Maj

orshi
p : Engl
ish

Focus : Teachi
ngLi
steni
ng&Speaki
ng

LETCompet
ency: Demonstrateunderst
andingoft henat
ure
of t he f our l anguage macr o-
component s ( l
istening, speaki ng,
reading,wr i
ti
ng,i ncluding grammar )
and t he t
heoret
icalbases,pr i
ncipl
es,
met hods,and st r
ategies i nteachi
ng
thesecomponent s.

I
ntr
oduct
ion
Li
steni
ngi
sthenegl
ect
edcommuni
cat
ionski
l
l.Whi
l
eal
lofushav
ehad
i
nst
ruct
ioni
nreadi
ng,wr
it
ing,andspeaki
ng,f
ewhav
ehadanyf
ormali
nst
ruct
ion
i
nli
steni
ng.Mostofusspendsev
enofev
ery10mi
nut
esofourwaki
ngt
imei
n
somef
orm ofcommuni
cat
ionact
ivi
ty.Oft
hesesev
enmi
nut
es(
or70% oft
he
t
imewear
eawake)
,10% i
sspentwr
it
ing,15% r
eadi
ng,30% t
alki
ng,and45%
l
i
steni
ng.

Thi
nkofi
t!Wespendnear
lyhal
fofourcommuni
cat
iont
imel
i
steni
ng,but
f
ewofusmakeanyr
ealef
for
ttobebet
terl
i
stener
s.Fort
hosewhodo,howev
er,
t
heef
for
tpay
sgr
eatdi
vi
dends—hi
gherpr
oduct
ivi
ty,f
ast
erl
ear
ning,andbet
ter
r
elat
ionshi
ps.

Li
steni
ng i
s mor
ethan mer
elyhear
ing wor
ds.Li
steni
ng i
s an act
ive
pr
ocessbywhi
chst
udent
srecei
ve,const
ructmeani
ngf
rom,andr
espondt
o
spokenandornonv
erbalmessages(
Emmer
t,1994)
.Assuch,
itf
ormsani
ntegr
al
par
toft
hecommuni
cat
ionpr
ocessandshoul
dnotbesepar
atedf
rom t
heot
her
l
anguagear
ts.Li
steni
ngcompr
ehensi
oncompl
ement
sreadi
ngcompr
ehensi
on.
Ver
bal
l
ycl
ari
fyi
ngt
hespokenmessagebef
ore,dur
ing,andaf
terapr
esent
ati
on
enhancesl
i
steni
ngcompr
ehensi
on.Wr
it
ing,i
ntur
n,cl
ari
fi
esanddocument
sthe
spokenmessage.

TheGoalofTeachi
ngLi
steni
ng
Ast
eacher
s,wewantt
opr
oducest
udent
s,whoev
eni
ftheydonothav
e
compl
ete cont
roloft
he gr
ammaroran ext
ensi
vel
exi
con,can f
end f
or
t
hemsel
vesi
ncommuni
cat
ionsi
tuat
ions.I
nthecaseofl
i
steni
ng,t
hismeans
pr
oduci
ng st
udent
s who can use l
i
steni
ng st
rat
egi
es t
o maxi
mize t
hei
r
compr
ehensi
onofaur
ali
nput
,ident
if
yrel
evantandnon-
rel
evanti
nfor
mat
ion,
and
t
oler
atel
esst
hanwor
d-by
-wor
dcompr
ehensi
on.

TheNat
ureofLi
steni
ng
 Li
steni
ngt
akesupasmuchas50%ofourev
ery
daycommuni
cat
iont
ime.
I
tist
hemai
nchannelofcl
assr
oom i
nst
ruct
ionandt
hemostusedl
anguageski
l
l
atwor
k and athome.Many l
ear
ner
s wantt
o dev
elop ef
fect
ivel
i
steni
ng
compr
ehensi
on because i
tis cr
uci
alt
othei
racademi
c,pr
ofessi
onal
,and
per
sonal
success.

Whenwet
eachl
i
steni
ngweconsi
derwhatt
heobj
ectofouri
nst
ruct
ioni
s.
Wel
ookati
deast
hathav
einf
luencedt
hinki
ngonl
ear
nerl
i
steni
ngi
nEngl
i
sh
l
anguaget
eachi
ng.

Ki
ndsofLi
steni
ng
Teacher
scanhel
pst
udent
sbecomeef
fect
ivel
i
stener
sbymaki
ngt
hem
awar
eoft
hedi
ff
erentki
ndsofl
i
steni
ng,t
hedi
ff
erentpur
posesf
orl
i
steni
ng,and
t
hequal
i
tiesofgoodl
i
stener
s.Wol
vi
nandCoakl
ey(
1992)i
dent
if
yfourdi
ff
erent
ki
ndsofl
i
steni
ng:

 Compr
ehensi
ve(
Inf
ormat
ional
)Li
steni
ng-
-St
udent
sli
stenf
ort
hecont
ent
oft
hemessage.

 Cr
it
ical(
Eval
uat
ive)Li
steni
ng-
-St
udent
sjudget
hemessage.

 Appr
eci
ati
ve(
Aest
het
ic)Li
steni
ng-
-St
udent
sli
stenf
orenj
oyment
.

 Ther
apeut
ic(
Empat
het
ic)Li
steni
ng-
-St
udent
sli
stent
osuppor
tot
her
sbut
notj
udget
hem.

Tr
adi
ti
onal
l
y,secondar
yschool
shav
econcent
rat
edont
hecompr
ehensi
ve
andcr
it
icalki
ndsofl
i
steni
ng.Teacher
sneedt
opr
ovi
deexper
iencesi
nal
lfour
ki
nds.Forexampl
e,l
i
steni
ng t
oli
ter
atur
eread,l
i
steni
ng t
oradi
o pl
ays,and
wat
chi
ngf
il
msdev
elopappr
eci
ati
vei
naddi
ti
ont
ocompr
ehensi
veandcr
it
ical
l
i
steni
ng.When st
udent
s pr
ovi
de suppor
ti
ve communi
cat
ion i
n col
l
abor
ati
ve
gr
oups,t
heyar
e pr
omot
ing t
her
apeut
icl
i
steni
ng.Forexampl
e,t
he l
i
steni
ng
behav
iorcanshow under
standi
ng,accept
ance,andt
rust
,al
lofwhi
chf
aci
l
itat
e
communi
cat
ion.St
udent
sbenef
itf
rom exposur
etoal
lfourt
ypesofl
i
steni
ng.

Li
steni
ngi
sagener
alpur
posei
nmostl
ear
ningsi
tuat
ions.Tobeef
fect
ive
l
i
stener
s,howev
er,st
udent
sneedamor
especi
fi
cfocust
hanj
ustat
tendi
ngt
o
whati
s
sai
d.Seet
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
twhi
chcont
rast
sef
fect
iveandi
nef
fect
ivel
i
steni
ng
habi
ts.

ThePur
posesf
orLi
steni
ng
Li
steni
ngr
equi
resconsci
ousment
alef
for
tandspeci
fi
cpur
pose.The
pur
posesf
orl
i
steni
ngr
elat
eto"
types"ofl
i
steni
ng:
 Ar
eyoul
i
steni
ngt
orecei
vei
nfor
mat
ion?
 Ar
eyoul
i
steni
ngt
ofol
l
owi
nst
ruct
ions?
 Ar
eyoul
i
steni
ngt
oev
aluat
einf
ormat
ion?
 Ar
eyoul
i
steni
ngf
orpl
easur
e?
 Ar
eyoul
i
steni
ngt
oempat
hize?

St
udent
sshoul
dbeabl
etodet
ermi
newhatt
hei
rpur
poseshoul
dbei
nanygi
ven
l
i
steni
ngsi
tuat
ion(
seef
igur
ebel
ow)
.

Li
steni
ngCompr
ehensi
onski
l
lsorEnabl
i
ngski
l
ls

 Li
steni
ngf
ordet
ail
—inv
olv
esl
i
steni
ngf
orspeci
fi
cinf
ormat
ion
 Li
steni
ngf
orgi
st—l
i
stenf
ormai
nideas
 Dr
awi
ngi
nfer
ences—abi
l
ityt
ofi
l
lingapsi
nthei
nput
 Li
steni
ngsel
ect
ivel
y—l
i
stenonl
ytospeci
fi
cpar
tsoft
hei
nput
.
 Maki
ngpr
edi
cti
ons—abi
l
ityt
oant
ici
pat
ebef
oreanddur
ingl
i
steni
ngwhat
onei
sgoi
ngt
ohear
.

Li
steni
ngasaPRODUCT
I
tshowswhatl
i
stener
sdoi
nor
dert
odemonst
rat
ethei
runder
standi
ng.I
t
i
sdescr
ibedi
nter
msofout
comeswhi
char
est
atedei
therv
erbal
l
yornon-
ver
bal
l
y.

Exampl
esofl
i
steni
ngout
comes:
 Fol
l
owi
nst
ruct
ions
 Or
gani
zeandcl
assi
fyi
nfor
mat
ion
 Takeef
fect
ivenot
es
 Takedi
ctat
ion
 Tr
ansf
eri
nfor
mat
ioni
ntogr
aphi
cfor
ms
 Reconst
ructor
igi
nal
text
 Makeappr
opr
iat
eor
alr
espon

Li
steni
ngasaPROCESS
 St
udent
sdonothav
eani
nnat
eunder
standi
ngofwhatef
fect
ivel
i
stener
s
do;t
her
efor
e,i
tist
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
eacher
stoshar
ethatknowl
edgewi
th
t
hem.Per
hapst
hemostv
aluabl
ewayt
oteachl
i
steni
ngski
l
lsi
sfort
eacher
sto
model
them t
hemsel
ves,
creat
inganenv
ironmentwhi
chencour
agesl
i
steni
ng.
Teacher
s can cr
eat
e such an env
ironmentby posi
ti
vei
nter
act
ion,act
ivel
y
l
i
steni
ngt
oal
lst
udent
sandr
espondi
ngi
nanopenandappr
opr
iat
emanner
.
Teacher
sshoul
dav
oidr
espondi
ngei
thercondescendi
ngl
yorsar
cast
ical
l
y.As
muchaspossi
ble,t
heyshoul
dmi
nimi
zedi
str
act
ionsand i
nter
rupt
ions.I
tis
i
mpor
tantf
ort
het
eachert
opr
ovi
denumer
ousoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orst
udent
sto
pr
act
icel
i
steni
ngski
l
lsandt
obecomeact
ivel
yengagedi
nthel
i
steni
ngpr
ocess.

Li
steni
ngi
sament
alpr
ocess.Ourbr
ainpr
ocessesl
i
ngui
sti
cinf
ormat
ioni
n
t
hree
way
s:
1.At
tendt
osi
gnal
s(soundsorpr
int
)andi
dent
if
ythem aswor
ds.
2.Pr
ocessi
nfor
mat
ioni
nthemostef
fi
cientway
.
3.Dr
awonknowl
edgest
oredi
nthel
ong-t
erm memor
y.

Ander
sonpr
oposedat
hree-
phasel
anguagecompr
ehensi
onmodel
:
 Per
cept
ioni
stheencodi
ngofsoundsi
gnal
s
 Par
singi
sthepr
ocessbywhi
chanut
ter
ancei
ssegment
edaccor
dingt
o
sy
ntact
icst
ruct
uresormeani
ngcuest
ocr
eat
eament
alr
epr
esent
ati
onof
t
hecombi
nedmeani
ngoft
hewor
ds.
 Ut
il
izat
ionoccur
swhenl
i
stener
srel
atement
alr
epr
esent
ati
onsoft
hei
nput
t
oexi
sti
ngknowl
edgei
nlong-t
erm memor
y

Bot
tom–upLi
steni
ng

Thi
sref
erst
oapr
ocessbywhi
chsoundsar
eusedt
obui
l
dupuni
tsof
i
nfor
mat
ion,suchaswor
ds,phr
ases,cl
ausesandsent
encesbef
oret
heaur
al
i
nputi
sunder
stood.

Top-
downpr
ocessi
ng
Thi
sref
erst
otheappl
i
cat
ionofbackgr
oundknowl
edget
ofaci
l
itat
e
compr
ehensi
on.
I
tisgener
all
ybel
i
evednowt
hatbot
htop-
downandbot
tom-
uppr
ocessi
ng
occuratt
hesamet
imei
nwhati
sknownaspar
all
elpr
ocessi
ng(
Eysenck,
1993)
.
I
nsomei
nst
ances,
onet
ypeofpr
ocessi
ngmi
ghtt
akepr
ecedenceov
ert
heot
her
,
dependi
ngont
heamountofpr
act
iceani
ndi
vi
dual
hashadonaspeci
fi
ctask.

Fact
orst
hatI
nfl
uenceLear
ner
s’Li
steni
ng
Thr
eesour
cesofi
nfor
mat
ionar
ecr
uci
alt
ohowl
anguagel
ear
ner
sli
sten:
1.Backgr
oundknowl
edge(
schemat
ic)
2.Knowl
edgeoft
hesi
tuat
ionandco-
text(
cont
ext
ual
)
3.Knowl
edgeoft
hel
anguagesy
stem (
syst
emi
c)

Li
steni
ngcanbebestunder
stoodasacombi
nat
ionofl
owandhi
ghi
nfer
ences
(
Rost
,1990)Li
stener
smakel
ow-
lev
eli
nfer
enceswhent
heyuset
hei
rknowl
edge
ofl
i
ngui
sti
cfeat
urest
oinf
er(
decode)t
hesoundsi
nanut
ter
ance.Tounder
stand
whatamessagemeans,t
heyengagei
nhi
gherl
eveli
nfer
encesbyusi
ngont
hei
r
knowl
edgeofbot
hli
ngui
sti
candpr
agmat
icnat
ure.

Anot
hercogni
ti
ve per
spect
ive on l
ear
nerl
i
steni
ng i
sthe use ofl
i
steni
ng
compr
ehensi
onst
rat
egi
es.Thesear
ement
almechani
smsusedt
opr
ocessand
managei
nfor
mat
ion.Thet
hreecat
egor
iesofl
i
steni
ngst
rat
egi
esar
e:

 Cogni
ti
ve:pr
ocess,i
nter
pret
,st
oreandr
ecal
linf
ormat
ion.Thi
sinv
olv
es
st
rat
egi
essuchasi
nfer
enci
ngandpr
edi
cti
on.
 Met
acogni
ti
ve :manage and f
aci
l
itat
e ment
alpr
ocess;cope wi
th
di
ff
icul
ti
es dur
ing l
i
steni
ng. Exampl
es of such st
rat
egi
es i
ncl
ude
compr
ehensi
onmoni
tor
ingandv
isual
i
zing.

 Soci
al-
aff
ect
ive :ask t
he hel
p ofot
her
stof
aci
l
itat
e compr
ehensi
on;
manageone’
semot
ionswhenl
i
steni
ngsuchasconf
idencebui
l
dingand
cooper
ati
on.

Stagesi
naList
eni
ngLesson
ThePhasesofLi
steni
ng
Thet
hreephasesoft
hel
i
steni
ngpr
ocessar
e:pr
e-l
i
steni
ng,
dur
ing
l
i
steni
ng,
andaf
terl
i
steni
ng.

Pr
e-l
ist
eni
ng
Dur
ingt
hepr
e-l
i
steni
ngphase,
teacher
sneedt
orecogni
zet
hatal
l
st
udent
sbr
ingdi
ff
erentbackgr
oundst
othel
i
steni
ngexper
ience.Bel
i
efs,
at
ti
tudes,
andbi
asesoft
hel
i
stener
swi
l
laf
fectt
heunder
standi
ngoft
he
message.I
naddi
ti
ont
obei
ngawar
eoft
hesef
act
ors,
teacher
sshoul
dshow
st
udent
showt
hei
rbackgr
oundsaf
fectt
hemessagest
heyr
ecei
ve.

Bef
orel
i
steni
ng,
student
sneedassi
stancet
oact
ivat
ewhatt
heyal
ready
knowaboutt
hei
deast
heyar
egoi
ngt
ohear
.Si
mpl
ybei
ngt
oldt
het
opi
cisnot
enough.Pr
e-l
i
steni
ngact
ivi
ti
esar
erequi
redt
oest
abl
i
shwhati
sal
readyknown
aboutt
het
opi
c,t
obui
l
dnecessar
ybackgr
ound,
andt
osetpur
pose(
s)f
or
l
i
steni
ng.St
udent
sneedt
ounder
standt
hatt …actofl
he“ i
steni
ngr
equi
resnot
j
usthear
ingbutt
hinki
ng,
aswel
lasagooddealofi
nter
estandi
nfor
mat
ionwhi
ch
bot
hspeakerandl
i
stenermusthav
eincommon.Speaki
ngandl
i
steni
ngent
ail.
..
t
hreecomponent
s:t
hespeaker
,thel
i
stener
,andt
hemeani
ngt
obeshar
ed;
speaker
,li
stener
,andmeani
ngf
orm auni
quet
ri
angl
e(Ki
ng,
1984)
.”

Thet
eacheral
l
owst
hel
ear
nert
o‘t
unei
n’t
othecont
extort
othet
opi
cofa
gi
vent
ext
.Thest
udent
smayper
hapsexpr
esst
hei
rvi
ewsaboutt
het
extt
obe
l
i
stenedt
o;t
heymaypr
edi
ctcont
entf
rom t
het
it
leofasel
ect
ion,
answerasetof
quest
ions,
studyandexami
nepi
ctur
es,
andsi
ngasongorachant
.Eachoft
hese
hel
psst
udent
stof
ocusonat
opi
c,act
ivat
ethei
rschemat
aorpr
iorknowl
edge
andal
l
owst
hem t
ouset
hewor
dswhi
cht
heywi
l
lshor
tl
yheari
nthet
ext
.

Ther
ear
esev
eral
str
ategi
est
hatst
udent
sandt
hei
rteacher
scanuset
o
pr
epar
eforal
i
steni
ngexper
ience.Theycan:

1.Act
ivat
eExi
sti
ngKnowl
edge.St
udent
sshoul
dbeencour
agedt
oaskt
he
quest
ion:WhatdoIal
readyknowaboutt
hist
opi
c?Fr
om t
hist
eacher
sand
st
udent
scandet
ermi
newhati
nfor
mat
iont
heyneedi
nor
dert
ogett
he
mostf
rom t
hemessage.St
udent
scanbr
ainst
orm,di
scuss,r
ead,v
iew
f
il
msorphot
os,
andwr
it
eandshar
ejour
nal
ent
ri
es.

2.Bui
ldPr
iorKnowl
edge.Teacher
scanpr
ovi
det
heappr
opr
iat
ebackgr
ound
i
nfor
mat
ion i
ncl
udi
ng i
nfor
mat
ion about t
he speaker
,topi
c of t
he
pr
esent
ati
on,pur
pose of t
he pr
esent
ati
on,and t
he concept
s and
v
ocabul
aryt
hatar
eli
kel
ytobeembeddedi
nthepr
esent
ati
on.Teacher
s
mayr
elyupont
heor
ali
nter
pret
ati
ont
oconv
eyt
hemeani
ngsofunf
ami
l
iar
wor
ds,l
eav
ingt
hedi
scussi
onoft
hesewor
dsunt
ilaf
tert
hepr
esent
ati
on.
Att
hisst
age,t
eacher
sneedt
opoi
ntoutt
her
olet
hator
alpunct
uat
ion,
bodyl
anguage,
andt
onepl
ayi
nanor
alpr
esent
ati
on.

3.Rev
iew St
andar
dsf
orLi
steni
ng.Teacher
sshoul
dst
resst
hei
mpor
tance
oft
heaudi
ence'
srol
einal
i
steni
ng si
tuat
ion.Ther
eisani
nter
act
ive
r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween audi
enceand speaker
,each af
fect
ing t
heot
her
.
Teacher
scanout
li
net
hef
oll
owi
ngconsi
der
ati
onst
ost
udent
s:

o St
udent
shavet
obephy
sical
lypr
epar
edf
orl
ist
eni
ng.Theyneedt
o
seeandheart
hespeaker
.Ifnot
esar
etobet
aken,
theyshoul
dhav
e
paperandpenci
lathand.

o St
udent
sneedt
obeat
tent
ive.I
nmanycul
tur
es,
thoughnotal
l
,iti
s
expect
edt
hatt
hel
i
stenerl
ookdi
rect
lyatt
hespeakerandi
ndi
cat
e
at
tent
ionandi
nter
estbybodyl
anguage.Thel
i
stenershoul
dnev
er
t
alkwhenaspeakeri
stal
ki
ng.Li
stener
sshoul
dputdi
str
act
ionsand
pr
obl
emsasi
de.
 o "
List
ent
oot
her
sasy
ouwoul
dhavet
hem l
ist
ent
oyou.
"

4.Est
abl
ishPur
pose.Teacher
sshoul
dencour
agest
udent
stoask:
"Whyam I
l
i
steni
ng?
""Whati
smypur
pose?
"St
udent
sshoul
dbeencour
agedt
o
ar
ti
cul
atet
hei
rpur
pose.

o Am Il
i
steni
ng t
o under
stand? St
udent
s shoul
d appr
oach t
he
speechwi
thanopenmi
nd.I
ftheyhav
est
rongper
sonalopi
nions,
t
heyshoul
dbeencour
agedt
orecogni
zet
hei
rownbi
ases.

o Am Il
i
steni
ngt
oremember
?St
udent
sshoul
dlookf
ort
hemai
n
i
deas and how t
he speech i
s or
gani
zed.They can f
il
lint
he
secondar
ydet
ail
slat
er.

o Am Il
i
steni
ngt
oev
aluat
e?St
udent
sshoul
daskt
hemsel
vesi
fthe
speakeri
squal
i
fiedandi
fthemessagei
slegi
ti
mat
e.Theyshoul
d
beal
ertt
oer
ror
sint
hespeaker
'st
hinki
ngpr
ocesses,par
ti
cul
arl
y
bi
as,sweepi
nggener
ali
zat
ions,pr
opagandadev
ices,andchar
ged
wor
dst
hatmayat
temptt
oswaybypr
ejudi
ceordecei
trat
hert
han
f
act
.

o Am Il
i
steni
ngt
obeent
ert
ained?St
udent
sshoul
dli
stenf
ort
hose
el
ement
sthatmake f
oran enj
oyabl
e exper
ience (
e.g.
,emot
ive
l
anguage,
imager
y,mood,
humor
,pr
esent
ati
onski
l
ls)
.

o Am Il
i
steni
ng t
o suppor
t? St
udent
s shoul
dli
sten cl
osel
yto
det
ermi
ne how ot
her i
ndi
vi
dual
s ar
e f
eel
i
ng and r
espond
appr
opr
iat
ely(
e.g.
,cl
ari
fy,
par
aphr
ase,
sympat
hize,
encour
age)
.

Bef
ore a speaker
's pr
esent
ati
on,t
eacher
s al
so can hav
e st
udent
s
f
ormul
atequest
ionst
hatt
heypr
edi
ctwi
l
lbeanswer
eddur
ingt
hepr
esent
ati
on.I
f
t
hequest
ionsar
enotanswer
ed,
student
smayposet
hequest
ionst
othespeaker
.
St
udent
sshoul
daswel
lbeencour
agedt
ojotdownquest
ionsdur
ingl
i
steni
ng.

Anaddi
ti
onal
str
ategyi
scal
l
edTQLR.I
tconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngst
eps:

T–Tune-
in
(
Thel
i
stenermustt
une-
int
othespeakerandt
hesubj
ect
,ment
all
ycal
l
ing
upev
ery
thi
ngknownaboutt
hesubj
ectandshut
ti
ngoutal
ldi
str
act
ions.
)

Q-
-Quest
ion
(
Thel
i
stenershoul
dment
all
yfor
mul
atequest
ions.Whatwi
l
lthi
sspeaker
 sayaboutt
hist
opi
c?Whati
sthespeaker
'sbackgr
ound?Iwonderi
fthe
speakerwi
l
ltal
kabout
..
.?
)

L-
-Li
sten
(
Thel
i
stenershoul
dor
gani
zet
hei
nfor
mat
ionasi
tisr
ecei
ved,
ant
ici
pat
ing
whatt
hespeakerwi
l
lsaynextandr
eact
ingment
all
ytoev
ery
thi
nghear
d.)

R-
-Rev
iew
(
Thel
i
stenershoul
dgoov
erwhathasbeensai
d,summar
ize,
andev
aluat
e
const
ant
ly.Mai
nideasshoul
dbesepar
atedf
rom subor
dinat
eones.
)

5.Use a Li
steni
ng Gui
de.A gui
de may pr
ovi
de an ov
erv
iew oft
he
pr
esent
ati
on,i
tsmai
nideas,quest
ionst
obeanswer
edwhi
l
eli
steni
ng,a
summar
yoft
hepr
esent
ati
on,oranout
li
ne.Forexampl
e,agui
desuchas
t
hef
oll
owi
ngcoul
dbeusedbyst
udent
sdur
ingapr
esent
ati
oni
ncl
ass.

1.Si
tuat
ion:
Speaker
'sname:
Dat
e:
Occasi
on:

2.Whati
sthegener
alsubj
ectoft
hist
alk?

3.Whati
sthemai
npoi
ntormessageoft
hist
alk?

4.Whati
sthespeaker
'sor
gani
zat
ional
plan?

5.Whatt
ransi
ti
onal
expr
essi
ons(
e.g.
,fi
rst
ly,
secondl
y,i
ncont
rast
,inconcl
usi
on)doest
he
speakeruse?

6.Doest
hespeakerdi
gressf
rom t
hemai
npoi
nt?

7.Wr
it
ethespeaker
'smai
npoi
nti
nnomor
ethan
t
hreesent
ences.

Whati
syourper
sonal
react
iont
othet
alk?

Whi
le-Li
steni
ngSt
age

Whi
l
e-l
i
steni
ngt
asksar
ewhatst
udent
sar
easkedt
ododur
ingl
i
steni
ng
t
ime.Thel
i
steni
ngt
asksshoul
dbeenj
oyabl
eandmeani
ngf
ult
othest
udent
s.I
t
shoul
dbesi
mpl
eandeasyt
ohandl
e.I
tshoul
dpr
ovi
deoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orst
udent
s
t
osucceed.

St
udent
sneedt
ounder
standt
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionsofr
atei
nthel
i
steni
ngpr
ocess.
Ni
chol
s(1948)f
oundt
hatpeopl
eli
stenand t
hinkatf
ourt
imest
henor
mal
conv
ersat
ionr
ate.St
udent
shav
etobeencour
agedt
ouset
he"
rat
egap"t
o
act
ivel
ypr
ocesst
hemessage.I
nor
dert
ouset
hatext
rat
imewi
sel
y.
Ef
fect
ivel
i
stener
s:

 connect
—makeconnect
ionswi
thpeopl
e,pl
aces,
sit
uat
ions,
andi
deast
hey
know
 f
indmeani
ng—det
ermi
newhatt
hespeakeri
ssay
ingaboutpeopl
e,pl
aces,
andi
deas
 quest
ion—payat
tent
iont
othosewor
dsandi
deast
hatar
euncl
ear
 makeandconf
ir
m pr
edi
cti
ons—t
ryt
odet
ermi
newhatwi
l
lbesai
dnext
 makei
nfer
ences—det
ermi
nespeaker
'si
ntentby"
li
steni
ngbet
weent
he
l
i
nes"
;inf
erwhatt
hespeakerdoesnotact
ual
l
ysay
 r
efl
ectandev
aluat
e—r
espondt
owhathasbeenhear
dandpassj
udgment
.

"
Compr
ehensi
oni
senor
mousl
yimpr
ovedwhent
hespeaker
'sschemaor
or
gani
zat
ional
pat
ter
nisper
cei
vedbyt
hel
i
stener
"(Dev
ine,
1982)
.Teach
st
udent
sthev
ari
ousst
ruct
ures(
e.g.
,shor
tst
ory
,essay
,poet
ry,
play
),
or
gani
zat
ionalpat
ter
ns(
e.g.
,l
ogi
cal
,chr
onol
ogi
cal
,spat
ial
),andt
ransi
ti
onal
dev
ices.Ef
fect
ivel
i
stener
scanf
oll
owspokendi
scour
sewhent
heyr
ecogni
ze
keysi
gnal
expr
essi
onssuchast
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 Examplewor
ds:f
orexampl
e,f
ori
nst
ance,
thus,
inot
herwor
ds,
asan
i
ll
ustr
ati
on
Usual
l
yf oundi
n:gener
ali
zati
onplusexampl
e(butmaybef
oundi
n
enumerati
onandargumentat
ion)
 Timewords:fi
rst
,second,
thi
rd,
meanwhi
l
e,next
,fi
nal
l
y,atl
ast
,today
,
tomor
row,soon
Usual
lyfoundin:nar
rati
on,
chronologi
calpat
ter
ns,di
rect
ions(
and
whenevereventsorexamplesarepresent
edinati
mesequence)
• Addi
ti
onwor
ds:i
naddi
ti
on,
also,
fur
ther
mor
e,mor
eov
er,
anot
herexampl
e
Usual
lyfoundi
n:Enumerat
ion,
descr
ipt
ion,
andsomet
imesi
n
gener
ali
zati
onplusexampl
e
 Resul
twor
ds:asar
esul
t,so,
accor
dingl
y,t
her
efor
e,t
hus
Usual
l
yfoundi
n:Causeandef
fect
 Cont
rastwor
ds:howev
er,
but
,incont
rast
,ont
heot
herhand,
nev
ert
hel
ess
Usual
l
yfoundi
n:comparisonandcontr
ast(andwheneverspeakermakes
acompari
sonorcont
rastinanot
herpatt
ern)(Dev
ine,
1982).

Mostst
udent
s need pr
act
ice i
n maki
ng i
nfer
ences whi
l
eli
steni
ng.A
si
mpl
ewayt
ohel
pst
udent
sbecomeawar
ethatt
her
eismeani
ngbet
weent
he
l
i
nesi
stor
eadapassagef
rom l
i
ter
atur
ewhi
chdescr
ibesachar
act
er'
sact
ions,
appear
ance,orsur
roundi
ngs.Fr
om t
hisi
nfor
mat
ion,st
udent
smakei
nfer
ences
aboutt
hechar
act
er'
sper
sonal
i
ty.Teacher
sshoul
dkeepi
nmi
ndt
hatt
hepur
pose
ofanexer
cisesuchast
hisi
snott
oel
i
citt
heexactanswer
,butt
opr
ovi
de
oppor
tuni
ti
esf
orst
udent
stomakev
ari
ousi
nfer
ences.St
udent
sal
soneedt
obe
awar
eoft
hei
nfer
encest
heycanmakef
rom non-
ver
balcues.Aspeaker
'st
one
andbodyl
anguagecanconv
eyamessageaswel
l
.
 Teacher
scanal
soencour
agegui
dedi
mager
ywhenst
udent
sar
eli
steni
ng
t
opr
esent
ati
onst
hathav
emanyv
isuali
mages,det
ail
s,ordescr
ipt
ivewor
ds.
St
udent
scanf
orm ment
alpi
ctur
est
ohel
pthem r
ememberwhi
l
eli
steni
ng.

Al
thoughl
i
stener
sneednotcapt
ureonpaperev
ery
thi
ngt
heyhear
,ther
e
ar
eti
mest
hatst
udent
sneedt
ofocusont
hemessageandneedt
orecor
dcer
tai
n
wor
dsand phr
ases.Such not
e-maki
ng (
"l
ist
eni
ng wi
th pen i
n hand"
)for
ces
st
udent
stoat
tendt
othemessage.Dev
ine(
1982)suggest
sst
rat
egi
essuchas
t
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 Gi
vequest
ionsi
nadv
anceandr
emi
ndl
i
stener
stol
i
stenf
orpossi
ble
answer
s.
 Pr
ovi
dear
oughout
li
ne,
map,
char
t,orgr
aphf
orst
udent
stocompl
eteas
t
heyf
oll
owt
hel
ect
ure.
 Havest
udent
sjotdown"
new-
to-
me"i
tems(
simpl
eli
stsoff
act
sor
i
nsi
ght
sthatt
hel
i
stenerhasnothear
dbef
ore)
.
 Useaf
ormal
not
e-t
aki
ngsy
stem.

Tr
anscr
ibi
ngorwr
it
ingdownl
i
veorr
ecor
dedspeechcanshar
pen
st
udent
s'l
i
steni
ng,
spel
l
ing,
andpunct
uat
ionski
l
ls.

 Teachersel
ect
sani
nter
est
ingpi
eceofwr
it
ing.
 Thesel
ect
ioni
sreadal
oudt
othecl
ass(
andper
hapsdi
scussed)
.
 Thet
eachert
hendi
ctat
est
hepassagesl
owl
ytot
hecl
ass.Thest
udent
s
tr
anscr
ibet
heform andconvent
ions(i
.e.
,spel
l
ing,
punct
uat
ion,
and
capi
tal
i
zati
on)asaccurat
elyaspossi
ble.
 St
udent
scompar
ethei
rtr
anscr
ipt
ionwi
thdi
str
ibut
edcopi
esoft
heor
igi
nal
.

Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngpl
aysamaj
orr
olei
nef
fect
ivel
i
steni
ng.Li
steni
ngi
nor
der
t
oanal
yzeandev
aluat
erequi
resst
udent
stoev
aluat
easpeaker
'sar
gument
sand
t
hev
alueoft
hei
deas,appr
opr
iat
enessoft
heev
idence,andt
heper
suasi
ve
t
echni
quesempl
oyed.Ef
fect
ivel
i
stener
sappl
ythepr
inci
plesofsoundt
hinki
ng
andr
easoni
ngt
othemessagest
heyhearathome,
inschool
,i
nthewor
kpl
ace,
or
i
nthemedi
a.

Pl
anni
ngandst
ruct
uri
ngcl
assr
oom act
ivi
ti
est
omodel
andencour
age
st
udent
stol
i
stencr
it
ical
l
yisi
mpor
tant
.St
udent
sshoul
dlear
nto:
 Anal
yzet
hemessage

Cr
it
icall
i
stener
sar
econcer
nedf
ir
stwi
thunder
standi
ngaccur
atel
yand
compl
etel
ywhatt
heyhear(
Brownel
l
,1996)
.St
udent
sshoul
dident
if
ythe
speaker
'st
opi
c,pur
pose,i
ntended audi
ence,and cont
ext
.The most
f
requentcr
it
icall
i
steni
ngcont
exti
sper
suasi
on.Theyshoul
dkeepanopen
-
minded and obj
ect
ive at
ti
tude as t
hey st
ri
vet
oident
if
ythe mai
n
 i
dea(
s)/
thesi
s/cl
aim and t
he suppor
ti
ng ar
gument
s/poi
nts/
anecdot
es.
Theyshoul
daskr
elev
antquest
ionsandr
est
ateper
cept
ionst
omakesur
e
t
heyhav
eunder
stoodcor
rect
ly.Taki
ngnot
eswi
l
lenhancet
hei
rli
steni
ng.

 Anal
yzet
hespeaker

Cr
it
ical
li
stener
smustunder
standt
her
eli
abi
l
ityoft
hespeaker
.Ist
he
speakercr
edi
ble?Tr
ust
wor
thy
?Anexper
t?Dy
nami
c?

 Anal
yzet
hespeaker
'sevi
dence

Cr
it
icall
i
stener
smustunder
standt
henat
ureandappr
opr
iat
enessoft
he
ev
idenceandr
easoni
ng.Whatev
idencei
sused?Exper
ttest
imony
?Fact
s?
St
ati
sti
cs?Exampl
es?Reasons?Opi
nions?I
nappr
opr
iat
eev
idencemi
ght
i
ncl
udeunt
rust
wor
thyt
est
imony
;inadequat
e,i
ncor
rect
,inappr
opr
iat
e,or
i
rr
elev
antf
act
s,st
ati
sti
cs,orexampl
es;orquot
ati
onsoutofcont
extor
i
ncompl
ete.

 Anal
yzet
hespeaker
'sr
easoni
ng

Cr
it
icall
i
stener
smustunder
standt
hel
ogi
candr
easoni
ngoft
hespeaker
.
I
sthi
s ev
idence dev
eloped i
nlogi
calar
gument
s such as deduct
ive,
i
nduct
ive,causal
,oranal
ogous?Faul
tyr
easoni
ngmi
ghti
ncl
udehast
yor
ov
er-
incl
usi
vegener
ali
zat
ion,ei
ther
-orar
gument
,causalf
all
acy(
ther
efor
e,
becauseoft
his)
,nonsequi
tur(
conf
usi
onofcauseandef
fect
),r
easoni
ng
i
naci
rcl
e,beggi
ngori
gnor
ingt
hequest
ion,f
alseanal
ogy
,at
tacki
ngt
he
per
soni
nst
eadoft
hei
dea,
orgui
l
tbyassoci
ati
on.

 Anal
yzet
hespeaker
'semot
ionalappeal
s

Cr
it
icall
i
stener
smustunder
standt
hatper
suader
sof
tenr
elyonemot
ional
appealaswel
lasev
idenceandr
easoni
ng.Cr
it
icall
i
stener
s,t
her
efor
e,
mustr
ecogni
zeef
fect
iveper
suasi
veappeal
sandpr
opagandadev
ices.A
ski
l
led cr
it
icall
i
steneri
dent
if
ies and di
scount
s decept
ive per
suasi
ve
appeal
s such as power
fulconnot
ati
ve(
loaded)wor
ds,doubl
espeak,
appeal
stof
ear
s,pr
ejudi
ce,di
scont
ent
,fl
att
ery
,st
ereot
ype,ort
radi
ti
on.
Thel
i
stenermustal
soi
dent
if
yanddi
scountpr
opagandat
echni
quessuch
asbandwagonappeal
s,gl
i
tter
inggener
ali
ti
es,i
nappr
opr
iat
etest
imoni
als,
pseudo-
sci
ent
if
icev
idence,
car
d-st
acki
ng,
andname-
cal
l
ing.

Pr
obl
emst
hatLanguageLear
ner
sFaceDur
ingLi
steni
ng

Text
Thr
eet
ypesoft
extf
eat
urecanaf
fectl
i
steni
ng:
1.phonol
ogyandspeechr
ate
2.di
scour
sef
eat
ures
3.t
extt
ypes
Task
Theyar
einf
luencedbyt
het
ypesofquest
ion,t
heamountoft
imeandwhet
heror
nott
hel
i
stenercangett
hei
nfor
mat
ionr
epeat
ed.
I
nter
locut
or(
speaker
)
Thi
sincl
udesaccent
,fl
uency
,gender
,andst
andar
dornonst
andar
dusage.
Li
stener
Li
stenerchar
act
eri
sti
csi
ncl
ude:l
anguagepr
ofi
ciency
,gender
,memor
y,i
nter
est
,
pur
pose,pr
iorknowl
edge,at
tent
ion,accur
acyofpr
onunci
ati
on,t
opi
cfami
l
iar
it
y,
andest
abl
i
shedl
ear
ninghabi
ts.
Pr
ocess
Thi
sref
erst
oty
peofpr
ocessi
ngt
hatl
i
stener
suse,
whet
hert
op-
downorbot
tom-
uporbot
h.Thet
ypeofl
i
steni
ngst
rat
egyusedbyt
hel
i
steneri
sani
mpor
tant
f
act
or.

Post
-Li
steni
ngSt
age
Thi
sisusual
l
yatt
heendofal
esson.Thesear
eof
f-
shoot
sorext
ensi
onoft
he
wor
kdoneatt
hepr
e-andwhi
l
eli
steni
ngst
age.Att
hisst
aget
hest
udent
shav
e
t
imet
othi
nk,
ref
lect
,di
scussandt
owr
it
e.

St
udent
sneedt
oactuponwhatt
heyhav
ehear
dtocl
ari
fymeani
ngand
ext
endt
hei
rthi
nki
ng.Wel
l
-pl
annedpost
-l
ist
eni
ngact
ivi
ti
esar
ejustasi
mpor
tant
ast
hosebef
oreanddur
ing.Someexampl
esf
oll
ow.

 Tobegi
nwi
th,
student
scanaskquest
ionsoft
hemsel
vesandt
hespeaker
t
ocl
ari
fyt
hei
runder
standi
ngandconf
ir
mthei
rassumpt
ions.

 HookandEv
ans(
1982)suggestt
hatt
hepost
-mor
tem i
sav
eryusef
ul
dev
ice.St
udent
s shoul
dtal
k aboutwhatt
he speakersai
d,quest
ion
st
atement
s ofopi
nion,ampl
i
fy cer
tai
nremar
ks,and i
dent
if
y par
all
el
i
nci
dent
sfr
om l
i
feandl
i
ter
atur
e.

 St
udent
scansummar
izeaspeaker
'spr
esent
ati
onor
all
y,i
nwr
it
ing,
oras
anout
li
ne.I
naddi
ti
ont
othet
radi
ti
onal
out
li
nef
ormat
,st
udent
scoul
duse
t
imel
i
nes,
flowchar
ts,
ladder
s,ci
rcl
es,
diagr
ams,
webs,
ormaps.

 St
udent
scanr
evi
ewt
hei
rnot
esandaddi
nfor
mat
iont
hatt
heydi
dnot
hav
eanoppor
tuni
tyt
orecor
ddur
ingt
hespeech.

 St
udent
scananal
yzeandev
aluat
ecr
it
ical
l
ywhatt
heyhav
ehear
d.

 St
udent
scanbegi
venoppor
tuni
ti
est
oengagei
nact
ivi
ti
est
hatbui
l
don
anddev
elopconcept
sacqui
reddur
inganor
alpr
esent
ati
on.Thesemay
 i
ncl
udewr
it
ing(
e.g.
,responsej
our
nal
,l
ear
ningl
og,
orcomposi
ti
on)
,
r
eadi
ng(
e.g.
,fur
therr
esear
chonat
opi
coracont
radi
ctor
yvi
ewpoi
nt)
,ar
t
ordr
ama(
e.g.
,desi
gni
ngacov
erj
acketaf
terabookt
alkordev
elopi
nga
mockt
ri
alconcer
ningt
het
opi
cthr
oughdr
amai
nrol
e).

Li
steni
ngTasksf
orCommuni
cat
iveOut
comes

Communi
cat
iveOut
comes Exampl
es

Li
sts Si
mil
ari
ti
es/
dif
fer
ence/
err
ors

Sequencedi
nfor
mat
ion Pi
ctur
esequences,
lyr
ics

Mat
chedi
tems Pi
ctur
eswi
tht
ext
s,t
hemeswi
tht
ext
s

Rest
oredt
ext
s Compl
etet
hegapsi
nat
ext

Di
agr
amsorpi
ctur
es Fl
oorpl
ans,
sket
chesofpeopl
e

Not
es Shor
tnot
esdur
ingpr
esent
ati
ons

One–WayLi
steni
ngTasks(
transact
ional
)

Iti
nvol
vesl
ist
eni
ngandr espondingthr
oughdiff
erentwaystoachiev
eout
comes.
Theydo nothavetoi nteractwiththe speakerwhileli
steni
ng.Iti
smainly
concer
nedwit
hobtai
ninginformati
onandknowledge.

Task Response

Rest
orat
ion I
ncl
udeomi
tt
edwor
dsorphr
ases

Reconst
ruct
ion Creat
eori
ginalmessage wi
thwor
ds
heardornoteddown

Sor
ti
ng sequence,
rank,
cat
egor
izei
tems

Ev
aluat
ion i
denti
fyi
nconsi
stenci
es and
cont
radi
cti
ons

Task Response

Mat
chi
ng Matchinf
ormati
onfr
om li
steni
ngt
o
pi
ctur
esorwrit
tent
exts

Ji
gsaw Cr
eat
eawhol
efr
om di
ff
erentpar
ts

Two-
wayLi
steni
ngt
asks(
int
eract
ional
)

The l
ist
enerhast ointer
actwiththe speakerbyaski
ng quest
ions,of
fer
ing
i
nfor
mat i
onandexpressi
ngopi
nions.

Task Response
Cr
eat
ivedi
ctat
ion Di
ctat
etoeachot
hert
ocompl
eteat
ext

Descr
ipt
ion Sequence/r
eproduce/
compl
ete
pi
cturesordi
agrams

Si
mul
ati
on Li
stenandexpressopi
nioni
n
si
mulatedsi
tuati
ons

Pr
esent
ati
on Li
stenandr
espondtofor
mal
and
i
nformalpr
esent
ati
ons

SomePr
act
icalLi
steni
ngSt
rat
egi
esandAct
ivi
ti
es

Compr
ehensi
veLi
steni
ngSt
rat
egi
es(
element
ary
)
For
mingapi
ctur
e(dr
awani
mage,
thenwr
it
eabouti
t)
Put
ti
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
ntogr
oups(
cat
egor
izi
ng,
“chunki
ng”
)
Aski
ngquest
ions(Whyam Ili
steni
ngt
othi
smessage?
;DoIknowwhat_
__
means?
;Doesthisi
nfor
mationmakesensetome?)
Di
scover
ingthepl
an(
descr
ipt
ion,
sequence,
compar
ison,
causeandef
fect
,
pr
oblem/sol
uti
on)
Not
etaki
ng(
demonst
rat
ebyt
aki
ngnot
eswi
tht
hechi
l
dren)
Get
ti
ngcl
uesf
rom t
hespeaker(
bot
hvi
sual
andv
erbal
cues)

Cr
it
icalLi
steni
ng(
int
ermedi
atet
ohi
ghschool
)

Hel
pchi
ldr
entorecognize:
per
suasi
onandpr
opaganda,
decept
ivel
anguage,
l
oadedwords,
propagandadev
ices.
St
eps:
1.int
roducet hecommer ci
al(
s)
2.explaindecepti
velanguage
3.analyzeit
4.revi
ewconcept s
5.providepracti
ce
6.createcommer cial
s
Thesamepr
ocedur
eappl
i
est
oadv
ert
isement
s.

Appr
eci
ati
veLi
steni
ng(
pri
mar
y)
Enjoymentisr
easonenought oread-al
oudtochi
l
dren.
Appreci
ati
veli
steningisimportantfor:
readi
ngal
oudtost
udent
s,r
epeat
ed
readi
ngs,andoralpresentat
ions.

Teachi
ngAppreci
ati
veList
ening:
1.Bef
orereadi
ng-
aloud:act
ivat
epr
iorknowl
edge,
backgr
ound,
set
purposef orreading
2.Duringr eadi
ng-al
oud:UseDirect
edReadingThinkingActi
vi
ty
(DRTA) —makepr edi
cti
ons,
reasoni
ngandf urt
herpredi
cti
ons,pr
ove
i
fpr edicti
onsaret r
ue
3.Afterreading-al
oud:sharet
heirl
ogandrelatetothei
rli
ves.

Aut
hent
icLi
steni
ngAct
ivi
ti
es(
fordi
ff
erentl
evel
s)
Act
ingoutastor
yfr
om onethati
sread(orbeingread)
Makingordoi
ngsomet
hingbyfol
lowingoraldir
ecti
ons
 Participatinginclassorgr oupdiscussions
Gettingi nformati
onbyl i
steni
ngt oanannouncement
Wor kingongr ouppr oj
ects
Cri
tiqui ngapeer ’
sdr aftofast oryaf
terli
steningtoit
Enjoy i
nggoodl i
teraturethatiswellpresentedorall
y
Evaluat inganissuet hatisbeingdebat ed
Evaluat ingproductsadv erti
sedincommer cial
s
Evaluat ingcandidatesf r
om theircampaignspeeches

TEACHI
NGSPEAKI
NG

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Speechi
sthemostbasi
cmeansofcommuni
cat
ion.
”Speaki
ngi
nasecond
l
anguageorf
orei
gnl
anguagehasof
tenbeenv
iewedast
hemostdemandi
ngand
chal
l
engi
ngoft
hef
ourski
l
ls.
”(Bai
l
eyandSav
age,
1994)Whatspeci
fi
cal
l
ymakes
speaki
ngi
nasecondl
anguageorf
orei
gnl
anguagedi
ff
icul
t.Accor
dingt
oBr
own
(
1994)anumberoff
eat
uresofspokenl
anguagei
ncl
udesr
educedf
ormssuchas
cont
ract
ions,v
owelr
educt
ion,andel
i
sion;sl
angandi
dioms;st
ress,r
hyt
hm,and
i
ntonat
ion.St
udent
swhoar
enotexposedt
oreducedspeechwi
l
lal
way
sret
ain
t
hei
rful
lfor
msandi
twi
l
lbecomeadi
sadv
ant
ageasaspeakerofasecond
l
anguage.Speaki
ngi
sanact
ivi
tyr
equi
ri
ngt
hei
ntegr
ati
onofmanysubsy
stems.

TheGoalofTeachi
ngSpeaki
ng

Thegoaloft
eachi
ngspeaki
ngski
l
lsi
scommuni
cat
iveef
fi
ciency
.Lear
ner
s
shoul
dbeabl
etomaket
hemsel
vesunder
stood,
usi
ngt
hei
rcur
rentpr
ofi
ciencyt
o
t
hef
ull
est
.Theyshoul
dtr
ytoav
oidconf
usi
oni
nthemessageduet
ofaul
ty
pr
onunci
ati
on,gr
ammar
,orv
ocabul
ary
,andt
oobser
vet
hesoci
alandcul
tur
al
r
ulest
hatappl
yineachcommuni
cat
ionsi
tuat
ion.

To hel
p st
udent
s dev
elop communi
cat
ive ef
fi
ciency i
n speaki
ng,
i
nst
ruct
orscanuseabal
ancedact
ivi
ti
esappr
oacht
hatcombi
nesl
anguagei
nput
,
st
ruct
uredout
put
,andcommuni
cat
iveout
put
.

TheNat
ureofSpeaki
ng

Or
alcommuni
cat
ioni
sat
wo-
waypr
ocessbet
weenspeakerandl
i
stener
(
orl
i
stener
s)andi
nvol
v hepr
est oduct
iveski
l
lofspeaki her
ngandt ecept
iveski
l
l
ofunder
standi
ng(
orl
i
steni
ngwi
thunder
standi
ng)
.Bot
hspeakerandl
i
stener
hav
eaposi
ti
vef
unct
iont
oper
for
m.I
nsi
mpl
eter
ms,t oencode
hespeakerhast
t
hemessagehewi
shest
oconv
eyi
nappr
opr
iat
elanguage,whi
l
ethel
i
stener(
no
l
essact
ivel
y odecode(
)hast ori
nter
pret
)themessage.

Di
ff
erentv
iewsofspeaki
ngi
nlanguaget
eachi
ng
 Ar
evi
ew ofsomeoft
hev
iewsoft
hecur
renti
ssuesi
nteachi
ngor
al
communi
cat
ion can hel
p pr
ovi
de some per
spect
ivet
othe mor
e pr
act
ical
consi
der
ati
onsofdesi
gni
ngspeaki
ngl
essons.

1.Conver
sat
ionaldi
scour
se
Thebenchmar
kofsuccessf
ull
anguageacqui
sit
ioni
sal
mostal
way
sthe
demonst
rat
ionofanabi
l
ityt
oaccompl
i
shpr
agmat
icgoal
sthr
oughi
nter
act
ive
di
scour
se wi
th ot
her speaker
s of t
he l
anguage.Al
though hi
stor
ical
l
y,
“
conv
ersat
ion”cl
asseshav
erangedf
rom quasi
-communi
cat
ivedr
il
li
ngt
ofr
ee,
open,and somet
imes agenda-
less di
scussi
ons among st
udent
s;cur
rent
pedagogi
cal r
esear
ch on t
eachi
ng conv
ersat
ion has pr
ovi
ded some
par
amet
ersf
ordev
elopi
ngobj
ect
ivesandt
echni
ques.

Though t
he goal
s and t
he t
echni
ques f
ort
eachi
ng conv
ersat
ion ar
e
ext
remel
ydi
ver
se—dependi
ngont
hest
udent
,teacher
,andov
eral
lcont
extof
t
he cl
ass—l
anguage t
eacher
s hav
e nonet
hel
ess l
ear
ned t
o di
ff
erent
iat
e
ween t
bet ransact
ional and i
nter
act
ional conv
ersat
ion.I
nst
ruct
ors hav
e
di
scov
eredt
echni
quesf
ort
eachi
ngst
udent
sconv
ersat
ionr
ulessuchast
opi
c
nomi
nat
ion, mai
ntai
ning a conv
ersat
ion, t
urn-
taki
ng, i
nter
rupt
ion, and
t
ermi
nat
ion. Teacher
s hav
e al
so l
ear
ned t
o t
each soci
oli
ngui
sti
c
appr
opr
iat
eness, st
yles of speech, nonv
erbal communi
cat
ion, and
conv
ersat
ionalr
out
ines.Wi
thi
nal
lthesef
oci
,thephonol
ogi
cal
,lexi
cal
,and
sy
ntact
ic pr
oper
ti
es ofl
anguage can be at
tended t
o,ei
therdi
rect
ly or
i
ndi
rect
ly.

2.Teachi
ngpr
onunci
ati
on
Ther
ehasbeensomecont
rov
ersyov
ert
her
oleofpr
onunci
ati
onwor
kina
communi
cat
ive,i
nter
act
ive cour
se ofst
udy
.Because t
he ov
erwhel
ming
maj
ori
tyofadul
tlear
ner
swi
l
lnev
eracqui
reanaccent
-f
reecommandofa
f
orei
gn l
anguage,shoul
dal
anguage pr
ogr
am t
hatemphasi
zes whol
e
l
anguage,meani
ngf
ulcont
ext
s,and aut
omat
ici
tyofpr
oduct
ion f
ocus on
t
heset
inyphonol
ogi
caldet
ail
sofl
anguage?Theansweri
s“y
es,
”buti
na
di
ff
erentwayf
rom whatwasper
cei
vedt
obeessent
ial
;acoupl
eofdecades
ago.

3.Accur
acyandf
luency
An i
ssue t
hatper
vades al
lofl
anguage per
for
mance cent
ers on t
he
di
sti
nct
i weenaccur
onbet acyandf
luency
.Inspokenl
anguaget
hequest
ion
 wef
aceast
eacher
sis:How shal
lwepr
ior
it
izet
het
wocl
ear
lyi
mpor
tant
speakergoal
sofaccur
ate(
clear
,ar
ti
cul
ate,
grammat
ical
l
yandphonol
ogi
cal
l
y
cor
rect
)languageandf
luent(
fl
owi
ng,
nat
ural
)language?

I
tiscl
eart
hatf
luencyandaccur
acyar
ebot
himpor
tantgoal
stopur
suei
n
Communi
cat
ive Language Teachi
ng (
CLT)
.Whi
l
efl
uency may i
n many
communi
cat
ivel sesbean i
anguagecour nit
ialgoali
nlanguaget
eachi
ng,
accur
acyi
sachi
evedt
osomeext
entbyal
l
owi
ngst
udent
stof
ocusont
he
el
ement
sofphonol
ogy
,gr
ammar
,anddi
scour
sei
nthei
rspokenout
put
.

Thef
luency
/accur
acyi
ssueof
tenboi
l
sdownt
otheext
entt
owhi
chour
t
echni d be message or
ques shoul ient
ed (
ort
eachi anguage use)as
ng l
ol
opposedt anguageor
ient
ed (
alsoknownast
eachi anguageusage)
ngl .
Cur
rentappr
oachest
olanguage t
eachi
ng l
ean st
rongl
ytowar
d message
or
ient
ati
onwi
thl
anguageusageof
fer
ingasuppor
ti
ngr
ole.

4.Af
fect
ivef
act
ors
Oneoft
hemaj
orobst
acl
esl
ear
ner
shav
etoov
ercomei
nlear
ningt
ospeak
i
stheanxi
etygener
atedov
ert
her
isksofbl
urt
ingt
hingsoutt
hatar
ewr
ong,
st
upi
d,ori
ncompr
ehensi
ble.Because oft
he l
anguage ego t
hati
nfor
ms
peopl
ethat“
youar
ewhaty
ouspeak,
”lear
ner
sar
erel
uct
antt
obej
udgedby
hear
ers.Ourj
obast
eacher
sist
o pr
ovi
det
heki
ndofwar
m,embr
aci
ng
cl
i
mat
ethatencour
agesst
udent
stospeak,howev
erhal
ti
ngorbr
okent
hei
r
at
tempt
smaybe.

5.Thei
nter
act
ionef
fect
Thegr
eat
estdi
ff
icul
tyt
hatl
ear
ner
sencount
eri
nat
tempt
stospeaki
snot
t
he mul
ti
pli
cit
y of sounds,wor
ds,phr
ases,and di
scour
se f
orms t
hat
char
act
eri
ze any l
anguage,but r
ather t
he i
nter
act
ive nat
ure of most
communi
cat
ion.Conv
ersat
ionsar
ecol
l
abor
ati
veaspar
ti
cipant
sengagei
na
pr
ocessofnegot
iat
ionofmeani
ng.So,
fort
hel
ear
ner
,themat
terofwhaty
ou
sayi
sof
tenecl
i
psedbyconv
ent
ionsofhowt
osayt
hings,
whent
ospeak,
and
ot
herdi
scour
seconst
rai
nts.

Dav
idNunan(
1991)not
esaf
urt
hercompl
i
cat
ioni
nint
eract
ivedi
scour
se:
whathecal
l
sthei
nter
locut
oref
fect
,ort
hedi
ff
icul
tyofaspeaki
ngt
askas
gauged byt
he ski
l
lsofone’
sint
erl
ocut
or.I
n ot
herwor
ds,one l
ear
ner
’s
per
for
mancei
sal
way
scol
oredbyt
hatoft
heper
son(
int
erl
ocut
or)heorshei
s
t
alki
ngwi
th.

Fact
orst
hatI
nfl
uenceLear
ner
s’Speaki
ng
Thesi
xfact
orsbel
owsuggestt
hatanyl
ear
nerwhor
eal
l
ywant
stocan
l
ear
ntopr
onounceEngl
i
shcl
ear
lyandcompr
ehensi
bly
.Ast
het
eacher
,youcan
assi
sti
nthepr
ocessbygear
ingy
ourpl
annedandunpl
annedi
nst
ruct
iont
owar
d
t
hesesi
xfact
ors.

1.Nat
iveLanguage
The nat
ivel
anguage i
scl
ear
lyt
he mosti
nfl
uent
ialf
act
oraf
fect
ing a
l
ear
ner
’spr
onunci
ati
on.I
fthet
eacheri
sfami
l
iarwi
tht
hesoundsy
stem ofa
l
ear
ner
’s nat
ivel
anguage,(
s)he wi
l
lbe bet
terabl
eto di
agnose st
udent
di
ff
icul
ti
es.ManyL1t
oL2car
ryov
erscanbeov
ercomet
hroughaf
ocused
awar
enessandef
for
tont
hel
ear
ner
’spar
t.

2.Age
Chi
l
drenundert
heageofpuber
tygener
all
yst
andanexcel
l
entchance
of“
soundi
ng l
i
keanat
ive”i
ftheyhav
econt
inued exposur
ein aut
hent
ic
cont
ext
s.Bey
ondt
heageofpuber
ty,whi
l
eadul
tswi
l
lal
mostsur
elymai
ntai
n
a“
for
eignaccent
,”t
her
eisnopar
ti
cul
aradv
ant
ageat
tri
but
edt
oage.Af
if
ty-
y
ear
-ol
dcanbeassuccessf
ulasanei
ght
een-
year
-ol
difal
lot
herf
act
orsar
e
equal
.Thebel
i
eft
hat“
they
ounger
,thebet
ter
”inl
ear
ningal
anguagei
samy
th.

3.Exposur
e
I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttodef
ineexposur
e.Onecanact
ual
l
yli
vei
naf
orei
gncount
ryf
or
somet
imebutnott
akeadv
ant
ageofbei
ng“
wit
hthepeopl
e.” Resear
ch
seemst
osuppor
tthenot
iont
hatt
hequal
i
tyandi
ntensi
tyofexposur
ear
e
mor
eimpor
tantt
hanmer
elengt
hoft
ime.I
fcl
asst
imespentf
ocusi
ngon
pr
onunci
ati
ondemandst
hef
ullat
tent
ionandi
nter
estofst
udent
s,t
hent
hey
st
andagoodchanceofr
eachi
ngt
hei
rgoal
s.

4.I
nnat
ephonet
icabi
li
ty
Of
tenr
efer
redt
oashav
ingan“
ear
”forl
anguage,somepeopl
emani
fest
s
aphonet
iccodi
ngabi
l
ityt
hatot
her
sdonot
.Inmanycases,i
faper
sonhas
hadexposur
etoaf
orei
gnl
anguageasachi
l
d,t
his“
knack”i
spr
esentwhet
her
t
heear
lyl
anguagei
sremember
edornot
.Ot
her
sar
esi
mpl
ymor
eat
tunedt
o
phonet
icdi
scr
imi
nat
ions.Somepeopl
ewoul
dhav
eyoubel
i
evet
haty
ouei
ther
hav
esuchaknack,ory
oudon’
t.St
rat
egi
es-
basedi
nst
ruct
ion,howev
er,has
pr
ovent
hatsomeel
ement
sofl
ear
ningar
eamat
terofanawar
enessofy
our
ownl
i
mit
ati
onscombi
nedwi
thaconsci
ousf
ocusondoi
ngsomet
hingt
o
compensat
efort
hosel
i
mit
ati
ons.Ther
efor
e,i
fpr
onunci
ati
onseemst
obe
nat
ural
l
ydi
ff
icul
tforsomest
udent
s,t
heyshoul
dnotdespai
r;wi
thsomeef
for
t
andconcent
rat
ion,
theycani
mpr
ovet
hei
rcompet
ence.
5.I
dent
it
yandl
anguageego
Anot
heri
nfl
uencei
sone’
sat
ti
tudet
owar
dspeaker
soft
het
argetl
anguage
andt
heext
entt
owhi
cht
hel
anguageegoi
dent
if
ieswi
tht
hosespeaker
s.
Lear
ner
sneedt
ober
emi
ndedoft
hei
mpor
tance

6.Mot
ivat
ionandconcer
nforgoodpr
onunci
ati
on
Somel
ear
ner
sar
enotpar
ti
cul
arl
yconcer
nedaboutt
hei
rpr
onunci
ati
on,
whi
l
eot
her
sar
e.Theext
entt
owhi
chl
ear
ner
s’i
ntr
insi
cmot
ivat
ionpr
opel
s
t
hem t
owar
dimpr
ovementwi
l
lbeper
hapst
hest
rongesti
nfl
uenceofal
lsi
xof
t
hef
act
orsi
nthi
sli
st.I
fthatmot
ivat
ionandconcer
nar
ehi
gh,t
hent
he
necessar
yef
for
twi
l
lbeexpendedi
npur
sui
tofgoal
s.Ast
het
eacher
,youcan
hel
plear
ner
stoper
cei
veordev
elopt
hatmot
ivat
ionbyshowi
ng,
amongot
her
t
hings,how cl
ari
tyofspeechi
ssi
gni
fi
canti
nshapi
ngt
hei
rsel
f-
imageand,
ul
ti
mat
ely
,inr
eachi
ngsomeoft
hei
rhi
ghergoal
s.

Pr
obl
emst
hatl
anguagel
ear
ner
sfacedur
ingspeaki
ng
St
udent
sof
tent
hinkt
hatt
heabi
l
ityt
ospeakal
anguagei
sthepr
oductof
l
anguagel
ear
ning,butspeaki
ngi
sal
soacr
uci
alpar
toft
hel
anguagel
ear
ning
pr
ocess.Ef
fect
ivei
nst
ruct
orst
eachst
udent
sspeaki
ngst
rat
egi
es—usi
ngmi
nimal
r
esponses,r
ecogni
zi
ngscr
ipt
s,andusi
ngl
anguaget
otal
kaboutl
anguage—t
hat
t
heycanuset
ohel
pthemsel
vesexpandt
hei
rknowl
edgeoft
hel
anguageand
t
hei
rconf
idencei
nusi
ngi
t.Thesei
nst
ruct
orshel
pst
udent
slear
ntospeakso
t
hatt
hest
udent
scanusespeaki
ngt
olear
n.

Dougl
asBr
own(
2000)i
dent
if
iedei
ghtf
act
orst
hatcanmakespeaki
ngdi
ff
icul
t.

1.Cl
ust
eri
ng
Fl
uentspeechi
sphr
asal
,notwor
dbywor
d.Lear
ner
scanor
gani
zet
hei
r
out
putbot
h cogni
ti
vel
y and phy
sical
l
y(i
n br
eat
h gr
oups)t
hrough such
cl
ust
eri
ng.

2.Redundancy
The speakerhas an oppor
tuni
tyt
o make meani
ng cl
ear
ert
hrough t
he
r
edundancyofl
anguage.Lear
ner
scancapi
tal
i
zeont
hisf
eat
ureofspoken
l
anguage.

3.Reducedf
orms
Cont
ract
ions,el
i
sions,r
educed v
owel
s,et
c.,al
lfor
m speci
alpr
obl
emsi
n
t
eachi
ngspokenEngl
i
sh.St
udent
swhodon’
tlear
ncol
l
oqui
alcont
ract
ionscan
somet
imes dev
elop a st
il
ted,booki
sh qual
i
ty ofspeaki
ng t
hati
ntur
n
st
igmat
izest
hem.
4.Per
for
mancevar
iabl
es
Oneoft
headv
ant
agesofspokenl
anguagei
sthatt
hepr
ocessoft
hinki
ngas
y
ou speak al
l
ows y
ou t
o mani
festa cer
tai
n numberofper
for
mance
hesi
tat
ions,pauses,backt
racki
ng,andcor
rect
ions.Lear
ner
scanact
ual
l
ybe
t
aughthowt
opauseandhesi
tat
e.Forexampl
e,i
nEngl
i
shour“
thi
nki
ngt
ime”
i
snotsi
l
ent
;wei
nser
tcer
tai
n“f
il
l s”suchasuh,um,
er wel
l
,youknow,Imean,
l
i
ke,et
c.Oneoft
hemostsal
i
entdi
ff
erencesbet
weennat
iveandnonnat
ive
speaker
sofal
anguagei
sint
hei
rhesi
tat
ionphenomena.

5.Col
loqui
all
anguage
Makesur
eyourst
udent
sar
ereasonabl
ywel
lacquai
ntedwi
tht
hewor
ds,
i
dioms,andphr
asesofcol
l
oqui
all
anguageandt
hoset
heygetpr
act
icei
n
pr
oduci
ngt
hesef
orms.

6.Rat
eofdel
iver
y
Anot
hersal
i
entchar
act
eri
sti
c off
luencyi
srat
e ofdel
i
ver
y.One oft
he
l
anguage t
eacher
’st
asksi
nteachi
ng spoken Engl
i
sh i
sto hel
plear
ner
s
achi
eveanaccept
abl
espeedal
ongwi
thot
herat
tri
but
esoff
luency
.

7.St
ress,
rhy
thm,
andi
ntonat
ion
Thi
sist
hemosti
mpor
tantchar
act
eri
sti
cofEngl
i
shpr
onunci
ati
on.Thest
ress-
t
imedr
hyt
hm ofspokenEngl
i
shandi
tsi
ntonat
ionpat
ter
nsconv
eyi
mpor
tant
messages.

8.I
nter
act
ion
Lear
ning t
o pr
oduce wav
es of l
anguage i
n a v
acuum—wi
thout
i
nter
locut
ors—woul
drobspeaki
ngski
l
lofi
tsr
ichestcomponent
:thecr
eat
ivi
ty
ofconv
ersat
ional
negot
iat
ion.

Speaki
ngTasksf
orCommuni
cat
iveOut
comes

Ty
peofPer
for
mance Task/
Response

I
mit
ati
veSpeaki
ng •studentsi
mplyparr
otsback(imit
ate)awor
dor
phraseorpossi
blyasentence.
•Tasks:
– wordrepet
it
ion
 – pr
onunci
ati
ondr
il
ls(
str
ess,
int
onat
ion)

I
ntensi
veSpeaki
ng •onestepbey
ondimitat
ivespeakingtoincl
udeany
speaki
ngperf
ormancethatisdesignedtopract
ice
somephonologi
calorgr
ammat icalaspectof
l
anguage
•Tasks:
– direct edr esponse
–r ead- aloud
– sent ence/ di
aloguecompl
eti
ont
asks
– oral quest ionnaires
– pictur e-cuedt asks

Responsi
veSpeaki
ng •shortr
epli
est oteacher
-orst udent
-i
nit
iat
ed
questi
onsorcomment s(agooddeal ofstudent
speechintheclassroom i
sr esponsi
ve);r
epl
iesdo
notextendintodial
ogues;suchspeechcanbe
meaningfulandauthenti
c.
•Tasks:
– questionandanswer
– el
icit
inginst
ruct
ionsanddi
rect
ions
– paraphrasi
ngast or
yoradi
alogue
I
nter
act
iveSpeaki
ng: •Transact
ionaldial
ogue—car
ri
edoutforthepurpose
•Tr
ansacti
onal(di
alogue) ofconveyingorexchangi
ngspeci
fi
cinformati
on;
i
nv ol
vesrelat
ivel
ylongst
ret
chesofi
nteract
ive
•I
nter
personal
(dial
ogue) discourse
•I
nter
personaldial
ogue—carr
iedoutf
ort
hepur
pose
ofmaintai
ningsocial
rel
ati
onshi
ps
•Tasks:
–int ervi
ews
–r oleplay
– discussions(arri
vi
ngataconsensus,
probl
em-
solving)
– games
– conv ersati
ons
–inf ormat i
ongapact i
vi
ty
–t ell
inglongerstori
es
– extendedexpl anati
ons

Ext
ensi
veSpeaki
ng •usuall
yforint
ermedi at
etoadv ancedlevel
s;t
asks
(monol
ogue) i
nvolvecomplex, r
elati
vel
ylengthystr
etchesof
di
scourse;extendedmonol oguescanbepl annedor
i
mpr omptu
•Tasks:
– oral report
s
– summar i
es
– shor tspeeches
– picture-cuedstor
ytel
l
ing
–r etell
ingast or
yoranewsev
ent

St
agesi
naSpeaki
ngLesson

Whati
sther
oleoft
hel
anguaget
eacheri
nthecl
assr
oom?I
nthef
ir
st
pl
ace,l
i
keanyot
hert
eacher
,thet
askoft
hel
anguaget
eacheri
stocr
eat
ethe
bestcondi
ti
onsf
orl
ear
ning.I
nasense,t
het
eacheri
sameanst
oanend:an
i
nst
rumentt hatl
oseet ear
ningt
akespl
ace. Buti
naddi
ti
ont
othi
sgener
al
f
unct
ion,
ateacherpl
aysspeci
fi
crol
esi
ndi
ff
erentst
agesoft
hel
ear
ningpr
ocess.

ThePr
esent
ati
onSt
age

Thi
sisal
soknownast
hepr
e-act
ivi
typhaseoft
hel
essonwher
ethe
t
eacheri
ntr
oducessomet
hingnew t
obel
ear
ned.Att
hisst
ageofaspeaki
ng
l
esson,
thet
eacher
’smai
ntaski
stoser
v ndofi
easaki nfor
mant
.Ast
het
eacher
,
ou know t
y hel ou sel
anguage;y ectt
henew mat
eri
alt
obel
ear
nedandy
ou
pr
esentt
hisi
nsuchawayt
hatt
hemeani
ngoft
henewl
anguagei
sascl
earand
asmemor
abl
easpossi
ble.Thest
udent
sli
stenandt
ryt
ounder
stand.Al
though
t
heyar
epr
obabl
ysay
ingv
eryl
i
ttl
eatt
hisst
age,exceptwheni
nvi
tedt
ojoi
nin,
t
heyar
ebyno meanspassi
ve.Al
way
sbeon guar
d agai
nstt
hedangerof
spendi
ngt
oomucht
imepr
esent
ingsomuchsot
hatt
hest
udent
sdonotget
enought
imet
opr
act
icet
hel
anguaget
hemsel
ves.

ThePr
act
iceSt
age

Att
hepr
act
icest
agei
tist
hest
udent
s’t
urnt
odomostoft
het
alki
ng,
whi
l
e
y
ourmai
ntaski
stodev
iseandpr
ovi
det
hemaxi
mum amountofpr
act
ice,whi
ch
mustatt
hesamet
imebemeani
ngf
ul,aut
hent
ic,andmemor
abl
e.Thi
sst
agei
s
al
socal
l heWhi
edt l
e(orMai
n)Act
ivi
ty ort
heSpeaki
ngAct
ivi
tyst
age.Yourr
ole
t
henast
eacheri
sradi
cal
l
ydi
ff
erentf
rom t
hatatt
hepr
esent
ati
on.Youdot
he
mi
nimum amountoft
alki
ngy
our
sel
f.Youar
eli
ket
heski
l
lfulconduct
orofan
or
chest
ra,gi
vi
ngeachoft
heper
for
mer
sachancet
opar
ti
cipat
eandmoni
tor
ing
t
hei
rper
for
mancet
oseet
hati
tissat
isf
act
ory
.

ThePr
oduct
ionSt
age

I
tisapi
tyt
hatl
anguagel
ear
ningof
tenst
opsshor
tatt
hepr
act
icest
ageor
doesnotgor
egul
arl
ybey
ondi
t.Manyt
eacher
sfeelt
hatt
heyhav
edonet
hei
rjob
i
ftheyhav
epr
esent
edt
henew mat
eri
alwel
landhav
egi
vent
hei
rst
udent
s
adequat
e—t
houghusual
l
ycont
rol
l
ed—pr
act
icei
nit
.Nor
eall
ear
ningshoul
dbe
assumedt
ohav
etakenpl
aceunt
ilt
hest
udent
sar
eabl
etouset
hel
anguagef
or
t
hemsel
ves;pr
ovi
siont
ousel
anguagemustbemadepar
toft
hel
esson.Atany
l
evelofat
tai
nment
,the st
udent
s need t
o be gi
ven r
egul
arand f
requent
oppor
tuni
ti
est
ousel
anguagef
reel
y,ev
eni
ftheysomet
imesmakemi
stakesasa
r
esul
t.Thi
sisnott
osayt
hatmi
stakesar
euni
mpor
tant
,butr
athert
hatf
ree
expr
essi
oni
smor
eimpor
tant
,andi
tisagr
eatmi
staket
odepr
ivest
udent
soft
his
oppor
tuni
ty.

I
tist
hrought
heseoppor
tuni
ti
est
ousel
anguageast
heywi
sht
hatt
he
st
udent
s become awar
ethatt
heyhav
elear
ned somet
hing usef
ult
othem
per
sonal
l
y,andar
eencour
agedt
ogoonl
ear
ning.Thusi
npr
ovi
dingt
hest
udent
s
wi
thact
ivi
ti
esf
orf
reeexpr
essi
onandi
ndi
scr
eet
lywat
chi
ngov
ert
hem ast
hey
car
ryt
hem out
,you,
ast
eacher
,takeont
her
oleofmanager
,gui
de,
oradv
iser
.

Al
though t
he sequence descr
ibed abov
e—pr
esent
ati
on → pr
act
ice →
pr
oduct
ion— i
sawel
l
-tr
iedappr
oacht
olanguagel
ear
ningandi
sknownt
obe
ef
fect
ivei
nav
erage(
i.
e.,non-
pri
vi
leged)cl
assr
oom condi
ti
ons;i
tshoul
dnot
,
howev
er,bei
nter
pret
edt
ool
i
ter
all
y.Thesest
agesar
enotr
eci
pesf
oror
gani
zi
ng
al
lourl
essons.I
nthef
ir
stpl
ace,t
heact
ual“
shape”ofal
essonwi
l
ldependona
numberoff
act
ors,
suchast
heamountoft
imeneededf
oreachst
age.Act
ivi
ti
es
att
hepr
oduct
ionst
agei
npar
ti
cul
arcanv
aryagr
eatdeali
nlengt
h.Al
so,st
ages
t
endt
oov
erl
apandr
uni
ntooneanot
her
;forexampl
e,somepr
act
icemaybepar
t
oft
hepr
esent
ati
onst
age.