processing of Okra Leave and pods

There is need for crop management strategy for removing edible okra both leave and pods. In
another trial Olasantan et.al., (1999), pruning treatments imposed on apically de-budded okra
plants for years to ascertain effects of removing a quarters of the primary branches on growth
and fresh leave. Manual and semi-modern processing methods are still being used for both
fresh and dried okra. The tools used for processing fresh okra are knife, grater, and mortar and
pestle/ grinding stone respectively. Fruit and vegetable processing has increased considerably
during the last 25 years (Akingbala, et.al., (2003). This has reflected the increase in demand
for pre-processed and packaged food, particularly ready meals. During the period, many
modern processes were developed and implemented but disposal of waste was not the major

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issue it is today. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Lam.) is an economically important, tall
growing vegetable crop grown in tropical parts of the world. In India, it ranks number one in
its consumption but its original home is Sudan and Ethiopia. It is cultivated throughout the
tropical and warm temperate regions of the world for its green edible fibrous fruit and pods
containing round, white seeds as well as for its ornamental value. It is an oligo purpose crop,
but it is usually consumed in a variety of ways. However, many tannin molecules have been
reported to reduce the mutagenicity of a number of compounds and it all depends on the
concentration at which it is used or consumed. To avoid these problems, it is recommended
that during the preparation of extracts from these by-products, acidic and/or alkaline hydrolysis
are recommended in order to inactivate these compounds Rufino et al, (2010).

2.3.Economic Importance of Okra

Okra has nutritional as well as medicinal value. The green tender leave and pod contains oxalic
acid. Calcium content is very high as compared to other vegetables, which is about 66 mg per
100g. The okra pod is excellent source of mineral which is necessary for the resistant against
throat disease like Goitre. It is good for the people suffering from heart weakness (Yawalkar,
1969). Its ripe pods are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee in some countries.
Mature pods and stems containing crude fibre are used in the paper industry. Recently an
attention has been given to the use of okra seeds as a source of proteins. Okra is an annual crop,
which requires warm conditions for growth and is available in almost every market all over
Africa, example in Gambella Region, (Ethiopia) Hazra, P. and Basu., (2000). It is grown
purposely for its leave and pods which are frequently eaten green as vegetable. Okra mucilage
is suitable for medicinal and industrial applications. In the medical field, the mucilage is used
as a plasma replacement or blood volume expander. Industrially, okra mucilage is usually used
to glace certain papers and is also useful in confectionery among other uses Farinde, et.al., .
(2007). Worldwide production of okra as fruit vegetable was estimated at 6,000,000 tons per
year. In West Africa, it was estimated at 500,000 to 600,000 tons per year Burkill, et.al., (1999)
observed a great diversification of okra with the most important production regions localized
in Ghana, Burkina Faso and Nigeria. The West and Central Africa region accounts for more
than 75% of okra produced in Africa, but the average productivity in the region is very low
(2.5 t/ha) compared to East Africa (6.2 t/ha) and North Africa (8.8 t/ha) FAOSTAT, (2006).
Nigeria is the largest producer (1,039,000 t) followed by Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana and others
(FAOSTAT, 2008).The three most important vegetables grown by 28% of the rural poor in
Ghana include pepper tomato and okra Diao, (2010). According to Oppong-Sekyere et al.

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(2011), fresh okra is a vegetable that can be found in almost all markets in Ghana, during the
rainy season and in a dehydrated form during the dry season, particularly in Northern Ghana
due to its strong commercial value for poor women farmers and its importance as food in the
diets of the inhabitants of the cities and villages. Several in natural foods are consumed daily
in dishes in their raw state or included in their cooked state in dishes and country preparations;
most people are unaware of their potential health benefits Costa, et al.,(2019). However,
industrialized functional foods have added production value, which raises their final cost to
consumers. This higher price is in part due to the various health benefits they provide, in part
to the production costs, and also in part to the marketing carried out on them by companies to
win over consumers, seeking to give greater emphasis out on them by companies to win over
consumers, seeking to give greater emphasis.

2.3.1. Economic important of okra leave

Okra leave were a wide variety eaten in notably East Africa, West Africa and Southeast Asia,
Academies of Sciences: Martine, (2005) tender okra leaves are often part of the daily diet. They
are most frequently cooked like spinach or added to soups and stews. Some leave an
objectionable feature reduced by cooking; others are hairless. In West Africa the tender shoots,
flower buds, and calyces are traditionally thrown into the leave as well. Okra leaves are
frequently dried in the sun, crushed, or ground to a powder, and stored for future use. In taste,
they are somewhat acidic. By carefully picking lower parts of the plant it is possible to get a
good crop of leaves without reducing the number of seedpods further up the stem National
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2006).

2.3.2. Economic important of okra pods

Mature pods are the plant edible portion mainly employed as an alternative sources of vegetable
food, they can be stir-fried and grilled. Some are blanched and processed as a canned product.
Whether boiled, added to soups, or sliced and fried, the pods have a unique flavor and texture.
They may be used alone or mixed with other vegetables. Mucilage released when okra slices
are fried is known to be a good thickening agent for gravy. In West Africa, young pods are
thinly sliced to prepare okra soup, which has been called “a perfect partner with fufu” (the
region’s main staple, made of starchy roots). Inside the dried pods the gums stay intact and
remain useful for flavoring and thickening foods. West Africans slice, sun dry, and grind pods
into a powder that is put away for the hungry time that hits each year just before the new
harvest. In Turkey the pods are strung out to dry for winter use. Lost Crops of Africa: (2006).

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2.3.3. Growth and development of okra leave and pods

Pods is formed in the okra plant, the greater amount of photosynthetic material moves to the
pod, depending on the species and environmental conditions Bhatt and Srinivasa (2006)
reported that the influence of leaf excision at different positions (odd and even nodes) in okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus L.cv. Arka Anamika) plant gives a higher sink - source ratios thus
increasing the photosynthetic rate and the leaf area of the remaining leaves.

Okra is perfect as a villager’s crop which can be grown on a wide range of soil types, although
rich, sandy loam soils are optimum Sharma & Prasad, et al, (2010). It is also easy to grow,
robust, and adapts to difficult conditions and can grow well where other food plants prove
unreliable National Research Council, (2006). Flowering begins about two months after
planting. Other countries14 flower then develops rapidly into a pod, which is typically
harvested just 3-6 days after the flower was formed. Pods harvested at this stage are tender,
flavourful, and about half was grown. Any that remain on the plant quickly turn fibrous and
tough National Research Council, 2006).

2.3.4. Harvesting and yields of okra leave and pods

Okra leave and pods can be harvested by hand manually and the seeds extracted when the pods
become mature, dry and brittle. The pods have a high respiration rate and should be cooled
quickly. Those in good condition can be kept satisfactorily for 7 to 10 days at 7 to 10°C. A
relative humidity of 90 to 95 percent helps prevent shrivelling .About 10 to 15 ton per hectare
of the pod yields can be obtained under good management, but yields of over 40 tons per
hectare can be realized under optimal conditions Kumar et al., (2013). An average yield of okra
varies from 6.5-7.5 t/ha of pods during the dry season and 11.5-12.5 t/ha during the rainy season
Ahmad et al., 2015). Seed yields approaching 500 kg per picking per hectare (0.5 kg per plant)
may be pro9duced during a harvest period of 30-40 days. Okra can be stored for 3 to 5 days in
the refrigerator. Okra that is too mature can be dried, cured, and used in flower arrangements.
Okra seed is easily saved for next season by leaving some of the last pods on the plant until
they get very large. Remove them and allow them to dry. The seeds will shell easily from the
pods. Other okra plant material such as leaves and stems can be put in a compost pile. To reduce
postharvest losses, it necessary to harvested okra at a good stage of maturity. Vegetable fruits
are generally harvested at juvenile stage of maturity and are mainly used in the preparation of
sauces. These sauces are prepared either with fresh or dried fruits, sliced or not and reduced to

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powder. Some strategy to reduce losses was developed in the country; sun-drying is the first
mean to preserve agricultural products because of its availability. Drying is the most common
method to keep okra from wasting. Dried okra is more accessible and available in specialty
markets and grocery stores. Drying increases the storage time of okra and extends its sale. The
okras can therefore be exported and kept longer. The present work aims to study the variation
of the biochemical parameters of dried okra at different stages of maturity to determine the
stage of maturity with the best nutrient profile after drying.

Appendix: 1. 1. Local farm during sample gathering of Okra landrace, Gambella (Ethiopia).
Normally, the pods of okra were harvested every 5 day from the time the first pod is formed.
It takes 5 to 10 days from flowering to picking fruits ready for the markets (Adetuyi et al.
2008). Harvesting is usually done early in the morning, after which it enters the market
(Moekchantuk, et.al, 2004).

Figure: 2. 1. Local farm of landrace Okra, Gambella (Ethiopia).

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2.4.Traditional processing of Okra leave and pods
In traditional process, the vegetable crop with considerable area under cultivation in Africa and
Asia with huge socio-economic potential in West and Central Africa. It has been called “a
perfect villager’s vegetable” because of its robust nature, dietary fibers and distinct seed protein
balanced in both lysine and tryptophan amino acids (unlike the proteins of cereals and pulses)
it provides. Processing of these crops typically involves separating the valuable fruit part from
by-products such as skin and seeds Aguilar et al, (2010). The mass of by-products obtained as
a result of processing tropical exotic crops may approach or even exceed that of the
corresponding valuable product, affecting the economics of growing tropical exotic crops
Miljkoet al, (2002).Okra, being an inexpensive popular vegetable crop, is consumed by several
populations globally and is a local staple food in low-income countries. Nowadays, due to its
nutritional and health benefits, there is a growing demand for okra, and different okra products
are available for purchase on online marketplaces. Recently, the agency Market Research
Future estimated that the global okra seed market could earn a revenue of USD 352.7 million
and register a 9.8% compound annual growth rate during the period, Muhammad, et al, (2018).

Globally, the market of okra seeds is geographically largely divided into Europe, Asia-Pacific,
and North America, followed by the remaining countries. In 2018, the largest accreditation for
the contribution of the okra market share (63.77%) was recorded by the Asia-Pacific region. It
is estimated that the okra-based nutraceutical market was reach a worth of 222.9 million USD
by the end of the year 2023. Small-scale manufacturers are a major cause for the disintegration
of the okra market in the Asia-Pacific region. Pakistan, Malaysia, India, and the Philippines are
regarded as the dominant producers of okra seeds Akintoye, H.; Adebayo, et al, (2011). In
recent times, India has been the prominent producer of okra globally, followed by the
remaining countries mentioned above. Since 2018, these remaining countries have held a
33.0% share of the global okra market. This enhanced expansion within the local market is
attributed to increased cultivation, as well as the development of genetically modified seeds.
Furthermore, the acceptance of hybrid and disorder-resistant seeds within the region has also
facilitated the noticeable expansion of the okra market. Africa is now predicted to globally
dominate the market for the consumption of okra seeds. It represents approximately 69% of
the territorial market share due to increased accessibility to more arable croplands within the
country. On the other hand, during 2017, North America accounted for only 2.2% of the okra
market share, whereas Europe accounted for only 1.0%. At the same time, Mexico is known to

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be a dominant producer of okra in North America because of the high cultivation of okra within
the country. The global okra seed-mediated market (OSM) is divided categorically and
regionally. Based on the category, the OSM is further divided into conventional and organic
seeds of okra plants. The conventional is more prominent, with a market share of 90.5% since
2018. The market dominance of could be attributed to the exploitation of different varieties,
namely open-pollinated and traditional. In contrast, organic OSM is estimated to show a high
growth rate of 10.7%, which could be attributed to a shift in consumer awareness resulting in
an increased preference for organic plant produce. The processing operations of okra are still
predominantly achieved through manual methods. Dadali, et al. , (2005) reported the economic,
health and nutritional benefits of okra. The traditional methods of processing okra is laborious,
time consuming and huge losses, the various processing operations are characterized with high
degree of unhygienic conditions such as contamination with dust, ash, soil, sand particles and
insects infestation and is weather dependent (Dadali et al., (2005). According to Doymaz
(2005) and Wankhade.et al, (2012) reported three drying techniques such as open sun drying,
solar drying and hot air drying.

The practice of harvesting the leaves of okra for consumption during its productive life is the
basis needs Oyewole CI,et.al, (2014). Okra leaves are consumed used as green vegetables for
cooking, the plant contains it leaves and stem, a mucilaginous material that has several food
and medicinal uses. The green stems of mature plants after the picking of fruit are generally
used for preparation of crude mucilage extract. The okra mucilage is a glycoprotein comprising
of about 10% protein and 80% polymeric carbohydrates. It has large water binding properties
due to hydroxyl group of sugar. The okra mucilage helps to stabilize blood sugar by curbing
the rate of which from the intestinal tract Kalu et.al, (2006). The fruits are harvested when
immature and eaten as a vegetable kiran, et.al, (2002). The consumption have increased
significantly on the domestic and international markets due to their attractive sensory properties
and a growing recognition of its nutritional and therapeutic value Samadderet al, (1990). Hence
it play vital role in human diet. For consumption, young immature leave are important fresh
fruit – vegetable that can be consumed in different forms. They could be boiled, fried or cooked.
In Nigeria, okra is usually boiled in water resulting in slimy soups and sauces, which are
relished. The fruits also serve as soup thickeners and the leaves, buds and flowers are also
edible Schippers,et.al, (2000). Okra seed could be dried. The dried seed is a nutritious material
that can be used to prepare vegetable curds, or roasted and ground to be used as coffee additive

15 | P a g e
or substitute. Appendix: 1. 2.Edible green leave of Okra. The harvesting of leave are done by
cut the stem just above the cap with a knife.

Figure: 2. 2. Picture of author, Edible green leave of Okra Gambella, (Ethiopia).

2.5.Health benefits and nutritional values of Okra

Okra is abundant with several vitamins, minerals, and nutrients that handles the health
advantages the plant provides. Okra is an oligo purpose crop due to its various uses of the fresh
buds, flowers, pods, stems and seeds Habtamu et al., (2014). Okra is a very good source of
calcium and potassium. Polysaccharides in okra lowers cholesterol level in blood and may
prevent cancer by its ability to bind bile acids Kahlon et al., (2007). Okra is rich in foliate
which are helpful for the fetus while pregnant. Foliate is a vital nutrient that increases the
growth and development of the fetus’ brain. The high quantity of folic acid within okra
performs a huge role within the neural tube formation of the fetus through the fourth to the 12th
week of pregnancy Zaharuddin et al., (2014).

Additionally, okra contains pectin that can help in reducing high blood cholesterol simply by
modifying the creation of bile within the intestines Ngoc et al., (2008). It is high in fiber, which
helps to stabilize blood sugar by regulating the rate at which sugar is absorbed from the
intestinal tract. Okra is also high in iodine which is considered useful for the control of goiter.
Okra is also used in folk medicine as antiulcerogenic, gastro protective, diuretic agents in some
countries Gurbuz, (2003). Regular consumption of okra can improve heart health and the
body’s cholesterol level. The polysaccharides present in immature okra pods possessed
considerable anti-adhesive properties (i.e. they help remove the adhesive between bacteria and

16 | P a g e
stomach tissue, preventing the cultures from spreading). The okra pods contains substantial
amount of Vitamin A and also beta carotene that are both important nourishment for sustaining
an excellent eye-sight along with healthy skin Lengsfeld et al., (2004).

Okra can also be used to treat digestive issues. The polysaccharides that are present in immature
okra pods contain considerable ant adhesive properties (i.e. they help remove the adhesive
between bacteria and stomach tissue, preventing the cultures from spreading). Okra’s
polysaccharides were particularly effective at inhibiting the adhesion of Helicobacter pylori, a
bacterium that dwells in the stomach and can cause gastritis and gastric ulcers if left unchecked.
Therefore, eating more okra can keep our stomach clean and create an environment that
prevents destructive cultures from flourishing Messing et al., (2014). Okra is used to support
colon health.

It smoothly sails down our colon, absorbing all toxins and excess water in its path. Okra is
filled with dietary fiber that is required for colon health and digestive health all together. The
Okra fiber helps to cleanse the intestinal system, letting the colon to operate at higher amount
of effectiveness. In addition, the vitamin A plays a role in wholesome mucous membranes,
which assists the digestive system to function adequately Georgiadisa et al., (2011).

Vital role in human diet. For consumption, young immature fruits are important fresh fruit –
vegetable that can be consumed in different forms. They could be boiled, fried or cooked. In
Nigeria, okra is usually boiled in water resulting in slimy soups and sauces, which are relished.
The fruits also serve as soup thickeners Schippers,et al., (2000). The leaves buds and flowers
are also edible. Okra seed could be dried. The dried seed is a nutritious material that can be
used to prepare vegetable curds, or roasted and ground to be used as coffee additive or
substitute.

2.5.1. Nutritional value of okra leaves

Okra is a nutritious food with many health benefits. Okra leaves contains trace amount of
vitamins A and K. According to the office dietary supplements, vitamin A is essential for bone
growth, reproduction, cell division eye health and immune system function. Vitamin K is
essential to the body’s ability to form blood clots in response to injury. Vitamin K is also
necessary for bone strength especially in older populations. Okra leaves contains trace amount
of minerals and phytonutrients such as Fe and Mg. Fe is important for the formation of protein
use to make blood cell and haemoglobin, the component of the red blood cell that caries

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oxygen. Magnesium is important for many enzymatic activities throughout the body and
contributes to health of the immune system, the central nervous system and bone Naveed et al.,
2009; Tiwari et al., (2016).

2.5.1.1.Proximate composition of Okra leave

Okra leaves contain high % of carbohydrate (53.48 ± 0.020). The amount of carbohydrate from
the leaves could be consumed as a source of carbohydrate food especially in tropic where
carbohydrate contributes up to 80 % daily caloric need Ezekiel Tagwi Williams and Nachana’a
Timothy, (2020). Carbohydrate are utilize as major sources of biological energy (Habtamu et
al., 2014). Crude protein obtained from the leaves is 13.56± 0.001 %, which is an appreciable
value. Consumption of protein helps in the building of essential and non-essential amino acid
for protein synthesis. The average crude fibre (9.42 ± 0.005 %) obtained from the leave
revealed that it can be used as a source of dietary fibrer Caluete et al.,(2015). The moisture
content (9.77 ± 0.00 %) obtained from the leaves shows appreciable amount. The crude fat
obtained was 6.25 ± 0.00 % which are universally stored forms of energy in living organism.
The proximate composition obtained is higher than that obtained by Emmanuel et. al, (2014)
except for the moisture content which was reported to be 82.60 %. The differences observed in
the proximate composition may be due to the differences in the locality of their growth climatic
conditions. Seedpods of okra contains proteins, carbohydrates and vitamin C Dilruba et al.
(2009), and plays a vital role in human diet Kahlon et al. (2007). Consumption of young
immature okra pods is important as fresh fruits, and it can be consumed in different forms
Ndunguru & Rajabu (2004). Fruits can be boiled, fried or cooked Akintoye etal. (2011). The
composition of okra pods per 100 g edible portion (81% of the product as purchased, ends
trimmed) is: water 88.6 g, energy 144.00 Kj (36 kcal), protein 2.10 g, carbohydrate 8.20 g, fat
0.20 g, fibre 1.70 g, Ca 84.00 mg, P 90.00 mg,Fe 1.20 mg, β-carotene 185.00 μg, riboflavin
0.08 mg, thiamin 0.04 mg, niacin 0.60 mg, ascorbic acid 47.00mg/g.

2.5.1.2.Mineral contents of okra leave

Okra leave is a nutritious food with many health benefits. It's rich in mineral composition of
revealed the presence of Na (41.23 ± 0.010mg /100 g), K (1142.56± 0.015 mg /100 g), Ca
(121.43 ± 0.005mg / 100 g), Mg (94.68 ± 0.00 mg /100 g), P (65.26 ± 0.014 mg /100 g), Zn
(11.32 ± 0.015 mg /100 g),Fe (9.47 ± 0.015 mg /100 g) and Mn (25.11 ± 0.010 mg /100 g).
These shows that the leaves could be a good source of minerals for body building and boaster
of immune system Ojo et al., (2014). Magnesium is an essential mineral involved in various

18 | P a g e
metabolic reactions. The presence of Ca shows why the leaves are important in blood cloting
Uzoekwe and Mohammed (2015). The concentration of Fe is also of significance in the leave,
it plays a vital role in many intercellular reactions. The leaves contain a high amount of K.
Potassium is the principal intercellular cation which function as co factor in several enzmes
system involve in the transmission of nerve impulse and in the regulation of heart beat Caluete
et al., 2015; Labaran et al., (2020b).

2.5.1.3. Anti-nutrients of okra leave

Okra leave revealed the presence of saponin (3.04 ± 0.015 %) which was the highest % obtained
from the leaves and flavonoids (1.50 ± 0.00 %), it was reported by Caluete et al. (2015) that
saponin and flavonoids present in plant extract have varied uses as inflammatory. The leaves
were also find to contain appreciable amount of tannin (2.72 ± 0.005 %), Alkaloid (0.22 ±
0.005%), oxalate (2.31 ± 0.010 %) and phtate (0.34 ± 0.010 %). These phytochemicals have
shown effectiveness in treatment of cardiac problems, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory,
antidiarrhea, anti-allergic and anti-cancer effect. The leaves of okra therefore, have potential
sources of drugs (Emmanuel et al., 2014).

2.5.2. Nutritional value of Okra pods

Okra pods are important as fresh fruits, and they can be consumed as boiled, fried or cooked
Akintoye et al. (2011).The pods are consumed as boiled vegetables; dried and used as soup
thickeners or in stews Yadev & Dhankhar, (2004). The pods of okra have a unique flavor and
mucilaginous texture. In Turkey, the young pods are strung together and allowed to dry for use
in winter. In Africa the fruit is sliced, sun11 dried, ground to a powder and stored until needed.
Sharma & Prasad, et, al, (2010) reported that the young tender pods of okra are used by different
people in different ways as boiled vegetables, eaten fresh, canned, frozen or dried and used as
a soup thickener or cooked in curries, stews, and soups. When ripe, the black or white-eyed
seeds are sometimes roasted and used as a substitute for coffee National Research Council,
(2006). The okra pods are reported to have viscous fibre and lower cholesterol content Kumar
et al., (2010). In Iran, Egypt, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Greece, Turkey and other parts of
the eastern Mediterranean, okra is widely used in a thick stew made with vegetables and meat
Singha et al., (2014).

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Figure: 2. 3. Edible green pods of Okra.

2.5.2.1. Proximate composition of okra pod

Proximate composition gives an information on the basic chemical composition of food which
involves moisture, ash, crude fat, crude protein, crude fibre, and carbohydrate Aja et al., (2015).
Okra is highly perishable because of its high moisture content and respiratory activities, thus it
is necessary to dry them for prolonged use Falade & Omojola, (2010). The high moisture
content (89 g/100g) in okra fruits is also reported by Goplana et al. (2007). The maximum
water content varies between individual vegetables because of structural differences and
cultivation condition that influence structural differentiation and may also have a marked effect
on water levels of vegetables Nzikou et al.(2006) reported that okra seed moisture content
ranged from 9.6 to 11.7 g/100g.

Moisture content of flour is crucial for some reasons; the higher the moisture content, the lower
the amount of dry solids in the flour and also flours with higher moisture content higher than
14% are prone to microbial spoilage. A study found at that flour having low moisture content
had the highest resistance against fungal growth and pest infestation when stored Nasir et al.,
(2003).

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Proteins may be found in a variety of foods. The proteins from plant sources are considered to
be of low biological value because an individual plant source does not contain all of the
essential amino acids. Therefore, combinations of plant sources must be used to provide these
nutrients (Nelson & Cox, 2005). Okra pods have been reported to have crude protein contents
(g/100g) of13.61 to 16.27 Adetuyi et al., (2011), 18 to 27 Sharma & Prasad,et al (2010). Dietary
fats are used to increase the palatability of food by absorbing and retaining flavors Antia et al.
(2006). Excess consumption of fat has been implicated in certain cardiovascular disorders such
as atherosclerosis, cancer, and aging whereas a diet providing 1-2% of its energy as fat is said
to be sufficient to human beings Blessing and Cert et al. (2000) reported that agronomic and
climatic conditions, fruit or seed quality, oil extraction system and refining procedures can
cause variation in the content and composition of the constituents of vegetable oil. The oil
content of some okra varieties of the seed can be quite high, about 40% Deeplata & Rao, (2013).
Okra oil has a pleasant taste and odor and is high in unsaturated fats such as oleic acid and
linoleic acid. Okra pods have been reported to have crude fat contents of 0.18 g/100g
Nwachukwu et al., (2014) and 9.22 to 10.57 g/100g Adetuyi et al. (2011). Okra seeds have
also been reported to have crude fat content of 23.44 g/100g Ndangui et al., (2010) and 16.00
g/100g. The ash content is a measure of the nutritionally important mineral contents present in
the food material Nesamvuniet al., (2001).Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after the
water and organic matter has been removed by heating in the presence of oxidizing agents,
which provides a measure of the total amount of minerals within a food Kweninet al.,
(2003).Okra pods have been reported to have crude ash content ranging from 7.19 - 9.63 g/100g
Adetuyi et al., (2011) reported that okra seeds have crude ash content of 9.02 g/100g.

Okra is considered as a rich source of dietary fibre. Nearly half of the okra pod is soluble fibre
in the form of gums and pectin, which helps in lowering serum cholesterol Jenkins et al., (2005)
and thus reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. The other half is insoluble fibre, which
helps to keep the intestinal tract healthy and prevents the symptoms of irritable bowel
syndrome. The high value of fibre reported for okra fruit can improve its digestibility and
absorption processes in a large intestine, help to stimulate peristalsis and thereby preventing
constipation Olaofeet al., (2008).The fibre in okra helps to stabilize blood sugar by regulating
the rate at which sugar is absorbed from the intestinal tract Sabitha et al., (2011) reported that
okra pods had crude fibre contents ranged from 10.15 to 11.63 g/100g. Okra seeds have been
reported to have crude fibre contents of 9.7 g/100g Ndangui et al., 2010) and 13.00 to 17.00
g/100g Hassen et al., (2015). Carbohydrate constitutes a major class of naturally occurring

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organic compounds which are essential for the maintenance of life in plant and animals and
also provide raw materials for many industries. Plants are a good source of carbohydrate when
consumed because they meet the recommended dietary allowance values Mlitan et al., (2014).
Okra is the most important vegetable crop and a source of calorie (4550 kcal/kg) for human
consumption. It ranks first before other vegetable crops Babatunde etal., (2007). Carbohydrates
are mainly present in the form of mucilage Ogungbenle & Omosola, (2015) confirmed that the
edible portion of okra fruit is rich in carbohydrate.

2.5.2.2. Minerals contents of okra pods

All form of living matter requires many mineral for their life processes. Minerals are considered
to be essential in human nutrition. The human body requires more than 22 mineral elements
that can be supplied by an appropriate diet in varying amounts for proper growth, health
maintenance, and general well-being World Health Organization, (1999). Plant-derived foods
have the potential to serve as dietary sources of all human-essential minerals, and with a well-
balanced diet. These minerals are vital for the overall mental and physical well-being and are
important constituents of bones, teeth, tissues, muscles, blood and nerve cells. They also help
in the maintenance of acid-base balance, the response of nerves to physiological stimulation
and blood clotting Hanif et al., (2006). Plant foods can make a significant contribution to daily
mineral needs at all stages of the life cycle Valvi & Rathod, (2011).

The nutritional value of the fruits was high enough to contribute to the nutrient requirements
of humans, with their iron (0.34–1.46 mg/100 g) by Matthew, A. A., (2019). Iron (Fe) is
involved in many vital functions in the human body. In humans, iron is an essential component
of hundreds of proteins and enzymes (Wood & Ronnenberg, 2006). Haemoglobin and
myoglobin are heme-containing proteins that are involved in the transport and storage of
oxygen Walker et al., (2007). Iron nutrition is particularly important during the complimentary
period when the infant is growing rapidly and has a high demand for iron Lorenz et al., (2007).
One mole of phytic acid binds 6 mol ferric irons so that even relatively small quantities of
residual phytate are still strongly inhibitory.

2.5.2.3. Anti-nutritionts in okra pod

Ant nutrients are chemicals which have been evolved by plants for their own defence, among
other biological functions and reduce the maximum utilization of nutrients especially proteins,
vitamins, and minerals, thus preventing optimal exploitation of the nutrients present in a food
and decreasing the nutritive value. Some of the antinutrients have been shown to be evidently

22 | P a g e
advantageous to human and animal health if consumed in appropriate amounts Ugwu &
Oranye, (2006).

Phytate is ubiquitous among plant seeds and grains, comprising 0.5 to 5 percent (w/w)
(Loewus, 2002).The major concern about the presence of phytate in the diet is its negative
effect on the mineral uptake Greiner & Konietzny, (2006). Also, phytate is reported to interact
with carbohydrates (starch) and reduce their bioavailability and digestion. At the same time,
phytate may have beneficial roles at a low level as an antioxidant, and anticarcinogen Jenab &
Thompson, (2002).Depending on the amount of plant-derived foods in the diet, and the grade
of food processing, the daily intake of phytate can be as high as 4500 mg. On average, daily
intake of phytate was estimated to be 2000- 2600 mg for vegetarian diets as well as diets of
inhabitants of rural areas in developing countries, and 150- 1400 mg for mixed diets (Golden,
2009).The phytate content of okra reported by Adetuyi et al. 2011 was 2.64-3.90 mg/100g.

Oxalate is a common and widespread component of most plant families Liebman,et al. (2002).
While its levels in many plants are generally low, it is found in high concentrations in the
leaves, and plants consumed daily that are of concern. When oxalic acid is consumed, it irritates
the lining of the gut and can prove fatal in large doses. Currently, patients are advised to limit
their intake of foods with a total intake of oxalate not exceeding 50- 60 mg per day. Okra pods
have been reported to have oxalate content of 0.32-0.506 mg/100g

Tannins are found almost in all plants all over the world Anonymous,et al (1973). The
antinutritional factors of tannins depend upon their chemical structures and dosage and the total
acceptable tannin daily intake for a man is 560 mg. For example, tannins are found in tea and
coffee and consuming too much of these beverages without milk may lead to calcium and iron
deficiency in the body and often lead to osteoporosis and anemia (Stéphane, et al. 2004).

2.6.Functional Properties of Okra

Functional property of food ingredients can be defined as any property, aside its nutritional
attributes, and that influences the ingredient's usefulness in food. Functional properties play a
key role in the way foods or food ingredients behaves during their preparation, processing, or
storage Fennema, (1985).

2.6.1. Bulk density

Bulk density can be defined as the weight of many particles of a material or product divided
by the total volume they occupy; it is a reflection of the load a sample would carry if allowed

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to sit directly on top of one another. Ikpeme et al. (2010) looked at the difference between loose
bulk density and packed bulk density, the minute differences according to them shows that the
incorporation of taro did not cause a significant decrease in bulk densities of flour blends.

High bulk density is a good physical attribute when determining the mixing quality of a
particular product. (Edema et al. 2005) discovered that their values for bulk density were
generally lower (between 0.38 g/ml for commercially sold soybean flour and 0.55 g/ml for
Maize soya blend) than those values obtained by Amarjeet et al.,(1993) for durum wheat blends
(0.80 to 0.82). Butt and Batool, (2010) also reported that the defatting process resulted in very
porous texture of the defatted product that can be attributed to low bulk density. This would be
an advantage in the formulation of complementary foods Akpata and Akubor, (1999).

2.6.2. Water and oil absorption capacity

Soaking up of water is an important functional quality in foods such as sausages, custards and
dough’s. Oil absorption capacity is important in structure interaction in food especially in
flavour retention, improvement of palatability and the extension of shelf life particularly in
bakery or meat products Adebowal and Lawal, (2004). Proteins are solely responsible for the
bulk of the water uptake and to a minor extent the starch and cellulose at room temperature.
Importance of oil absorption is that oil acts as a flavour retainer and helps to increase the mouth
feel of food. Protein is the main chemical component that affects the oil absorption capacity
because it is composed of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. Non polar amino acid side
11 chain can form hydrophobic interactions with hydrocarbon chains of lipid Jitngarmkusol et
al., (2008). According to Ikpeme et al. (2010) their result shows that indeed addition of taro
flour affected the water absorption.

2.7. Okra Seeds

The okra fruit contains numerous oval, smooth, striated and dark green to dark brown seeds.
Okra seeds are tiny in size and the fibrous seed coat contains high amount of crude fiber. They
are power house of nutrients. Okra seeds can be dried, and the dried seeds are very nutritious
and can be used to prepare vegetable curds, or roasted and ground to be used as coffee additive
or substitute Agbo,et. al., (2008)

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Figure:2. 4. Okra seeds (Gambella Agricultural Research Institute, 2020).
Okra plants is the dried seed Adelakun et.al., (2009) as it is very rich in protein, oil and
antioxidant. Okra seeds are rich in unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acids. Fiber of okra
seeds is an important nutrient for intestine microorganisms. Seed mucilage of okra may be
responsible for getting rid toxic substances and bad cholesterol which loads the liver. The seeds
are dicotyledonous and they vary in shape, which is either round, kidney or spherical with
epigeal germination. The monoic flowers of okra are self-compatible Hamon et al., (1990). The
flower usually remains open for a day. It is mostly self-fertilized; however, insects such as
honeybees and bumble bees can cross pollinate. Okra is self-compatible, and passive self-
pollination can take place in its hermaphrodite flowers Al-Ghzawi et al., (2003).

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 CHAPTER THREE

3. MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1.Materials
3.1.1. Description of sampling site and collection area.

Samples of Okra both the matured leaves and pod of okra was handpicked in indigenous okra
landrace grown in Abol district. The study was carried out at Abol districts of the Gambella
People's Regional State (GPNRS). Abol district is one of the districts in Gambella Zuria having
10 km away from capital, it is covered by forest. The total human population of the district is
10,590 with 2595 households. The district is found at an elevation bordered on the south by
Abobo district and on the west by Itang districts and on the north and east by Oromia Regional
State. While, Gambella People's National Regional State (GPNRS) is located at south west
Ethiopia between the Geographical coordinates 6028'38" to 8034' North Latitude and 330 to
35011‟11" East Longitude. The region covers an area of about 29,782.82 km2, which is about
3% of the nation. The Region is bounded to the North, North East and East by Oromia Regional
State; to the South and South east by the Southern Nations and Nationalities People's Regional
State; whereas, to the Southwest, West and Northwest by the Republic of South Sudan. The
regional capital city is Gambella which is about 767km from Addis Ababa, the capital city of
Ethiopia. The region is divided into 3 Ethnic zones (i.e. Nuer Zone, Anywuak Zone and
mejenger zone) and 13 administrative districts that include one special district with 5
indigenous ethnic groups and many highlanders. The majority of ethnic groups residing in the
town are Nuer and Anuak. According to the CSA, (2007), Census conducted by the Central
Statistical Agency of Ethiopia, the Gambella Town has a total population of 53,022, of whom
52.6% are men. The town has a total of 11,260 households with an average of 3.8 persons per
a household. The livelihood of the population in the town is mainly dependent on government
worker and animal husbandry. Animal husbandry is one of the main economic activities of the
western Woreda in the region and also subsistence agricultural farming, traditional fishing,
hunting, gathering of wild animals and plants are used as source of living in the rural parts of
the region GRDPPA, (2006). Recession agriculture is common, particularly maize and
sorghum production along the Baro, Gilo and Akobo rivers. Along the Ethio-Sudanese border,
where it is too dry for rain-fed agriculture, livestock constitutes are primary source of income
(Sewonet,et.al., (2003). Appendix: 3 1. Map of study site (Gambella)

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Map of Ethiopia and study site (Gambella). Source: Gambella regional economic bureau
(2021)

Figure: 3. 1. Map of Ethiopia and study site (Gambella).

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3.2. Sample collection and Reagents

Edible leave of Okra and pods were collected from Gambella agricultural regional research
site. Three samples of okra, the leaves and pod was handpicked randomly okra landrace in
Abol, a village located at about 10 km north of Gambella agricultural Regional research site
from November to December 2021. All agricultural practices including weed control and
watering were carried out under controlled environmental conditions, and they were fresh
without infection or wounded. Finally, all raw sample were placed in polyethylene bag and
transported directly to the Bless Agri-laboratory service PLC and Ethiopia public health
institute (EPHI) for further process. From samples, 5 kg of leaves and pod of okra were
collected.
Chemical and reagent
All chemicals that used for analysis were analytical grade reagents.

Figure: 3. 2. Fresh samples of leave and pods

Landrace Landrace okra Landrace Woreda Local name in Nuer, Oppo, Local name in
No. code region Majang Anuak,Kome

1 Leave- GLO48 Gambella Abol Weka/Wegee,Bamia,Bamia Amula,

Bamia
2 Pod- GLO49 Gambella Abol Weka/Wegee,Bamia,Bamia Amula,
Bamia
3 Pod- GLO50 Gambella Abol Weka/Wegee, Bamia,Bamia Amula,
Bamia

Table: 3 1. Samples of landraces Okra and collected area.

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3.3.Preparation of Okra flour
The leaves of matured okra and pod were directly transported to Bless Agri laboratory PLC.
Once the sample arrived in the laboratory, each of the leave and pods was received. Then
sample were received as a fresh, leave and pods and the leaves were then washed with distilled
water. The leave of okra were dried it and milled separately with pods into a fine powder using
an electric grinder to reduce particle size done by mechanical grinder (RRH-500A, Germany)
for 10 minutes. Whereas, the pods was separated by taken out the seed from the pod. Samples
were properly rinsed with tap water and then washed again with distilled water to remove any
attached soil particles. They were then cut into smaller portions, the pods were keep isolated
and placed in large clean dish and air-dried at room temperature in enclosed chamber for about
24h. They were then pulverized to fine powder used a grinder called high-speed multifunction
comminutor grinder (RRH-500A, Germany) for 10 minutes. Appendix: 3 2. Photo of powder
sample. The powdered leave and pod samples were then labelled in polythene bags and placed
in a desiccator for further analysis. The dry samples were analyzed for proximate (moisture,
crude protein, ash, fiber, fat and carbohydrate), and minerals content (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Na, K,
Mg, Ca); anti-nutrients (Tannin, Oxalate, phytate) and functional properties (water absorption,
bulk density).

Figure: 3. 3. Selected nutrients, antinutrients and function properties.

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Figure: 3. 4. Sliced samples of raw materials.

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 Over all frame work of the samples preparation is summarized
Fresh product (leave and pods) of landrace okra

Leave Received as a fresh Pods

Sorting Sorting
Removing unwanted materials

Washing Washing
With distilled water

Cutting Cutting
Used the Knife The seed were removed,
to reduced size and cut it by knife

Washing Washing
Wash it again with distilled water

Drying Used universal oven drying, (Germany) Drying

at 95°C for 6h.

Milled Milled
High-speed multifunction comminutor
grinder (RRH-500A, Germany) 10m.

Okra powder

Figure: 3. 5. Flowchart for preparation of okra flour (leave and pods).

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Figure: 3. 6. Powder sample of Okra (leave and Pods).

3.4.Proximate composition

3.4.1. Moisture Content

Moisture content of Okra leave and pod sample was determined according to AOAC: 2000:
Official method (925.10) used oven drying method until a constant weight was obtained.
Briefly, a clean empty crucible was weighed and previous prepared samples were mixed
thoroughly. About two grams (2 g) of dried okra flour were accurately weighed into crucible.
The crucible with the samples were then placed in a controlled oven (memmert programmable
universal oven, Germany) at 95°C till a constant weight of flour obtained for 6h. The crucible
were then removed from oven and cooled to room temperature in a desiccator for 30 minutes
and then weighed. The amount of water lost from the sample was considered to be directly
proportional to the loss of weight due to drying of the sample. The moisture content of the
samples was calculated by the difference in weights and expressed as a percentage.
Where :
W1  W2 W1  Weight of fresh sample
%Moisture.content (g/100g)  x 100
W1
W2  Weight of dry sample

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3.4.2. Crude Protein

The protein content of Okra leaves and pod samples was determined according to AOAC: 2000:
Official method (976.05)’used the Kjeldahl method in which digestion, distillation and titration
was involved. Briefly, the process were beginner by turned on the digester. About 1.5g of dried
samples were weighed and transferred carefully to avoid loss into white digestion tube. Then
6ml (concentration of sulphuric acid and concentration of or thophosphuric acid) was added by
pipette and mixed immediately with acid. After that process, 3.5 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide
was added step by step. As soon as the violet reaction has ceased, the tubes were shaken few
minutes and put it back into the rack. Then 3g of the catalyst mixture both copper sulphate and
potassium sulfate were added and allowed it to stand for about 10 min before digestion. The
mixture were exposed in the digester stove to place the tube in the digester at 370 o C exhaust
manifold analyzer unit (FOSS, Sweden) were located on the top to continue the digestion until
a clear solution was obtained for about 2hrs. The tubes in the rack was transferred into the fume
hood for cooling, then 30 ml of distilled water were added to dissolve the precipitate and to
avoid further precipitation of sulfate in the solution. Blank sample were analysed along with
rest of sample.
After accomplished the digested and diluted solution was transferred into the sample
compartment of the distiller, 250 ml of conical flask containing 50 ml of the boric acid indicator
solution were placed under the condenser of the distiller, nitrogen analyzer distillation device
with its tips immersed into the solution. The instrument that used for distillation were continued
until a total volume of 150 ml is collected. The tip was rinsed with a 3 ml of distilled water
before the receiver was removed.
Finally, the distillate solution was titrated with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid to a reddish color and
the amount of hydrochloric acid was recorded. The amount of protein was calculated by using
the following formula:

Total nitrogen (g/100g) = (V-Vb) x N x 14/W

%Crude protein (g/100g) = total nitrogen (g/100g) x 6.25

Where: V =is volume (ml) of hydrochloric acid solution required for the test sample

Vb= is the volume (ml) of hydrochloric acid solution required for the blank test;

N=is the normality of hydrochloric acid;

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 14=is equivalent weight of nitrogen;

6.25=is conversion factor from total nitrogen to crude protein;

W=is weight of a sample.

3.4.3. Crude Fat

The crude fat content of the samples was determined according to AOAC official method
(2003.05) by used soxhlet extraction. Briefly, an empty cleaned extraction flasks that has been
dried in Oven Drying at 92o C for few hour and cooled in desiccators for 30 minutes were
weighed. The bottom of the extraction thimble were covered with about 2 cm layer of fat free
cotton. In analysis, two grams (2 g) of dried sample of okra was weighed into each paper
thimbles. Then the thimbles was sealed and placed in soxhlet extractors (2055 Soxtec
extraction unit, Sweden). Two hundred millilitres (200ml) of petroleum ether through
condenser to the weighed solvent beaker was added into each of the previously and the
condenser were placed to the ring that is hand tightened as much as possible. Turn on the water
to the condenser. Adjust the hot plate until they are contact with beaker or flask and turn on the
heater, the extraction was carried out for 4h. After this the petroleum ether was recovered from
the soxhlet with only small amounts left in the flasks. The flasks were then removed and placed
into an oven and closed carefully for an hour for the ether to completely evaporate. The flasks
were cooled in desiccator to room temperature for 30minutes, weighed immediately after it is
taken out from desiccator and the fat content was then calculated.
Where :
Wa - Wb Wa = weight of extraction flask after extraction;
Crude fat (g/100g)  X 100
W Wb = weight of extraction flask before extraction;
W = weight of sample.
3.4.4. Crude fiber

Crude fiber contents was determined according to AOAC official method 2000 (6865) by using
the steps of digestion, filtration, washing, drying and combustion were involved. Briefly, clean
empty crucible and about two 2g of dried okra flour sample was accurately weighed and
transferred into beaker containing 150 mL of H2SO4 (0.15 N) was added, and boiled gently
exactly for 30±1 minutes the and the residues were washed 5 time, each time with 10ml hot
water and transferred to crucible. During boiling, the level of the sample solution was kept
constant with hot distilled water. After 30 minute boiling, 50ml of 0.23% KOH was added and
boiled gently for a further 30±1 minute, with occasional stirring.

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The bottom of a sintered glass crucible was covered with 10 mm sand layer and wetted with a
little distilled water. The solution was poured from beaker into sintered glass crucible and then
the vacuum pump was turned on. The wall of the beaker was rinsed with hot distilled water
several times; washings were transferred to crucible, and filtered.

The residue in the crucible was washed with hot distilled water and filtered (repeated twice).
The residue was washed with 1% H2SO4 and filtered, and then washed with hot distilled Water
and filtered; and again washed with 1% NaOH and filtered. The residue was washed with hot
distilled water and filtered; and again washed with 1% H2 SO4 and filtered. Finally the residue
was washed with water- free acetone.

The crucible with its content was dried for 2 hours in an electric drying oven at 130 ºC and
cooled for 30 min in the desiccators with granular silica gel, and then Weighed. The crucible
was transferred to a muffle furnace (Gallenkamp, Hope, S20 England) and incinerated for 2h
at 550 ºC. The crucible was cooled in the desiccators and weighed. Then the fiber was
calculated as a residue after subtraction of the ash.

Where :
W1  W2 W1 = weight of (crucible + sample) befor drying
Crude fiber(g/10 0g)  x 100
W3 W2 = weight of (crucible + sample) after ashing
W3 = weight of sample

3.4.5. Ash Content

Total ash content of the samples was determined according to AOAC: 2000: official method.
Briefly, clean porcelain dish used for the analysis was washed by dilute hydrochloric acid on
boiling. Then dried the dish at 120ºC in an oven and ignited at 550ºC in (Hope, Sheffield s30 2RR,
England) furnace for 30 minutes. The dish was then removed from furnace and cooled in
desiccators. The mass of the dish was measured using (ARZ140, SNR=1203290469, USA)
analytical balance (M1). About two 2g of dried samples were added into dish (M2). The dishes
were placed on a hot plate under a fume hood and the temperature was slowly increased ceases
and the samples become thoroughly burned. The samples were placed inside the Muffle
Furnace and ashes at 550o C for 30 minutes and the samples were removed from a Muffle
Furnace and cooled for 1hour, seen to be clean and white in appearance. Then checked until
traces of carbon are fully ashed or whitish color appears. Finally, taken out of the Muffle
Furnace placing immediately in a desiccators till cooled to room temperature and each dish

35 | P a g e
plus ash was reweighed (M3). Weight of total ash was calculated by using the following
formula:
Where :
W3  W1 W1  Weight of the dish
Total Ash (g/100g)  x 100
W2  W1 W2  Weight of fresh sample and dish
W3  Weight of ash and dish

3.4.6. Total Carbohydrate Content

The total carbohydrate content was calculated by adding the total values of crude protein, crude
fat, crude fiber and total ash contents of the sample and subtracting it from 100% according to
the equation by Habtamu, (2017). The mathematical expression of gross energy is as follow:
Total carbohydrate (%) = 100-(% protein + % ash + % fat + % crude fiber)

3.4.7. Gross energy value

The gross energy value (kcal/100 g) of the samples was determined by calculated by difference
Emmanuel, (2019). The mathematical expression is as follow by multiplying the protein
content by 4, carbohydrate content by 4 and fat content by 9
Energy value = Crude protein × 4_
+ _Total carbohydrate × 4
+ (Crude fat × 9).

3.5.Mineral contents

3.5.1. Preparation for standard solution

The first step for determination of minerals is to prepare the standard solutions for the
determination of minerals content, it was used for calibration by diluting stock solutions (1000
mg/L) of each element mixed with 69% of nitric acid and add calibration curve standard. The
serial dilutions for each of the elements analysed were freshly prepared on the day of analysis.
Samples were measured by taking 0.5 g of each (wegee) okra flour and put into white digestion
tub holed through digester cracker, then added 8ml from 69% of citric acid and added 1ml from
30% of hydrogen peroxide used pipet and tire with lead, this percentage of citric acid is used
only for preparation of standard. The cracker were put into the microwave oven for 1 hour for
radiation, heat, and pressure, after cooled for 30 minutes. And added 25ml of distilled water.

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3.5.2. Microwave Digestion procedure
Sample digestion was performed prior to analysis and minimize the effects of the organic
matrix. Briefly, 0.5 g of dried Okra sample was digested with 8mL HNO3 (69% v/v) and 1 mL
H2O2 (30% v/v) using a Multivalve microwave closed system (Anton Paar, Germany). A blank
control was digested in a similar manner. The digestion program began initially at 500W,
ramped for 1 min, and was held for 4min. The second step began at 1000 W, ramped for 5 min,
and was followed by a hold period for 5 min. The third step began at a power of 1400 W and
then ramped for 5 min with a hold period of 10 min. The digested samples were diluted to a
final volume of 50mL with double deionized water for the analysis of all mineral types. After
accomplished of this process, the samples were taken for the determination of minerals.
3.5.3. Determination of minerals
Determination of Sodium (Na), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), Calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and
zinc (Zn) contents was determined according to the method of Association of Official
Analytical Chemists AOAC: 2000: by using flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(240FSAA). The absorbance was read on atomic absorption spectrophotometer at different
wavelength for each mineral element. All values were expressed in mg/100g.After removal of
organic material by digested; the residue was dissolved in dilute acid. About 0.5g of sample
was treated with 10ml of concentrated HNO3 70% and 4 ml of 30% HClO4. The resulting
solution was evaporated to a smaller volume by careful heating and transferred to 50ml
volumetric flask. About 1ml of SrCl2.6H2O was added and made up to volume with distilled
water. The sample was mixed with 8ml of 70% HClO4. The sample was quantitatively
transferred into 50ml volumetric flask and diluted to the mark with distilled water. Using
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Agilent technology -240FSAA, Germany) a calibration
curve was prepared by plotting the absorption or emission values against the metal
concentration in mg/100g for all of the above minerals. Thus reading was taken from the graph
which depicted the metal concentrations that correspond to the absorption or emission values
of the samples and the blank. Standards used were 0ppm, 1ppm, 2ppm, 3ppm and 4ppm. The
metal contents were calculated by using the formula:-
Metal Content (mg/100g) = (A – B) x V
10W

Where, W = Weight of sample in (g) V = Volume of extract (ml)

A= Concentration of sample solution (μg/ml) B = Concentration of blank solution (μg/ml)

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3.6.Anti-nutrients constituents
3.6.1. Phytate
The phytate contents of dried leave okra sample and pod was determined according to method
described by Latta and Eskin (Bhandari & Kawabata, 2006). About (0.5g) dried sample of
leaves and okra pod was extracted with 10 mL 2.4% HCl for 1 h at room temperature and
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 30 min. the clear supernatant was used for the phytate estimation.
One ml of Wade reagent (0.03% solution of FeC13·6H2O containing 0.3% sulfosalicylic acid
in water was added to 3 mL of the sample solution and the mixture was centrifuged. The
absorbance at 500 nm measured used UV–VIS spectrophotometer. The phytate concentration
was calculated from the different between the absorbance of the control (3 mL of water + 1 mL
Wade reagent) and that of assayed sample and expressed as mg/100g.
Phytic acid (μg/100g) = [(absorbance - intercept)/ (slope * density * weight of sample)] * {10/3}

3.6.2. Tannin
Tannin contents of dried leave sample of okra and pod was determined used the method of
Burns. Zero point five (0.5g) of each sample was weighed in a screw capped test tube and 10
mL of 1% HCl in methanol was added to each test tube containing the samples. Then the tubes
were put on mechanical shaker for 24 h at room temperature. After 24 h of shaking, the tubes
were centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 5 min. One millilitre of the clear supernatant was taken and
mixed with 5 mL of vanillin–HCl reagent in another test tube and this mixture was allowed to
stand for 20 min to complete the reaction. After 20 min, the absorbance was read at 500 nm
used spectrophotometer. The tannin concentration was calculated from the different between
the absorbance of control and that of the sample and expressed as mg/100 g.
Where :
As is sample absorbance
(As - Ab) - Intercept
Condensed Tannin (mg/100g)  Ab is blank absorbance
Slope x d x W
d is density of solution (0.791g/ml)
W is weight of sample in gram
3.6.3. Oxalates
Oxalates content was determined used the method described by (Day and Underwood et.al,
2007). A sample (0.5 g) of dried okra powders was homogenized in 75 ml of H2SO4 (3M).
The mixture obtained was put under magnetic agitation during 1 H at the ambient temperature
(28 C). The whole was filtered on filter paper. Twenty-five (25) ml of filtrate were titrated hot

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by a permanganate solution of potassium (KMnO4) to 0.05 M until the turn with the pink
persisting. The content oxalates were obtained by the equation.
Oxalate (mg/100g) =T *V1 *Df *10

V2 *W Where
T is normality of potassium permanganate
V1 is volume of potassium permanganate
Df is dilution factor which is 26.8
V2 is volume of extract oxalate
W is weight of sample in gram
3.7. Functional properties
3.7.1. Bulk density
Bulky density was determined by modifications of the gravimetric method by Asoegwu,
Ohanyere, Kanu, and Lwueke, (2006). Two grams (2 g) of okra leaves and pod flour sample
was weighed into 100 ml measuring cylinder. The bottom of the cylinder was tapped repeatedly
on a firm pad on a laboratory bench until a constant volume was observed. The packed volume
was recorded. The bulk density (BD) was calculated by using a ratio of sample weight to
constant volume obtained as:

Bulk Density= Weight of sample (g)

Constant volume (ml)

3.7.2. Water absorption capacities

Water absorption capacity was determined by the method of Beuchat et. al, (1977). Two gram
(2g) of okra flour sample was mixed with 20 ml distilled water for 30s. The samples were then
allowed to stand at room temperature (25 ± 2°C) for 30 min after which they were centrifuged
at 3,000 rpm for 30 min. The volume of the supernatant was noted in a 10 ml graduated
cylinder. Water absorption capacity (mg.mL-1) was calculated as the difference between the
initial volume of water added to the sample and the volume of the supernatant. The same
procedure was carried out to determine the oil absorption capacity as below;

Water Absorption Capacity=Bound water∕Weight of sample×100

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3.8.Statistical Analysis
The completely randomized design was employed with two replicates. The result which
collected from proximate composition, some phytochemicals, Minerals and functional
properties was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Minitab Statistical Software
(Version 20). The mean separation value was determined using a Least Significant differences
(LSD) and Duncan’s test. Significant differences was defined at (p <0.05). Appendix: 3 3.
Photo during analysis.

Figure: 3. 7. Picture of author, Analysis of Protein content used Kjeldhal

Digestion Unit.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1.Proximate composition
Proximate analysis including moisture (%dwb), Protein, Fat, Ash, Fiber, and gross energy
value was carried out on dried leaves flour GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50 pod flour of landrace
Okra as presented below.
Table: 4. 1. Proximate composition (g/100g, dwb) of Leave and pods flour of Okra landrace.

Sample name Moisture Protein Fat (%) Ash (%) Fiber (%) CHO (%) Energy
and Code (%Wb) (%) kcal/ (100g)

Leave GLO48 9.41±0.05c 27.16±0.34 4.31±0.0a 1.96±0.02c 17.56±0.58 39.53±0.13 305.60±0.91

a a c a

GLO49 12.67±0.68a 19.51±0.57 1.99±0.0b 4.69±0.07a 12.06±0.12 49.06±0.03 292.27±2.92

c c a b

Pods
GLO50 10.25±0.08b 25.29±0.97 1.95±0.07 5.06±1.20a 11.94±0.05 45.46±0.08 300.96±4.31
b b c b b

The values are reported as a means ± standard deviations of duplicate determinations and
values is in the column with different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05).

4.1.1. Moisture
As presented in Table 4.1 above, the present research found that the average moisture content
of dried leave of okra was 9.41 ± 0.0g/100g, 12.67 ± 0.68g/100g, and 10.25 ± 0.0 g/100g for
GLO48, GLO49, and GLO50, respectively. This result showed that the leave of okra had a
lower value of moisture when compared with the value of GLO49, and GLO50 in the study.
The percentage of moisture content of this study was in the acceptable range when compared
with reported by Ezekiel, et. al, (2020). Also showed that, the moisture is higher in the samples
obtained from Okra pods than the amount of moisture obtained leaves. There was e significant
difference (P<0.05) in the moisture content of leave and no significant difference (P<0.05) in
pods. The low moisture contents of these leaves suggest that the leaves can keep for a long
time without spoilage and can be useful as soups in the dry season when common vegetables
are scarce. Moisture content is a measure of stability and susceptibility to microbial
contamination Ihekoronye, et. al., (2007).
Therefore, the low moisture content remains an asset in the storage and preservation of
nutrients because higher moisture content could lead to food spoilage through increasing
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microbial action Onyeike, et. al. (2006). It is noticed that all samples have a low quantity of
moisture, which makes them not susceptible to microbial attack. The value of moisture is very
important when considering food preservation.

4.1.2. Protein
The protein content found in dried leave and pods flour samples of landrace okra was presented
in table 4.1. The averages values recorded for crude protein of dried leaves was 27.16 ±
0.34g/100g, 19.51 ± 0.57g/100g and 25.29 ± 0.97 g/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50,
respectively. The protein content was higher in the leaves which proved that protein was in
more available in the leaves than in the pods flour. However, the study indicated that the pods
samples was least than protein on their own unless incorporated with leaves. The leave value
were lower when compared to other varieties of okra with 30%- 41.11% protein content
reported by Adelakun et al., (2009) while the pods values was in the same ranged when
compared to protein values (25-28.12%) reported by Ubogu, et.al, (2011). Therefore, the
protein content of the landrace okra leave is in the same ranged reported by Agbo et al., (2008).
Pods had the least protein content while leaves variety had the highest. In this study, the protein
content showed significantly (P<0.05) higher in leaves than in the pods and mixture.

Protein plays a particularly important role in human nutrition. The amino acid content
proportions and their digestibility of humans characterize Agnieszka, et.al, (2021). The health
implications of protein consumption include the involvement of its essential and nonessential
amino acids as building blocks for protein biosynthesis not only for the growth of infants and
children but also for the constant replacement and turnover of body protein in adults Fawusi,
et .al, (2001).Okra is considered a high-protein vegetable in form of leave. Thus, a diet
containing these varieties of okra would be beneficial to health, knowing the important role
played by proteins in the body.

4.1.3. Fat
The crude fat content obtained from dried leave and pods samples was presented in table 4.1.
The average value of fat content was 4.31 ± 0.0g/100g, 1.99 ± 0.0g/100g and 1.95 ± 0.07g/100g
for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. This result showed that the leave flour of
landrace okra has appreciable amount of fat which’s universal stored forms of energy, whereas
the fat content obtained from the pod, was lower than leaves. The composition values of dried
leave samples obtained in this study were higher compared to those leaves (0.26-0.30%)

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reported by Anyika, et. al., (2011). This study reveals that the leaves of Okra contain more
moderate quantities of fat than those of pod flour.

However, the fat content in this okra leave study is lower in comparison with the range of fat
values (4.34-6.25%) reported by (Emmanuel, et. al. 2014). There was a significant difference
(P<0.05) in the fat content of leave flour while no significant (P<0.05) difference in the pod
samples.

4.1.4. Ash
The ash content determined the total quantity of minerals, as presented in table 4.1. The total
ash content of dried leave and pods flour was 1.96 ± 0.02g/100g, 4.69 ± 0.07g/100g and 5.06
± 1.20g/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The values obtained from the pod
were higher than the values obtained from leaves. There was a significant difference (P<0.05)
in leave flour. Although minerals represented a small proportion of dry matter, often less than
7% of the total, they play an important from a physicochemical, technological, and nutritional
point of view. Thus it can be assumed that the Okra flour samples investigated are richer in
minerals than cowpea, pigeon pea, and jack bean flours, which have ash contents of 4.7 3, and
4.58% Olalekan and Bosede, (2010), while these results indicate that these okra varieties would
provide essential valuable and useful minerals needed for body development.

4.1.5. Fiber
The average value of crude fiber obtained from a dried leave and pods flour of landrace okra
was presented in table 4.1. The values recorded for crude fiber of okra leaves were 17.56 ±
0.58g/100g, 12.06 ± 0.12g/100g and 11.94 ± 0.05g/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50,
respectively. The values recorded from each sample were much different. The analysis
recorded that, the leave of okra contained high in fiber content than the record reported in the
value of pods flour. The crude fiber in leaves has a significant difference (P>0.05). The average
fiber obtained from the leaves sample revealed that it can be used as a source of dietary fiber
Caluete et al., (2015). The fiber content of the Okra pod was in the same ranged from 10.15 to
11.63 g/100 g reported by Adekunle, et.al., (2011) obtained in this study, while the crude fiber
was in the high value of fiber content of okra reported previously (Gemeda. et. al., 20014).

Dietary fiber helps to stabilize blood sugar by regulating the rate at which sugar is absorbed
from the intestinal tract and fiber also proves the growth and protects the beneficial intestinal
flora. Moreover, the high intake of fiber reduces the risk of colon cancer Ngoc, et.al., (2008).

43 | P a g e
The high value of fiber reported for this study can improve its digestibility and absorption
processes in the large intestine, helping to stimulate peristalsis, thereby preventing
constipation. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of fiber for children, adults and
pregnant and lactating mothers are 19-25, 21- 38, 28, and 29 respectively Erhabor et al., (2010).
The fiber in the man diet helps to prevent over absorption of water and the formation of hard
stools which can result in constipation. Besides, fiber lower the body’s cholesterol level thus
reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease Udebuani, (2009). Fiber aids and speeds up the
excretion of waste and toxins from the body, preventing them from sitting in the intestine or
bowel for too long which could cause a buildup and lead to several disease Nwangwu, et, al.,
(2012).

4.1.6. Carbohydrate
The proximate composition of carbohydrate content of dried leaves and pods flour of landrace
okra were presented in table 4.1. The amount of carbohydrate detected from dried leaves of
okra was 39.53 ± 0.15g/100g, 49.06 ± 0.03g/100g and 45.46 ± 0.08g/100g for GLO48 and
GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The average values of carbohydrates detected from the pods
flour were higher than the amount recorded for leave while the previous research reported
(53.48 ± 0.02%) carbohydrates in okra leaves Nachana Timothy,et.al, (2021). The amount of
carbohydrate showed that the leaves could be consumed as a source of carbohydrate food,
especially in the tropics where carbohydrate contributes to daily caloric need Habtamu et al.,
(2014).The result showed that the incorporated flour could be consumed as a source of
carbohydrate food than leave and pod. There was a significant difference (p>0.betweene the
carbohydrate content of the two okra pod flour samples. However, the carbohydrates values
were generally lower than the value reported by Pacheco-Delahaye, et. al.,(2008).
Carbohydrate provides energy to the cells in the body, particularly the brain, and the organ
whose only energy source is carbohydrate.

4.1.7. Gross energy Values

The energy values of dried leaves sample of okra and incorporated flour was presented in table
4.1. The average energy value content was ranged from 305.60 ± 0.91kcal/100g, 292.27 ±
2.92kcal/100g and 300.96 ± 4.31kcal/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The
leave had the highest energy value than pods. The energy values indicate that these okra,
especially the leaves can serve as a good source of energy for the body. The chemical
composition values confirmed that okra is an excellent food source, justifying its direct use in

44 | P a g e
 human nutrition. The results of the energy values showed significant differences (P < 0.05).
The high gross energy values obtained in the present study had indicate that okra leave could
be consumed as a major source of energy.

4.2.Mineral content
Table 4.2 below illustrates the total mineral content of dry Leave Okra and incorporated with
pod flour of landrace okra. The total mineral content of selected element like (potassium,
calcium, iron, copper, Zink, sodium, magnesium, and manganese) for compositional analysis
of the dry leave and pods samples was GLO48 for leave, GLO49-GLO50 pods flour are
presented in Table 4.2. Four different samples were analysed for their concentration.
Table: 4. 2.Total mineral content (mg/100g, dwb) of Leave and pods flour of okra landrace.

Sample name Potassium Calcium Iron Copper Zinc Sodium Magnesiu Manganes
and Code m e

GLO48 147.11±0.1 276.93±0.6 1.55±0.05 0.31±0.02 5.02±0.01 41.92±0.0 364.29±0.0 9.54±0.02a

Leave 6c 0a b b a 3a 3b

GLO49 243.16±0.7 96.79±0.30 4.20±0.24 0.56±0.01 5.36±0.03 11.83±0.0 387.88±0.4 2.73±0.01c

5a c a b a 3c 7a
Pods
GLO50 243.37±1.0 98.32±1.77 4.14±0.15 0.72±0.21 5.40±0.02 10.95±1.2 388.61±0.5 2.99±0.02c
5a c a a a 7c 6a

The values are reported as a means ± standard deviations of duplicate determinations and
values is in the column with different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05).
4.2.1. Potassium
The potassium content of dried leave and pods flour of landraces okra was presented in table
4.2. The concentration values of potassium content in dried leaves were 147.11 ± 0.16mg/100g,
243.16 ± 0.75mg/100g and 243.37 ± 1.05mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50,
respectively. The results indicate that the leave of Okra is a good source of total mineral content
with moderate concentrations of potassium. While the potassium content of the Okra pod was
appeared higher than the potassium contents of okra leave. This result indicates that the content
value of potassium within this study was in the same ranged with the potassium reported by
Agnan Marie-Michel Combo1, et. al., (2020). The concentrations of potassium in leave flour
were significantly different whereas, Potassium showed no significant difference between pod
sample (P<0.05). The high amount of potassium in the body was reported to increase iron
utilization Elinge Muhammad, et. al., (2012) Epidemiological studies indicate that diets high
in potassium can reduce the risk of hypertension and suffer from excessive excretion of
45 | P a g e
potassium through the body fluid (Arinathan, et. al.,(2017). Generally, potassium has a diuretic
nature (Arinanthan et al., (2003) that helps improper brain and nerve function thereby
preventing stroke. It plays a vital role in acid-base balance and osmotic regulation. Its
deficiency in the diet can lower blood pressure Mac Gregor, (2008). The observed
concentration of Potassium in the study are for lower than those Adetuya et. al., (2011)

4.2.2. Calcium
The calcium contents okra samples in dried leave flour and pods flour was presented in table
4.2. The concentration of calcium content of dry leave flour was 276.93 ± 0.60mg/100g, 96.79
± 0.30mg/100g and 98.32 ± 1.77mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The
present result showed that the mineral content in the leave of okra was higher than the mineral
content of the pod as reported by Adetuyi et al. (2011). Therefore, the presence of Calcium
shows why the leaves are important in blood clotting (Uzoekwe and Mohammed (2015).The
dried leave flour was significantly (p < .05) higher in calcium content than both pods flour. The
content of calcium in this study was lower compared to the values of calcium previously
reported Kouassi, et. al., (2013).

Calcium plays a significant role in photosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and nucleic acids.
Calcium helps in the regulation of muscle contractions transmits nerve impulses and helps in
bone formation Cataldo et al., (1999). Minerals are very important in human nutrition. Calcium
was reported to be responsible for the repair worn-out cells, strong born and teeth, it’s building
of red blood cell and body mechanisms Ekwu, et. al., (2014). The high calcium content in some
of the leaves suggests that their consumption can help play an important role in managing blood
pressure and also balances the effects of sodium on blood pressure because the more potassium
you eat, the more sodium you lose through urine (Institute of Medicine . Dietary,
www.iom.edu/Reports/2004). Therefore, this research found that the okra leave had a high
amount of calcium content as well incorporated with pods, and okra leaves can also be included
in the human diet as a nutritionally suitable food.

4.2.3. Iron
The Iron content of dried leave and pods flour was presented in table 4.2. The result indicates
that the concentration of Iron in dried leave of Okra was 1.55 ± 0.05mg/100g, 4.20 ±
0.24mg/100g and 4.14 ± 0.15mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. This result
showed that these leave parts were very low when compared to the Iron content of the pods
flour. The concentration of Iron (Fe) is also significant in the leave, it plays a vital role in many

46 | P a g e
intercellular reactions. The iron content found in this present research was lower than the value
reported Ibanga, and Okon, (2009), but higher than the iron contents of the local okra varieties
from Nigeria (Arapitsas, P.,et. al, (2008). The results of the Iron (Fe) values showed significant
differences (P < 0.05) between each sample of landrace okra.

Iron (Fe) is well known, and is an essential element for hemoglobin formation and proper
functioning of the central nervous system as well as oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats Kermanshah et al., (2014) ; Mlitan et al., (2014). The relatively higher concentrations of
iron compared to other elements might be due co-participation of green vegetables in the
synthesis of ferredoxin, a well-known factor for attributing green vegetables as useful sources
of iron Hart et al., 2005). The main role of iron is the transport of oxygen to the tissues which
is the active constituent of hemoglobin in red blood cells. Iron also enhances the body’s
immune system thus reducing infections and fostering proper functioning of other organs of
the body Whitney,et. al., (1999).

4.2.4. Copper
The copper content of dried leave and pods flour was presented in table 4.2. The results indicate
that, the concentrations values of copper content was 0.31 ± 0.02mg/100g, 0.56 ± 0.03mg/100g
and 0.72 ± 0.21mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The result of copper
content of Okra pod showed high amount than the copper contents of okra leave. Therefore,
the concentrations of copper in leaves and pods flour samples were not (P>0.05) significantly
different. These levels of copper are however low detected for the sample analysis which is
below the National Agency for and Drug Administration and Control because the levels of
copper in the samples were found to be below the detection limit. Therefore, the presence of
copper in the dried samples was the lower detection limit and the RDI of 1 mg/100g was
recommended by National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control, (2010)

4.2.5. Zinc
The Zinc content of the dried leave samples and pods flour was presented in table 4.2. The
amount of Zinc content recorded at the dried leave sample was 5.02 ± 0.01mg/100g, 5.36 ±
0.03mg/100g and 5.40 ± 0.02mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The Zinc
content of okra leaves was noted the good concentration of Zinc when compared other, while
Zinc was the highest value at pod. In this result, the concentrations of zinc in leaves and pods
flour was (P>0.05) significantly different.

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Zinc is also part of many enzymatic reactions including protein synthesis and it is essential for
sperm production, normal growth, and sexual maturity as well as the healthy immune system
Mlitan et al., (2014). Zinc deficiency can result in hyperthyroidism and gum disease. Zinc has
also been reported to be beneficial in the treatment of viral infections, diabetes mellitus as well
as those, and prostate gland enlargement Kermnsha et al., (2014). Zinc is a nutritional
supplement. It is needed for the catalytic activity of several enzymes as well as the proper
functioning of the taste and smell organs. It also participates in several cellular processes such
as metabolism, immune response, protein synthesis, wound healing, DNA synthesis, and cell
division. Since the body requires a sophisticated zinc storage unit, zinc must be absorbed
continuously to maintain a steady condition. The zinc content as observed by this study is far
higher than those reported by Adetuya,et. al., (2011) whose values varied between 0.383 and
0.63mg/kg.

4.2.6. Sodium
The sodium (Na+) content in different samples of dried leave and pods flour of landrace okra
was presented in table 4.2. The amount of concentration of sodium content in leave samples
was 41.92 ± 0.03mg/100g, 11.83 ± 0.03mg/100g and 10.95 ± 1.27mg/100g for GLO48 and
GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The concentration of sodium was higher in okra leave than in
pods flour. And the sodium (Na+) contents in dried leaves samples were closed to those value
found in a similar Ezekiel Tagwi Williams, et. al., (2020). This showed that the leaves could
be a good source of sodium. The leave of okra has a higher content of sodium in comparison
to the pod of okra (Adelakun et al., 2012). These result of leave flour was significantly different
(p < .05) and higher in content than both pod samples flour.

Sodium (Na+) is needed for proper fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction.
However, sodium concentrations as observed by the leave study were higher compared with
those of Adetuyi et al, (2011) who reported values that varied between 3.330 and 8.310
mg/100g. Sometimes, the effects of sodium on plants are similar to those of exposure to
drought. Increasing the concentration of sodium in plants can amount to toxic levels that cause
poor growth and arrested cell development. Sodium (Na+) can be beneficial to plants in many
conditions, particularly when potassium (K+) is deficient. As such, it can be regarded a ‘non-
essential’ or ‘functional’ nutrient (Maathuis, 2013).

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As described above, Chlorine in form of chloride is needed for proper fluid balance and also
plays a role in photolysis. Its deficiency can cause wilting, chlorosis, and the death of some
leaves Soetan et al., (2010). The concentrations of chloride ions are subject to variation than
that of sodium because another anion especially in bicarbonate form in the system can
exchange for chlorine. As a major negative ion in extracellular fluid, it has been found to play
important role in the production of acid in the stomach. Deficiency disease may occur in infants
if the salt-free formula is more often used. In chloride-deficit diet, the excretion of chloride in
urine or sweet is remarked reduced Hays and Murray et al., (2000). However, with the observed
concentrations in this study, levels may be safe for the Okra management practices to be
applied.

4.2.7. Magnesium
The concentration of magnesium level in dried leave sample and pods flour was presented in
table 4.2. The contents values of okra leaves that presented in magnesium content was 364.29
± 0.03mg/100g, 387.88 ± 0.47mg/100g and 388.61 ± 0.56mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-
GLO50, respectively. The leaves of okra were noted to contain the least composition of
magnesium, whereas the concentration of pods flour were higher than the value reported from
leave. The values of manganese in this present study was far higher than those found by Nkuba
and Mohammed, et. al.,(2017) whose reported concentrations in high at 58.81 to 84.08
mg/100g. These result revealed that there were also significant variations (p>0.05). Magnesium
is an essential mineral involved in various metabolic reactions. It is a part of many enzymes
and its widespread in foods especially plant foods. Manganese helps with photosynthesis and
is also freely available in the North Coast’s acid soil, often in toxic amounts in very acidic soil.
However, its toxicity can be remedied with time.
Magnesium is required for extracellular fluid to help maintain osmotic balance. It is also a
requirement for certain enzymatic reactions with regard to nucleotides by Nkuba and
Mohammed, (2017). Its deficiency could result in abnormal irritability of muscle and
convulsion, while depression of the central nervous system can also be an inevitable
consequence if it is in excess. Phosphorus contents as shown in table 2 differ to a large extent
from those of Adetuya (2011) which varied between 6.005 and 6.217mg/kg. Phosphorus is
essential for acid-base balance in every cell and is required for healthy bone and teeth
development.

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4.2.8. Manganese
The manganese content of okra from dried leave flour and pods flour was presented in table4.2.
This result showed that the dried leave samples of okra was ranged from 9.54 ± 0.02mg/100g,
2.73 ± 0.01mg/100g and 2.99 ± 0.02mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively.
The leave of okra has higher concentrations of this elements than the pod flour has moderate
concentration of manganess. Manganese contents of these study leave are greater than that
reported by Alexis Drogba Sahoré, et. al, (2014). These results revealed that there were
significantly different (p>0.05).

Manganese is one of the trace elements and it’s essential for the proper function of the human
body. It plays an essential role in the activation of certain enzymes. It also participates in the
formation of the skeleton, connective tissue, and the elimination of free radicles from the
bobby. The body absorbs manganese inhalation from the gastrointestinal tract. The manganese
intake recommended for an adult is 1 to 2.5 mg is present in many foods Busson & Jardin,
C.et.al, (2014)
4.3. Mineral ratios of dried leave and pods flour of okra landrace

Mineral ratios are often more important in the nutritional deficiencies and excesses than
mineral levels alone, vegetable are suitable sources of mineral that are essentials and mminerals
are responsible for maintaining electrolyte balance, strengthening teeth and bones, boost energy
levels, muscle contractions, trigger immunity, and supports the nervous system and thyroid
functions Prasad et al., (2008). Models were used to examine the associations of sodium,
potassium, calcium, iron, zinc were calculated to evaluate the portion of the total in food diet
that utilized for normal body functions and inhibitory effect of oxalate and phytate on the
bioavailability of dietary minerals. Calculated minerals ratios of dried leave okra and pods of
landrace okra were present below.

Table:4. 3. Mineral ratios of dried leave and pods of okra landrace.

Samples Code Na:K Ca:K Fe:Zn

Leave flour GLO48 0.24 1.88 0.31
Pods flour GLO49 0.05 0.40 0.78
GLO50 0.04 0.40 0.77
Standard values <1 <4 >2

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4.3.1. Sodium to potassium ratio
As presented above, the molar ratios of Na/K of dried leave and pods flour of landrace okra
were showed in table4.3. The Na:K ratios of the dried leave and pods were ranged from 0.24,
0.05, and 0.04 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. The recommended values of the
Na:K should be greater than (>0.5) for healthy foods to contribute to sodium absorption in the
small intestine Jacob et al., (2015). In the present study, all edible parts of the studied leave of
okra showed high values of Ca:K ratio, which helps calcium absorption, particularly for
growing children who require a high intake of sodium and potassium for bone and this findings,
the Na:K ratios of plant parts were found within the recommended rate of healthy foods which
may help thyroid Adarabioyo, (2016).

4.3.2. Calcium to potassium ratio

As indicated in Table4.3, the Ca/K ratios of the dried leave and pods flour are presented below.
The molar ratios of leave and pods four were ranged from 1.88, 0.40, and 0.40 for GLO48,
GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. This values were the same ranged when compared to Watts
(2010) also reported that the ideal ratio. In this findings, the Ca:K ratios of dried leave and pods
were found within the recommended rate of healthy foods which may help thyroid activity
(Olagbemid, (2017).

4.3.3. Iron to zinc ratio

The percentage of iron:zinc (Fe/Zn) ratios of dried leave of okra and pods flour of landrace
okra are presented in Table4.3.The amount of Fe:Zn ratio of the dried leave and pods flour
were ranged from 0.31, 0.78 and 0.77 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. Iron did
not impair zinc absorption up to an iron: zinc ratios of 2:1; a dose dependent affect was
observed up to a ratio of 5:1to 10:1, no further zinc inhibition occurred peres et al., (2001). In
other side from this findings, the iron presence in leave and pods of landrace okra did not impair
zinc absorption because the value were lower than the critical molar ratios.

4.4. Antinutrients
Anti-nutritional factors are chemical compounds synthesized in natural food by the normal
metabolism of species which exerts effect contrary to optimum nutrition in humans. It also
reduce the maximum utilization of nutrients especially proteins, vitamins, and minerals, thus
preventing optimal exploitation of the nutrients present in a food and decreasing the nutritive
value Oranye, (2006). Anti-nutritional constituent (phytate, Oxalate, and Tannin) of dry Leave
Okra and pod flour of landrace okra are presented below.

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Table:4. 4. Anti-nutritional constituent of dry Leave Okra and pods flour of okra landrace.

phytochemical mg/100g
sample name and code Phytate Oxalate Tannin

Leave GLO48 0.26±0.07c 0.19±0.0a 1.99±0.05b

GLO49 3.11±0.18a 0.23±0.0a 1.02±0.0c
Pods
GLO50 3.05±0.35a 0.50±0.0a 1.18±0.0c
The values are reported as a means ± standard deviations of duplicate determinations and
values is in the column with the same different superscript letters are not significantly different
(p>0.05).
4.4.1. Phytate

As shown in the present research above, the phytate content of dried leave and pods flour was
presented in table 4.4. The research found that the average phytate content of leaves was 0.26
± 0.07 mg/100g, 3.11 ± 0.18mg/100g and 3.05 ± 0.35mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50,
respectively. The leaves of okra were noted a low composition of phytate, whereas the average
values of pods flour were moderate than the value reported from leave. The phytate contents
of this study leave are greater than that reported by Seena et al. (2006) and lower than the
phytate content reported by Ezekiel Tagwi Williams, et, al, (2020) on the nutritional potential
of Okra leaves Abelmoschus Esculentus, Nigeria. There was no significant difference (P>0.05)
in the phytate content of the analysed samples.

Phytate is the salt form of Phytic acid known as inositol hexakisphosphate (IP6). Phytic refers
specifically to the calcium or magnesium salt form of Phytic acid Mullane.et, at, (2012). It is
the principal storage form of phosphorus in many plant tissues, especially bran and seeds.
Phytate is not digestible by humans or nonruminant animals, so it is not a source of either
inositol or phosphate if eaten directly. Phytate has the ability to chelate and form complexes
with proteins and inhibits the enzymatic digestion of injected protein. Phytic acid chelates make
unobservable certain important micronutrients such as zinc and iron, and to a lesser extent, also
macronutrients such as calcium and magnesium. Then phytic acid has some anti-nutritional
properties due to its ability to lower the bioavailability of some essential minerals such as zinc
and iron, and to a lesser extent, the calcium and the magnesium in the digestive tract resulting
in mineral deficiencies Olawore, et. al., (2008). Therefore, the phytate composition of the
samples analyzed is low in leave and might not pose any health hazard.

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4.4.2. Oxalate
The content value of Oxalate obtained from dried leaves and pods flour was presented in table
4.4. The amount of Oxalate content found on the leaves of Okra was 0.19 ± 0.02%mg100g,
0.23 ± 0.0%mg/100g and 0.50 ± 0.0%mg/100g, and 0.32 ± 0.0%mg/100g for GLO48, GLO49,
GLO50, and GLO56, respectively. This is comparable to the already reported range by Adetuyi
FO and Adekunle AT. (2011) and the oxalate contents of this study are lower than that reported
by Emmanuel et al., (2014). There was a significant difference (P>0.05) in the oxalate content
of the analyzed samples.
Oxalic acid is an organic acid produced in animals and plants when sugar, carbohydrates, and
other carbon sources are metabolized. Oxalic acid does not circulate freely in the body; it links
to sodium or potassium in a soluble oxalate-salt form. But when oxalic acid finds itself in the
presence of calcium, it has the ability to link to it too, forming a particular insoluble salt crystal
known as calcium oxalate. The human could obtain oxalates in two ways, some of it is
absorbed from the diet, and some is manufactured in the body primarily in the liver. In humans,
about 20-50% is thought to come from the diet. Oxalates do not appear to have any necessary
function in the body; they are just metabolic end-product destined to leave the body through
urine as urea. Over consumption of a diet with a high concentration of oxalate causes kidney
stones and the level of oxalate in this study leave was not high to pose any health threat
(Akwaowo EU, Ndon BA, Etuk EU.2000).

4.4.3. Tannin
The tannin content of dried leave samples and pods flour was presented in table 4.4. The table
revealed that the value of tannin content found in the leave was 1.99 ± 0.05mg/100g, 1.02 ±
0.0mg/100g and 1.18 ± 0.0mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The
analysis revealed that the tannin content was moderate in leaves samples, whereas the pod
sample was lower than leaves part. The leaves were also found content an appreciable amount
of tannin than the study reported Nachana’a Timothy,( 2020).

Generally, these phytochemicals have shown effectiveness in the treatment of cardiac

problems, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrhea, anti-allergic, and anti-cancer effects.
The leaves of okra therefore, have potential sources of drugs Emmanuel et al., (2014) and these
indicated that the bioavailability of Okra leave as well pod have good sources than other pulse
and cereals crops.

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4.5. Molar ratios and Bioavailability of the Minerals to phytochemical of dried leave and
pods flour of okra landrace.
The molar ratios for selected minerals of calcium, iron, zinc, to the phytochemicals that
included phytate and oxalate were calculated to evaluate the effects of phytate and oxalate on
the bioavailability of dietary mineral in leave and pods flour of landrace okra grown in Abol
district, Gambella, Ethiopia. The bioavailability is the proportion of the total amount of mineral
element that is potentially absorbable in a metabolically active form. The calculated Phy:Ca,
Phy:Fe, Phy:Zn, and Oxalate:Ca, Phy*CaZn molar ratios of dried leave and pods flour of
landrace okra are showed in Table 4.5. all samples had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the
molar ratios of phyate to minerals and oxalate to calcium. Phytate to mineral molar ratio values
are indexes of mineral bioavailability than mineral contents alone Habtamu et al., (2014).
Table: 4. 5. Calculated mineral ratios to photochemical of dry Leave and pod flour of okra
landrace.

Samples Code (Phytate:Ca) (Phytate:Fe) (Phytate:Zn) (Oxalate:Ca (Phytate*Ca:Zn)5

1 2 3 )4
Leave flour GLO48 0.001±0.12a 0.035±1.40b 0.013±7.00a 0.001±0.00a 0.001±0.21a

Pods flour GLO49 0.002±0.60c 0.067±0.75a 0.061±6.00a 0.001±0.00a 0.134±067c

GLO50 0.002±0.9c 0.068±2.33a 0.060±17.50a 0.002±0.00a 0.132±0.54c

Standard values <0.24 >0.15 <10 <1 0.5

Means not followed by the same superscript letters in each column of the pods and seeds are
significantly (P<0.05) different from each other.

Notes: 1 mg of phytate/molecular weight of phytate: mg of calcium/molecular weight of

calcium; 2 mg of phytate/molecular weight of phytate: mg of iron/molecular weight of iron; 3 mg
of phytate/molecular weight of phytate: mg of zink/molecular weight of zink; 4 mg of
oxalate/molecular weight of oxalate: mg of calcium /molecular weight of calcium;
5 (mg of Calcium/molecular weight of Calcium) (mg of phytate/molecular weight of phytate)/
(mg of zink/molecular weight of zink).

4.5.1. [Phytate] to [Calcium] molar ratios

The molar ratios of the dried leave flour and pods of landrace okra presented in Table 4.5. The
molar ratios of Phy:Ca of the leave and pods flour were ranged from 0.001±0.12, 0.002±0.60,
and 0.002±0.9 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. The amount of Phytic acids

54 | P a g e
decrease Ca bioavailability and the Ca: Phy molar ratio has been proposed as an indicator of
Ca bioavailabil-ity Jacob et al., (2014) reported that the critical molar ratio of [phy]: [Ca] of <
0.24 indicating good calcium bioavailability Woldegiorgis et al., (2015). In this investigation
of Phy: Ca molar ratios of the okra were lower than the reported critical molar ratio of phytate
to calcium, indicating that absorption of calcium not adversely affected by phytate in all fruit
Jacob et al., (2015).

4.5.2. [Phytate] to [Iron] molar ratios

As presented in table 4.5. above, the result indicate that the molar ratios of phytate to iron (Phy:
Fe) ratios of the dried leave and pods flour of landrace okra. The percentage of Phy: Fe molar
ratios of the leave and pods study were ranged from 0.035±1.40, 0.067±0.75 and 0.068±2.33
for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. This result indicated that the phytate: iron molar
ratios of landrace okra are less than 1.0, even ratios as low as 0.20 exert some negative effect
Hurrell et al., (2003).. The highest Phy:Fe molar ratio was reported for Ziziphus spinachristi
(0.1283) which indicates that Fe is less bioavailable. This result showed low impact of phytate
on the bioavailability and absorption of iron.

4.5.3. [Phytate] to [Zinc] molar ratios

The molar ratios of phytate to zinc (Phy: Zn) of dried leave okra and pods flour were presented
in table4.5. This result showed that, the molar ratios of Phy: Zn of the landrace okra was ranged
from 0.013±7.00, 0.061±6.00 and 0.060±17.50 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively.
The phy:Zn molar ratio is considered a better indicator of zinc bioavailability than total dietary
phytate levels itself. The ratio of phytate: Zn in this study is much lower than the molar ratio
phytate: Zn reported by Emmanuel et al., (2020), while the molar ratio of Phy: Zn were the
same values reported by Habtamu, (2017) and the problem encountered when the value is
greater than 15. Phy: Zn molar ratios >15, is an indication of poor zinc bioavailability (Morris
& Ellis, 1989). The values of leave and pods flour of okra landrace were lower than the critical
molar ratios of Phy: Zn, which indicates the high bioavailability of zinc.

4.5.4. [Oxalate] to [Calcium] molar ratios

The molar ratios of oxalate to calcium (Ox:Ca) of the leave and pods flour of okra was
presented in table4.5. The Ox: Ca ratios of the leave and pods flour were ranged from
0.001±0.00, 0.001±0.00, and 0.002±0.00 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. This
result showed that, the amount of oxalate to calcium were no significantly (P<0.05) different
from each other. When the oxalate: Ca is higher than one, dietary calcium availability is limited

55 | P a g e
Frontela et al. (2009). The oxa-late: Ca molar ratios of this study were below the critical level.
Oxalic acid and its salts can have deleterious effects on human nutrition and health, particularly
by decreasing calcium absorption and aiding the formation of kidney stones Kawabata, 2004).
The finding implies that oxalate may not have any adverse effects on bioavailability of dietary
calcium in the okra leave and pods also.

4.5.5. [Phytate][Calcium]/ [Zinc] molar ratios.

The molar ratios of the Phytate Calcium to Zinc ([Phy] [Ca]/ [Zn]) of the leave flour and pods
of landrace okra are showed in the Table 4.5. This result indicate that, ([Phy] [Ca]/ [Zn]) molar
ratios of the dried leave and pods flour of okra were ranged from 0.001±0.21, 0.134±067, and
0.132±0.54 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. The potential effect of the calcium
on Zinc absorption in the presence of the high phytate intakes has led to the suggestion that the
[Phy] [Ca]/[Zn] millimolar ratio may be a better index of zinc bioavailability than the
[Phy]/[Zn] molar ratio alone. High calcium levels in foods can promote the phytate-induced
decrease in zinc bioavailability Adetuyi et al., (2011), when the [Ca][phytate]/[Zn] millimolar
ratio exceeds 0.5 mol/kg. In this investigation, the values of fruits were lower than the critical
molar ratios of [Ca] [phytate]/ [Zn], which indicates the high bioavailability of zinc in all okra
landrace.

4.6.Functional properties
The functional properties of foods and flours are influenced by the components of the food
material, especially the carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, moisture, fibre, ash, and other
ingredients or food. It also describes how ingredients behave during preparation and cooking,
how they affect the finished food product in terms of tastes, and feels O’Connell & Flynn,
(2007); Walstra & van Vliet, (2003).

Table:4. 6. Functional properties of dry Leave Okra and pods flour of okra landrace.

Sample Code
Bulky density (g/ml) Water absorption (g/ml)
Leave flour GLO48
0.30±0.02b 2.10±01b
GLO49
0.44±0.11a 1.01±0.89c
Pods flour
GLO50
0.46±0.09a 0.86±0.80c
The values are reported as a means ± standard deviations of duplicate determinations and
values is in the column with different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

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4.6.1. Bulk density
The result of bulk density of dried leave sample, pods and incorporated flour was showed in
table 4.6. The bulk density of the leave flour was 0.3 ± 0.02g/ml, 0.44 ± 0.11, 0.46 ± 0.09, and
0.33 ± 0.01 g/ml for GLO48, GLO49, GLO50 and GLO56, respectively. The bulk density of
the leave flour was greater but this was not significantly different (P>0.05) from pod of okra,
whereas the value was the lowest from leave sample but was not significantly different (P>0.05.
The bulk density is low and this might be by the particle size of the flour as Adebowale, Sanni,
and Oladapo (2008) reported that bulk density is mostly decided by density and size of the
flour and it is essential in deciding packaging requirement. Since, okra leave flour have better
lightly bulk density than pod. Therefore, the leave is expected that high quantity of flour will
be package in limited volume of packaging materials.

4.6.2. Water absorption capacity

The value of water absorption capacity of the dried leave of okra and incorporated part flour of
landrace okra was presented in table 4.6. The result of Water absorption capacity of the leave
mucilage was 2.1 ± 01, 1.01 ± 0.89, 0.86±0.8 and 3.15 ± 0.01 for GLO48, GLO49, GLO50 and
GLO56, respectively. The water absorption capacity of mixed flour was the highest than leave
but this was lower from pod and was significantly different (P>0.05). The value of the bulk
density showed the same trend with the value of bulk density (0.76 g/ml) of okra pod flour
reported by (Ndamitso , et. al., (2012) and the mean water holding capacity of mucilage from
leave of okra in this study was lower than the water absorption capacity reported Emmanuel et
al., (2014).

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 CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1.Conclusion
In present study, proximate composition, selected micronutrient, and the physico-Functional
Properties has been successfully analysed for okra (Edible Green Leave and pods) grown in
Abol district, Gambella, Ethiopia. Bases on the research findings, the result of the work
revealed that the leaves of okra contain appreciable amount of nutrient, minerals which are
daily requirement for both human and animal. The proximate composition, mineral and
phytochemical and functional properties of the okra leaves was significant (P<0.05) different.
It could be concluded that the leave of okra consumed in Gambella Region have appreciable
amount of protein, fibber, calcium and iron content which are highly favourably comparable
with some traditional vegetable. By promoting the consumption of traditional vegetables, this
Okra leave can provide micronutrients and mineral elements that can improve the nutritional
status, due household food availability is the most important determinant of the nutritional
status of a community and by local food production. However, the study indicated that the pods
of the okra samples was least than protein on their own. The anti-nutritional analysis showed
that all the samples contained low amount of phytate, oxalate and tannin, the values obtained
are lower than the established toxic level. Therefore, promoting the consumption of such
nutritious vegetables will be beneficial to human health by providing the necessary macro-
elements and energy to the body. In conclusion, the locally available food ingredients used in
the present study shows that the nutritional contents of leave meet the status for household
food.

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5.2. Recommendation
This study provides valuable information regarding nutritional, phytochemicals, and functional
properties of okra leave. However, depth research on okra leave started late and made slow
progress. Therefore, others research are recommend to be address, future research on okra leave
mainly required on development potential and primary product processing, and functional
properties of okra flower and mixing processing with other substance like meat, and fish is still
insufficient. Therefore, to tap the health function of okra leave, is also recommend that future
research are recommended base on the result of the findings,
1. Further study should focus on determination of edible parts of okra flowers with other
indigenous food evolving
2. Research should be undertaken for new product development using okra leave and stock
fish/dried fish or meat
3. Characterizations on the nutritional and phytochemical properties of other indigenous food
crops example maize and sorghum should be encouraged in order to diversify diet from the
okra leave or pod.
4. Evaluation of the mineral content of raw and cooked okra leave should be undertaken.

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Appendices
Appendix: 1. 3. Local farm during sample gathering of Okra landrace.

Appendix: 1. 4.Edible green leave of Okra

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appendix: 3:2. photo of powder sample

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Appendix: 3 3. Photo of author during analysis

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