IATSS Research 44 (2020) 67–74

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IATSS Research

Research article

Traffic calming measures: An evaluation of four low-cost TCMs' effect

on driving speed and lateral distance
Ali Akbari, Farshidreza Haghighi ⁎
Road and Transportation Eng, Department of Civil Eng, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Shariati Av, P.O.Box: 484, Babol, Mazandaran, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The transition from rural highways that afford higher speeds, to urban communities with lower speed limits and
Received 20 August 2018 wide ranges of road users is a critical safety issue in Northern Iran that such transitions are frequent along a high-
Received in revised form 11 July 2019 way running approximately parallel to the Caspian Sea shoreline and linking N50 urban communities. This study
Accepted 17 July 2019
aims to investigate the efficiency of 4 low-cost traffic calming measurements (TCM) at a simulated 1.5 km length
Available online 24 July 2019
of this rural highway as a representative. 39 participants with at least 3 years of driving experience took part in
Keywords:
this study, and comparisons of driver behaviors in case of speed and lateral position as a safety index in 4 scenar-
Driving simulator ios and base scenario were outputted. MANOVA analysis was conducted on speed and lateral position data out-
Traffic calming putted from the simulator device, at the entry into the urban community. Comparison of mean speed results
Speed obtained revealed that all 4 treatments significantly reduced the mean speed of drivers. In this respect, the ben-
Lateral position efits of modified road signs were proven to be as successful as road surface markings. As another criterion for
Safety safety, the investigation showed road signs and transverse rumble strips increased lateral position, but the pat-
tern of peripheral hatched markings significantly reduced the lateral position. In case of speed reduction, main-
taining the reduced speed is another issue that has been resulted that as soon as TCMs end up, the speed
increases, however, does not reach the former values.
© 2019 International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
1.1. Speed, safety and transitional zones
In Iran, as reported by police department, N23% of all fatal collision
crashes occurring on transitional zones, which rural roads entering
urban communities (Iran police national report). One of the major
cause of these crashes is traffic's high speed which has major relation
with crash severity and frequencies. To target this issue, many studies
and practical efforts have been conducted to find solutions [1]. By
accepting the fact that Inappropriate speed and mental underload
have been identified as important causal factors nearby such transition
zones [2], traffic calming measures (TCM), as one of the solutions to re-
duce speed in such zones are the subject of this paper with speed and
lateral position as its effectiveness measurement. Although the formal
research trend on transportation safety is just at its early stages and
needs further development, but among the many road safety challenges
in Iran, transitional zones with such high risk, especially in Northern
Iran, are very demanding.
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Haghighi@nit.ac.ir (F. Haghighi).
Peer review under responsibility of International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences.
One major underlying reason for danger may be this fact that in rural
highways where drivers enter urban communities without adequate re-
duction in speed encounter with varied road users such as pedestrians,
cyclists, two-wheelers and car drivers simultaneously, which all of them
are substantially different in speed, mass, and degrees of protection.
Consequently, traffic calming may be a solution to decrease this amount
of inconsistency [1,2].
Overall, Small rural communities in north of IRAN often have pre-
vailing condition especially in the expertise and resources deficiency,
necessary to reduce speed and speed-related crashes. In addition to fi-
nancial resource deficiencies, the entrances to community are especially
problematic given that the drivers must transition from a high-speed,
often-rural roadway setting to a low-speed community setting.
1.1.1. Vertical road signs as TCMs
Road signs, as vertical elements, are probably the most known form
of conventional TCMs; these vertical signs are usually installed 0.3 m to
1.0 m from the edge of roads, with the lower edge of the sign usually
placed at a height between 0.6 m and 2.2 m above the highest point of
the road [Iranian Road Safety Code- Publication 267–3]. Over the
years, many studies have been conducted on various aspects of road
signs. Such as Summala and Hietamaki [4] that investigated the effect
of three sorts of signs which displaying danger, children and speed
limits. Results show that the first two had more significant impact on

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2019.07.002
0386-1112/© 2019 International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
68 A. Akbari, F. Haghighi / IATSS Research 44 (2020) 67–74
drivers and strongly remembered. In another research, Ron and
Fabienne Van Houten [5] explored effectiveness of a sign with a phrase
on it, “Begin Slowing Down Here”, in a transitional zone with speed
limit. Results showed reduction in number of motorists exceeding
posted speed. Al-Madani and Al-Janahi [6] in their research investigated
drivers' understanding of traffic signs with various characteristics. With
use of questionnaires on a total of 28 road signs and drivers of different
nationalities, results showed, on average, drivers comprehended only
56% of traffic signs. Also, education and income were found to have ef-
fect on comprehension of signs. In a study on the contents of sign dis-
plays, Shinar and Vogelzang [7] evaluated symbolic and text displays
in highway signs, in terms of their comprehension speed and accuracy.
They presented 30 signs with various displays and levels of familiarity
which results showed addition of text to symbols improves comprehen-
sion and requires shorter time for understanding. As another message
displayed in road signs, Vaneziano et al. [8] showed that inform of
urban gateway to drivers can improve safety.
In Iran, like many other countries, traditional road signs are in com-
mon use, thanks to their relatively easy natures. However, not all of
them are standard and/or in good conditions, and therefore, their effi-
ciency is very much questionable.
Additionally, perceptual traffic calming has been introduced and is
becoming increasingly popular, since they generally have proven effec-
tive in speed reduction, and while not being problematic as physical
speeding countermeasures. The goal is to investigate TCMs' effective-
ness which needs fewer specialist's requirements and to implement
easily in small communities with lower costs.
1.1.2. Road surface markings as TCMs
Road surface markings (RSMs) as TCMs, are low-cost marking that
can lead to influence drivers' behavior and change the drivers' percep-
tions. Compared to (especially) road signs, since road surface markings
are placed on the plane directly in front of the driver, considering that
are more likely effective in influencing drivers' perception and thus be-
havior. Various studies have been conducted concerning effectiveness
of perceptual TCMs. Godley et al. [9,10] evaluated traffic calming mea-
sures in two separate experiments: through 24 participants under real
conditions and in a driving simulator. Transverse rumble strips before
the stop sign at the intersection, right curve, and left curve were tested.
Results showed speed reduction in both experiments with a close rela-
tionship between real world and simulator. Latoski [11] used dual trans-
verse bars at centerline of a two-lane rural highway as a TCM results
show the reduction of 3.2 km/h in mean speed immediately after instal-
lation, and 6.4 km/h, 3 months after installation. Another research of
traffic calming at the entrance of an urban community was conducted
by Galante et al. [12] with comparison of both real-world data and sim-
ulator. Results showed decrease in speeds, about 17 km/h and 11 km/h
in two opposite directions. Five low-cost TCMs were tested by Molino
et al. [13] to reduce the speed of traffic on rural roads in small commu-
nities. 36 participants drove through a main two-lane roadway with
marked parking spaces on each side. Each town segment was 137 m
long and was preceded and followed by a long rural tangent. In simula-
tor experiment, there was no traffic on the roadway in either direction
nor were the pedestrians in the town. Results showed a mean speed re-
duction about 14 km/h in the beginning of city and 8 km/h in the middle
of it. In pursuit of the same goal, Balde et al. [14] used three types of road
markings (optical speed bars at edge of centerline, full-width transverse
lanes and peripheral transverse lanes on two-lane) in a divided rural
highway entering small communities; significant reduction of mean
speed and speed variance were recorded, with the amount of reduction
being higher during daytime and weekdays.
1.2. Lateral position and road safety
By accepting the fact that inappropriate lateral position is one of
the primary factors leading to accidents [15], lateral positions were
investigated too. In this study, the lateral position was defined as the
location of the vehicle's longitudinal axis relative to a longitudinal
road reference system as well as the variable which were studied by
Porter et al. [16]. For ease of positioning and its data measurement,
the longitudinal reference of the road was assumed to coincide with
the axis of the driving lane as one in previous studies [17] and the lat-
eral measurement corresponded to the distance from the vehicle cen-
troid to the lane virtual centerline. In “European best practice for
roadside design”, inappropriate lateral position is cited as a primary
factor contributing to crashes [18]. Thus in relation with safety, lateral
position, as well as speed, were examined in this study; Rosy et al.
[18] examined various types of traffic calming (center line, signs, rum-
ble strips on either side of the midline and shoulders) in a rural road
on a vertical curve. Results showed that rumble strips at the middle of
the road, as well as the shoulders, are more effective. Lateral positions
of drivers also were examined by Auberlet et al. [19] in relation to risk
on rural crest vertical curves by both simulator and real-world exper-
iment. Two perceptual treatments (i.e. rumble strips on both sides of
the centerline and sealed shoulders) from five that were tested in
order to help drivers maintain lateral control when driving on crest
vertical curves. A before-after study on rumble strips installing the
centerline rumble strips showed that, as in the simulator studies, the
centerline rumble strips on the crest vertical curve affected lateral po-
sitions, causing the participants to drive closer to the center of the
lane which is desired. In a more comprehensive study by Montella
et al. [20], Drivers speed, deceleration, and lateral position were exam-
ined at rural intersections in relation to different perceptual cues with
23 participants in driving simulator by ten different design conditions
with and without speed-reducing treatments along the approach to
the intersection were tested. The speed reduction in the range of be-
tween 13 km/h to 23 km/h was observed. The most effective treat-
ments were the dragon teeth markings, the colored intersection
area, and the raised median island and there are strongly recom-
mended for real-world implementation.
This research aims to investigate the effects of modified road signs,
and two common types of Road Surface Markings in addition to one
rather innovative pattern, on driver's behavior. The context chosen
for this study was a rural highway in the North of Iran, which
transitioned into an urban community and thus required caution, in
particular on motorists' part. Such configurations are very common
in Iran, especially in Northern regions, and due to budget-related
problems, they do not receive much care and (reliable) treatment.
Therefore, researchers of this paper tried to select up-to-date, stan-
dard interventions, which are also relatively low-cost, and investigate
their safety effects.
Overall, the underlying approach to this study was to determine pos-
sible low-cost and easy implementing TCM alternatives that seem to
have promise in reducing vehicle speeds and implementing one of
those alternatives in the field of small communities which deal with
the expertise and financial resources deficiency.
2. Methodology
2.1. Apparatus
The study was performed with a dynamic driving simulator (Fig. 1).
The simulator makes use of a Pride sedan and the forward driving scene
is displayed across three 42” LCD screens that provide a visual horizon-
tal field of a 120°and a vertical field of 30°. Moreover, rear-view and
side-view mirrors have been provided to present broader sights to
users. The images are displayed at a resolution of approximately 1024
∗ 768 dpi in each screen. Through the dynamic base, some variables
can be considered, moving upon hitting the brakes or going over obsta-
cles, back-and-forth, and side-to-side motions, and also occasional hap-
tic vibrations, windshield wipers, dashboard instrumentation, music
 A. Akbari, F. Haghighi / IATSS Research 44 (2020) 67–74
Fig. 1. Driving simulator: a) Sidearm for 3D motion vibration, b) Rear arm for back/forth
movement.
player, engine sounds, and environmental noises were all included in
the simulator.
As the participants deal with different perceptual scenarios, speed
and lateral position of them, as their driving behavior characteristics,
were recorded. As mentioned in Section 1.2 the lateral positions were
measured repeatedly for each participant on all the road sections and
outputted as mean of the distance from the vehicle centroid to the
lane virtual centerline (When the license plate is in the center of the
lane vehicle position is specified as the ‘centre of lane’; For which
drivers' positions were closer to the center of the lane is desired).
2.2. Site selection
The site selection was set up from a high-speed rural highway enter-
ing an urban environment, testing the 4 low-cost traffic calming mea-
sures on driver's performances as speed and lateral distances. The case
study locates in north of Iran with posted speed of 80 km/h in divided
highway with two lanes (3.7 m wide) on each direction, without any
horizontal or vertical curves. In other word, there is a transition zone
which is very repetitive in north of Iran that rural highways entering
urban societies and needs to some effective measures to reduce the
speed to maintain the safety. The study site is about 1.5 km (see
Fig. 2) which starts at 1 km before urban society starts, then enters
into Izadshahr city and continues into the urban community for
500 m. As long as the high speed of traffic in the highway needs to be
decreased before entering the town, measurement have been installed
before entering the city.
Fig. 2. Google Earth view of case study, start/end of the TCMs' pattern.
69
2.3. Scenarios
As mentioned before, low-cost effective TCMs are one of goals of the
study because of low budget & resource allocations in small communi-
ties. There are several pavement marking that have been field tested
as well as tested in simulator studies both by authors and in literature
reviews. Four of these markings was examined in this study which
have been more popular (Scenario 1, Modified signs; which is very pop-
ular in IRAN and community managers imagine that this TCM will
achieve the goal of a speed reduction without any investigations) or
easy to implement (Scenario 2 Peripheral marking and Scenario 3 Con-
tinuous rumble; which can be easily implanted without any special spe-
cialization and minimum implementing issues) or seems to be more
effective (Scenario 4, Hatched design; Which aim to influence drivers'
perceptions of their roadway edge lines and can be used to reduce
lane widths and have been reported as effective TCM in literature.).
The goals of this selections are to determine a low-cost TCM which
has high probability of success based on previous research and experi-
ments both through a field evaluation and simulation.
To do so, the base scenario for TCM testing consists of a simple
posted 60 km/h speed limit in 500 m before the town entrance (see
Fig. 2).
Table 1 shows scenarios of different TCMs which have been tested in
both simulator and real field measurement. Scenario 1 (Modified signs)
consists of two standardized road signs which were installed on each
side of the road. The sign was designed in accordance with the Iranian
Road Safety Code-267-3. These signs were installed in 3 points, 150 m,
250 m and 350 m before the city entrance. Table 1, in the first row, pic-
tures of signs and how they appear in the simulator with a bird view is
shown.
Based on discussion in Section 1.1.2, road surface markings as per-
ceptual TCMs are becoming more popular with practitioners and re-
searchers. Accordingly, some of such measures were studied;
Peripheral transverse bars pattern was one of such measures that was
tested in scenario 2 (Peripheral marking) which is composed of periph-
eral solid bars perpendicular to road axis, on either sides of a traffic lane
(see Table 1, row #2). This pattern not only does affect perception of
drivers of the lane width by making it narrower, it is safer in rainy
days because they do not extend the whole passing lane, so occupy
less area. Furthermore, it can be more cost effective because of less
paint for marking. In order to maximize the effect of these bars, space
between these bars have been decreased respectively to impress the
drivers that their speed is rising (against their perspective view). So,
the peripheral transverse bars started before the entry, with initial spac-
ing of 7.77 m between consecutive bars, and continued up to spacing of
2.75 m. The width of the bars (along the road axis) was 0.30 m with
length (perpendicular to road axis) of 0.45 m.
70 A. Akbari, F. Haghighi / IATSS Research 44 (2020) 67–74

Table 1
Overview of different TCMs and its bird view in simulator.

# Bird view in simulator TCM pattern

Modified signs: Regarding the limitation of safety codes, a special type of vertical sign was used and the effect of this method on traffic calming was assessed.
2

Peripheral marking: Lowering the width discontinuously, creating a more restrictive environment for the path of vehicles
3

Continuous rumble: Rumbles has physical effects, such as sound and vibrating, but are nonetheless grouped in the perceptual traffic calming group.
4

Hatched design: Using this scheme will limit the path width continuously. In this plan, the surface occupies much of marking and visually creates more concentration.

cenario 3 (Continuous rumble) is a transverse rumble strips with
0.30 m wide and full width of the lane. Also, the total length and spacing
pattern was the same as scenario 2(decreasing spacing from 7.7 m to
2.75 m). See Table 1, 3rd row shows its schematic pattern and its bird
view. Using of rumbles has physical effects, such as sound and vibrating,
but are nonetheless grouped in the perceptual traffic calming group.
“Transverse (in-lane) rumble strips are traffic control devices used to
alert drivers to the possible need for action. Their purpose is to provide
motorists with an audible, visual, and tactile warning that their vehicle
is approaching a decision point of critical importance to safety (Thomp-
son, T. D. et al. (2006)”; Therefore, it seems these designs have more
tangible effects.
The last TCM tested, in scenario 4 (Hatched design), was a hatched
marking which are mostly used in Iran for shoulder and unused surface
 A. Akbari, F. Haghighi / IATSS Research 44 (2020) 67–74 71

of highway marking. Hatched marking was employed to induce percep- Table 2

tual road narrowing for traffic calming. According to Iranian Road Safety Independent t-test for average speeds.

Code-267-3, the TCM were implemented with the width of 0.3 m and in Real Simulator
whole width like schematic diagram and a snapshot of the simulator Mean speed (km/h) SD (km/h) Mean speed (km/h) SD (km/h) P-value
bird view in 4th row of Table 1.
83.7 12.69 83.3 26.23 1.00

2.4. Procedure

The research was done by 40 participants (33 males and 7 fe-
males) and began by informing the drivers about the simulation and
brief information of research. Participants were required to drive
with the base scenario for about 5 times in order to cope with the
simulator vehicle which last about 5–10 min. Then, main experiment
starts and each participant required to drive the base scenario, 5
times, which the fifth one's speed and lateral position were recorded.
Fifth one was selected for data recording in order to minimize or elim-
inate any effects of self-consciousness and with the best introduction
to simulator driving.
Experience continued by presenting each scenario in a random basis,
until the 4th scenario. In order to re-establish psychophysical conditions
similar to those at the beginning of the test, after each scenario presen-
tation, the base scenario have been repeated 3 times without any data
recording. As mentioned, 40 participants were tested which the data
obtained from a male participant was deleted due to technical errors
of the machinery, and data were collected from 32 male and 7 female
participants with driving experience for N5 years and at least 5000 km
a year. All range of educated participants (from diploma to Ph.D.) and
different occupations were selected in order to maximum similarity to
real world.
2.5. Validity of data obtained from the simulator
The relative validity of the simulator's results obtained can be ex-
amined by comparing the results of the present studies with similar
results from real world [21]. Therefore, a comparison of mean speeds
was run. Free flow speed of 810 vehicles approaching the city was col-
lected at the entry point with use of a portable speed laser gun (Fig. 3)
and it's mean was then compared with the mean of those participants
had in the simulator with two sample independent t-test (Table 2). t-
test carried out to compare whether two groups have different aver-
age values or not.
After testing the speed data collected, for the t-test assumptions
(continuous scale variables, two independent groups, independence
of observations, approximately normally distributed speed values),
the test have been performed and outputted as Table 2. Independent
t-test (P-values: 1.00 N 0.05) showed no significant difference be-
tween mean speed of real world and simulator. So as long as the road-
way characteristics depicted in the simulations was a virtual
reconstruction of the real world, and regard to independent t-test
values, it can be assumed that results from the simulator is more sim-
ilar to the real world.
3. Results
3.1. One-way RM MANOVA
In this research, speed and lateral position, as two measures of effec-
tiveness were decided to test every TCMs. Comparisons are between 4
TCMs scenarios and with a base scenario without any treatment.
Hence participants are the same and the test is a repeated measure
within-subject design, furthermore by the fact that there is significant
correlation between speed and lateral position data (Pearson Correla-
tion Coefficient = 0.424; Sig. = 0.000 b 0.05), repeated measures Mul-
tivariate analysis of variance (RM MANOVA) analysis was performed. To
do so, assumption of normal distribution was checked by Shapiro-
Wilk's test of normality; speed data obtained from each 5 scenarios
had significance values above “0.05”(indication of normal distribution).
Although, in case of lateral position, significance was slightly lower than
0.05 for the base scenario, and scenarios with peripheral transverse bars
(scenario 2) and peripheral hatched marking (scenario 4), but by com-
puting the skewness values which was in range of (−1,1), the moderate
skewness was neglected and it can be assumed that lateral position data
were also normally distributed. The One-way MANOVA results and de-
scriptive statistics of mean values, and pairwise comparisons across sce-
narios are displayed in Table 3.
As can be seen in Table 3, All TCM scenarios had reduction in speed
in case of mean speeds when compared with the base scenario. How-
ever, in order to figure out the level of statistical difference across the
scenarios, “pairwise comparisons” were obtained with use of Bonferroni
Confidence interval adjustment in SPSS. As per the significance values
(Sig.), it is observable that the mean speed of all scenarios (after
study) are significantly different from the base scenario (before
study), so the TCMs' reduction speed is acceptable; Meanwhile, there
is no significant difference between the four proposed TCMs (pairwise
significant).
In this research, it was understood that road signs and road surface
markings, both of which have significant influence on drivers' speed
Table 3
Descriptive statistics -mean values; One-way MANOVA analysis results.

Scenarios Base Scenario1 Scenario2 Scenario3 Scenario4

Mean speed (km/h) 83.29 63.10 63.97 61.39 61.13

Pairwise comparisons in terms of speed
Base 1 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000
Scenario1 1 1.000 1.000 1.000
Scenario2 1 1.000 1.000
Scenario3 1 1.000
Scenario4 1

Scenarios Base Scenario1 Scenario2 Scenario3 Scenario4

Lateral position (m) 0.56 0.66 0.51 0.61 0.21

Pairwise comparisons in terms of lateral position
Base 1 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.000
Scenario1 1 0.482 1.000 0.000
Scenario2 1 1.000 0.000
Scenario3 1 0.000
Scenario4 1
Fig. 3. Portable speed laser gun.
72 A. Akbari, F. Haghighi / IATSS Research 44 (2020) 67–74
reduction, do not significantly vary from one another. In fact, in this ex-
periment, drivers seemed to have noticed road signs more strongly than
studies like the one by Costa et al. [10]; The reason could be the fact that
the signs designed in this study employed supplementary texts as well
as symbols, and as Shinar and Vogelzang [8] showed, addition of text to
symbols help drivers to understand the signs better.
Considering lateral position as the second measure of effectiveness,
as displayed in Table 3, it is understood that as compared to the base
scenario, presence of road signs or transverse rumble strips increases
drivers' average lateral position. Whereas, peripheral transverse bars
or peripheral hatched marking reduced the mean lateral position
value. The significance values in the “pairwise comparisons in terms of
lateral position” suggest only the 4th scenario (peripheral hatched
markings) which significantly reduced lateral position from 56 mm in
the base scenario to 21 mm. According to the values of mean lateral po-
sition in Table 3, it is seen that the first scenario (road signs) and sce-
nario 3 (transverse rumble strips) increased lateral position compared
to the base scenario. However, this increase was statistically
insignificant.
3.2. Visual presentation of speed and lateral position changes
Figs. 4 and 5 shows for each scenario, the evolution of speed and lat-
eral position in 1500 m of site which in the middle 500 m (430 m) of the
study area TCMs were provided. Speed of each vehicle is available in da-
tabase of the simulator as well as its lateral position which were output-
ted from the device based on drivers' place in each lane (between each
line and based on center alignment of the vehicle, License plates and
wheels were the points of the vehicle in determining the position of
them in the lane).
As seen in the speed profile (Fig. 4), along the initial 500 m, mean
speeds in all scenarios are comparatively similar values, which
remained almost unchanged until start of the TCMs.
By the TCMs starts, they seem to have similar effects, decreasing in
speed according to baseline by different values by different scenarios.
Results showed that first modified road signs decrease the speed and
continued which sustained by the second pair of signs with no notice-
able change at around the last pair of signs. Although this research has
shown that standardized road signs with supplementary texts were ef-
fective in speed reduction, the pair of signs that had added information,
i.e. name of the city, does not seem to have additional influence on
drivers' speed reduction. Although it may be because of that the sign
with city name is the last sign and desired speed reduction have been
met.
As can be seen, RSMs, the slowing-down trend started earlier. More-
over, the declining trend was rather steady and culminated at a peak be-
fore the city entry. Note that the maximum speed reduction was before
Fig. 4. Mean speed profile.
the entry section, and after that, drivers speed up as approaching inside
the city by the TCMs ends up. It can be explained such that, as the treat-
ments come to their ends, drivers notice this ending and start to recover
their last high speeds because of the wide lanes and view which it's en-
vironment still lookalike the rural road. With this in mind, further con-
tinuation of treatments could be required to sustain and maintain the
reduced speed of drivers align the city (last 500 m of the study area).
It should be mentioned that, despite the increase, drivers do not gain
the previous speed before entering the city (first 500 m).
Figs. 5 show the lateral position changes which have been affected
by different TCMs according to baseline., lateral position was decreased
in city entry by the TCMs, but surprisingly it increased again in all sce-
narios except peripheral hatched marking which indicates a good re-
duction in disarray. However, by the TCMs end up, drivers obtained
their previous trend in lane placement (in comparison the first and
last 500 m). It could be concluded that by change in drivers' perceptual
cues, disarray reduction can be obtained.
By comparing the Figs. 4 and 5, Against the results of speed profile,
lateral position of drivers did not have any reduction in whole after
the TCMs ends, it shows that at the moment where the TCMs ended,
the drivers have the same disarray, so it might be noticed that the
TCM must be continued align the whole city.
4. Discussion and conclusion
The aim of this study was to make an investigation of the effects of
different TCMs in city entry in Iran with two measure of effectiveness
and safety indicators (speed and lateral position). Also, research pro-
vides of these 4 TCMs' effect on drivers' behavior. Experiment The ex-
periments took place on virtual, simulated environment, in order to
reduce costs and increase safety, since the effectiveness of TCMs cannot
be evaluated prior to implementation in real world. Based upon the re-
sults obtained, all TCMs significantly decreased the amount of traffic's
mean speed. On the other hand, in case of lateral position, reduction
in disarray in positioning and driving through lane's centerline were ob-
tained, although were statistically insignificant for the modified signs
and transverse rumble strips which some increase was resulted.
Whereas peripheral transverse bars and peripheral hatched markings
reduced position, and among those two, peripheral hatched markings
did this significantly.
Altogether, scenario 4 (peripheral hatched markings) is the only
TCM that significantly reduces both traffic speed and position at the
entry section. Accordingly, by accepting the fact that reduction in lateral
position and speed result in safety increase, works can be done on this
kind of road surface marking. It should be mentioned that a great
amount of speed reduction could not necessarily mean the safest choice,
as can be seen, even though the alternatives with modified signs and
 A. Akbari, F. Haghighi / IATSS Research 44 (2020) 67–74
Fig. 5. Mean values of lateral position profile(m).
transverse rumble strips significantly reduced mean speed at the entry,
but they increased position value. Nonetheless, the results can still call
attention to the fact that it is necessary to investigate TCMs to provide
safety comprehensively.
Apart from these reductions, it was found that applying a TCM in
transitional zone does not solve the problem of high speed in whole
city. Speed profiles show that, when TCMs come to end, speed gaining
starts, although never reached at the level before. Results show that
continued TCMs are needed to make TCMs more effective in continues
and not just by amount.
With all the findings, there should be a limitation of the results of the
research: 1- simulator participants are actually not in a hurry, while in
real traffic, people are, and they are less likely to adjust their speed at
the same rate as simulator study participants. 2- This measures such
as TMC are, at best, palliative, but they are not a sustainable (safe sys-
tem) solution unless supported by a safe road design. These TMCs
could serve as an effective means to facilitate the transition from a
high speed (high traffic volume) road to a lower order road as can be
seen in Figs. 4 and 5. Much effort should be done to research following
this transition zones by a clearly different road appearance which not
inviting drivers to speed up again.
5. Recommendations
To the best of authors' knowledge, this project is one of the first sci-
entific studies in the area of TCMs in Iran, explores some particular types
of traffic calming measures in a simulator experiment whose results
were generally evaluated to be positive. Indeed, experiments on real
field environment are needed to firmly establish real benefits of these
TCMs. Furthermore, different research with other perceptual TCMs
with both simulator and real field will help to assess the reliability of
the results and allow a strong comparisons of driver behaviors in before
and after studies.
Investigation is needed on continued TCMs in both real and simula-
tor is needed to evaluate the persistence of speed reductions and opti-
mum length of TSMs' implementations.
Finally, in the next stage of these kind of researches, it should per-
form several other TCMs and also some new measurements, such as
steering wheel angle and pedal use. In addition, several driver charac-
teristics such as age, gender, native and experiment of driving may be
investigated.
73
Acknowledgment
This research was done as a partial fulfillment of the degrees for
Master of Science in transportation engineering in Babol Noshirvani
University of Technology and funded by the authors.
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