Distance Protection

Basic Principles and Applications

 Distance Protection
Basic Principles and Applications
 Distance Protection

Popular, widely used on Sub-Transmission and

Transmission Systems

Virtually independent of Fault Current Level (ZS/ZL

ratios)

Fast Discriminative Protection:- Zone 1 or ‘Aided’

Distance Scheme

Time Delayed Remote Back-Up:- Incorporated at little

extra cost
 Distance Protection - Advantages

Additional Features can be incorporated:-

Directional E/F Protection

Power Swing Blocking

VT Supply Supervision

Fault Locators

Event & Disturbance Recording

 Advantages of Distance Protection

Measures Z, X or R correctly irrespective of System

Conditions

Compare this with Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection:-

 Advantages of Distance Protection

ZS = 10 Ω

ZL = 4 Ω
ZS = 10 Ω
IF1 F1

115kV 50

√3(5+4) = 7380A

IF1 = 115kV/√

∴ Is > 7380A
 Advantages of Distance Protection

Consider With One Source Out of Service:-

ZS = 10 Ω
F2

IF2

50

IF2 = 115kV/√√3 x 10 = 6640A

∴ Is <6640A

>7380A - Impractical
 Distance Protection - Disadvantages

Directional

VT`s required

Fault resistive coverage limited by load impedance and

Distance Protection Characteristic

Affected by Power Swings, Loss of VT Input (fuse failure)

 Simplified Line Diagram

L L L L R
R R R
C C C

X = jWL X = -j
L C
WC

at FN (50Hz) XC = large:-

L R
 Single Line Diagram

Source Line
E Bus A
ZS ZL

-V/I

Fault Position
 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

ZS ZL

Generation IR
Distance
Relay 21 VR
Impedance Seen By Measuring Element

jX

ZL

R
 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

Relay
PT.
ZS IR ZL

VS VR ZLOAD Normal
Load

V

Impedance measured Z R = R = Z L + Z LOAD
I
R
 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

ZL

ZS ZF
IR

VS VR ZLOAD Fault

Impedance Measured ZR = VR/IR = ZF

Relay Operates if ZF < Z where Z = setting

Increasing VR has a Restraining Effect ∴VR called Restraining Voltage

Increasing IR has an Operating Effect
 Plain Impedance Characteristic

jX Impedance Seen At
ZL
Measuring Location For
Line Faults

Trip Stable
 Balanced Beam Impedance Relay

Trip

VR = VRESTRAINT = VF

IR = IOPERATE = IF

IR
For a fault at the reach point;

Ampere turns are adjusted so
that:-
VR
FR = FO

FR ≈ VR & FO ≈ kIR

At the reach point:

VR = kIR
Restraint Operate

k = VR/IR = ZSETTING
Force Force
FR F0

For Operation
F0 > FR
 Impedance Characteristic Generation
(Via Amplitude Comparator)
jIX
IF zF

IZ V1
V2
VF V3

IR

Trip Trip Stable

Spring

Restrain
Voltage to Relay =V

Operate

Current to Relay = I

Replica Impedance = Z

Ampere Turns : VF IZ

Trip Condition : S1 < S2
Trip Conditions : VF < IFZ

Where : S1 = IZ ≈ Z
S2 = V ≈ ZF
 Basic Principle of Distance Protection

I1/I2 ZP

IR
V1
21 VR VFP
V2

Relays are calibrated in secondary ohms:-

VFP x V 2 /V 1 V I /I

Z R = VR / IR = = FP x 1 2
IFP x I 2 / I1 IFP V1/V 2

C.T. Ratio

Z R= Z P x
V.T. Ratio
 Example

Ω; V1/V2 = 115kV/115V; II/I2 = 600/5A

ZP = 4Ω

C.T. Ratio

ZR = ZP x
V.T. Ratio

Ω -5A Relay

ZR(5) = 4 x 600/5 x 115/115x103 = 0.48Ω

ZR(1) = 2.4 Ω - 1A Relay

 Input Quantities for Correct Measurement

FAULT VRESTRAINT
IOPERATE

A-B

B-C

C-A

A-E

B-E

C-E
 Input Quantities for Phase to Phase Fault

FAULT VRESTRAINT
IOPERATE

A-B

B-C VB ? IB?

C-A
 Consider a ‘ B - C’ Fault

ZS1 IR1 ZL1

I1
VR1 = E - I1ZS1 = 2I1 {ZS1 + ZL1} - I1ZS1
F1
= I1ZS1 + 2I1ZL1

E VR2 = -I2ZS2 = I1ZS1

VR1
VRB = a2VR1 + aVR2 = a2{2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1}
N1 + aI1ZS1

VRC = aVR1 + a2VR2 = a{2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1}

ZS2 IR2 ZL2 I2 + a2I1ZS1
F2
IRB = a2I1 - aI1 = (a2-a)I1
VR2
IRC = aI1 - a2I1 = (a-a2)I1
N2
 Using VRB & IRB to Obtain ZRB

ZRB = =
(
VRB a2 (2I1 ZL1 ) + a2 + a I1 ZS1 ) =
2a2
. ZL1 +
(a
2
+a). ZS1
IRB (
a2 − a I1 ) (a 2
−a ) (a
2
+a)
2 . 1∠ 240 ° 1∠180 ° 2 1
= . ZL1 + . ZS1 = ∠ − 30 °. ZL1 + ∠ − 90 °. ZS1
3 ∠ − 90 ° 3 ∠ − 90 ° 3 3

ZS1 Is a Variable Factor

Relay Will Not Measure The Same Impedance Under All

Conditions If V∅/N And I∅ Are Used
 Correct Measurement for B-C Fault
by Using VB–VC & IB-IC

VB-VC = (a2-a) . (2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1) + (a-a2)I1ZS1

IB - IC = 2(a2 - a)I1

∴ZRB = (VB-VC)/ (IB - IC) = ZL1 + ZS1/2 - ZS1/2

= ZL1

∴ The relay can be calibrated in terms of the

positive sequence impedance of the protected line.

Distance relays are designed to use VBC & IBC and

∅
will automatically take them from the connected 3∅
voltages and currents.
 Input Quantities for ∅-∅ Faults

FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-B VA - VB IA - IB

B-C VB - VC IB - IC

C-A VC - VA IC - IA

VRESTRAINT & IOPERATE are selected inside the relay

No setting adjustments are required apart from

Z1 = Phase Replica Impedance
 Input Quantities for Phase to Earth Faults

FAULT VRESTRAINT
IOPERATE

A-E VA ? IA ?

B-E

C-E
 Input Quantities for Phase to Earth Faults

ZT1
ZS1 ZL1 VRA = VR1 + VR2 + VR0
= I1ZL1 + I2ZL2 + I0ZL0
Relay
A-E Fault
IRA = 2I1 + I0
ZS1 ZT1 ZL1 F1 I
1

IR1=I1
VR1
IA
N1
ZL2 IB
F I2
VR2 IR2=I22 IC
N2 IRN = IA + IB + IC
ZT0 ZL0 F0 I0 = 3.I0
VR0 IR0=I0
N0
 Input Quantities for Phase to Earth Faults

VRA = VR1 + VR2 + VR0 IRA = 2I1 + I0

= I1ZL1 + I2ZL2 + I0ZL0 IRN = 3I0
= 2I1ZL1 + I0ZL0
= ZL1(2I1 + I0 . ZL0/ZL1
= ZL1(2I1 + I0 + I0 . ZL0/ZL1 - I0)
= ZL1[2I1 + I0 + I0 ( ZL0/ZL1 - 1)]

VRA = ZL1 [ IRA + IRN (ZLO - ZL1) ]

. ZL1
3
 Input Quantities for Phase to Earth Faults

Impedance measured by an uncompensated relay :-

ZRA = VRA = ZL1 [ 1 + IRN (ZLO - ZL1) ]

.
IRA IRA 3ZL1
 Scalar Residual Compensation for Earth Faults

To measure ZL1 under all conditions relay current IR must

have a value given by :-

VRA
=
IRA ZL1

∴ ZL1 [ IRA + IRN

.
(ZLO - ZL1)
] 3 ZL1 = ZL1
IR
Scalar Residual Compensation for Earth Faults

IRA must equal IRA + IRN (ZLO - ZL1)

.
3 ZL1

IRN (ZLO - ZL1)

Must add a current = .
3 ZL1

(ZLO - ZL1) I
= . RN
3ZL1

Residual compensation = KN . IRN

(ZLO - ZL1) Residual / Neutral

Where KN = =
3ZL Compensation Factor
1
Scalar Residual Compensation for Earth Faults

Residual compensation allows the relay to measure

ZL1 irrespective of the number and position of system
earthing points.

(ZLO - ZL1)
Residual Compensation Factor KN =
3ZL1
 Scalar Residual Compensation
for Earth Faults - Example

If ZLO = 4ZL1

Residual Compensation = (ZLO - ZL1) . I

RN
3ZL1

4-1 . IRN
=
3
= IRN

With single end feed to the fault – would need to

double the current
 Current Mixing for Scalar Residual
Compensation

( Z L0 - Z L1 )
I RA + I RN
( 3Z L1 )

IRA

ZL1

IRN
 Input Quantities for Correct Measurement -
Scalar Compensation
FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-B VA - VB IA - IB

B-C VB - VC IB - IC

C-A VC - VA IC - IA

A-E VA IA + KN . IRN

B-E VB IB + KN . IRN

C-E VC IC + KN . IRN
 Relay Under-reach due to
Scalar Compensation

ZN :- ∠ZN = ∠ZPH

jX
Relay Reach
Setting

ZN :- ∠ZN ≠ ∠ZPH

ZPH

Relay Under-
reach
R

Required Reach
Setting
 Neutral Impedance Vectorial
Replica Compensation

Line CT’s
A
ZPH IAZPH
B
Set Z = Z
ZPH IBZPH PH F1

C Set Z = (Z -Z )
N F0 F1
ZPH ICZPH 3
Usually ∠ Z = ∠ Z for OHL’s
N PH

ZN INZN
 Neutral Impedance Replica
Vectorial Compensation

Vectorial compensation allows for ∠ZN ≠ ∠ZPH which is especially

important for cable distance protection where ∠ZN < ∠ZPH and ∠ZN is
sometimes negative.

jX
ZPH
ZN

ZE = Earth-loop impedance
for ∅ - earth fault on a cable
ZE

R
 Neutral Impedance Replica
Vectorial Compensation

Replica impedance circuit :-

IRA Z1
∑IZN
Z1
Z1 = Phase replica impedance

ZN = Neutral replica impedance

IRA passes through Z1
Z1

IRN passes through ZN

ZT = Z1 + ZN
IRN ZN
N
 Neutral Impedance Replica
Vectorial Compensation

For a single phase to ground fault the total earth loop

impedance is given by :- (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = ZT

ZT = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = Z1 + ZN
ZN = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= (2Z1 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= - Z1 + Z0
3 3
= KN Z1

Where KN = (Z0 - Z1)

3Z1
 Neutral Impedance Replica
Compensation

For overhead lines ∠Z0 ≈ ∠Z1

∴ KN = Z0-
Z1 - Scalar Compensation Could Be Used
Z1
3

For cables ∠Z0 ≠ ∠Z1 ∴ Vectorial Compensation Must Be Used

KN = Z0 - Z1 = KN ∠∅N
3Z1
 Distance Characteristics

jX
jX
jX jX
Zn
Zn Zn
Zn
R R R R
MHO Offset
Zs Zn′
Impedance MHO
Cross- Polarised
MHO

jX
Zn Zn
Zn
R R R

Lenticular Quadrilateral Polygon

 Impedance Relay

Earliest form of distance relay

IOPERATE

Obtain VRESTAINT ( from faulty phases )

Compare VRESTAINT with IZ

Operate if VRESTAINT < IZ

IZ Z (replica)
 Impedance Relay

jI
X
IZ

Problem:-

No account taken of phase angles.
VREST ∴ characteristic is a circle
IR

jX
Z

ZF
Divide by I R
Operate

Relay operates for any ZF within the circle

 Impedance Relays are
Non-Directional

G H J

F2 F1
21

jX J

Of little use on an interconnected

F1 system with infeeds from both ends of
H R
the protected line

F2
G
 Impedance Relay are
Non-Directional

Need to directionalise

H Operate

G
 Distance Protection Comparator

Compares two signals :- S1 & S2

Operates or restrains for particular relationship between

S1 & S2

Relationship between S1 & S2 for operation defines

characteristic
 Types of Comparator

Amplitude :- Compares magnitudes of S1 & S2

Phase :- Compares phase between S1 & S2

Sequence :- Monitors sequence of +VE and -VE

half cycles of S1 & S2
 Phase Comparator Operation

S2
S2
Two inputs :- S1 and S2
Operate
S2
Operation when S2 lags S1 by
between 90°° and 270 ° S2 S1

S2
S2
S2
S2
Restrain S2
S2

S1 Restrain when S2 is within +/- 90°° of S1

S2
S2
S2
 Amplitude Vs Phase Comparator

Any impedance characteristic that can be produced by one

comparator can be produced by another

To convert signals required by one type of comparator to those

required by the other simply add and subtract the signals

e.g. Under-impedance characteristic :

Amplitude Comparator : S2A = IZ

S1A = V

Phase Comparator : S2P = S1A - S2A = V - IZ

S1P = S1P + S2A =V + IZ

Amplitude Comparator : S2A = S1P - S2P = 2IZ ≈ IZ

S1A = S1P + S2P = 2V ≈ V
 Impedance Characteristic Generation
Via Phase Comparator

jIX

Voltage to Relay = V
IZ
Current to Relay = I
S1
<90°°
Replica Impedance = Z
V2 V1 S2
V3

IR
>90°°

Trip condition : 90°°<∠
∠S1-S2<270°°

Where : S2 ≈ V - IZ
: S1 ≈ V + IZ
Trip Stable
-I Z
 Impedance Characteristic Generation
Via Phase Comparator

jX

Z
S1
V = IZF
<90°°
ZF2 ZF1S2
ZF3

R
>90°°

Dividing by I :-

S2 ≈ V - IZ ≈ ZF – Z

S1 ≈ V + IZ ≈ ZF + Z
Trip Stable
-Z
 Self Polarised Mho Relays

jX

Very popular characteristic

Simple
Restrain

Less sensitive to power swings
Z

Inherently directional

Operates for F1, but not for F2 Operate

Mho = 1/OHM F1

Settings :- ϕ
 Z = reach setting R
 ϕ = characteristic angle

F2
 Self Polarised Mho

Disadvantage :-

Limited Fault Resistance (RF) Coverage, On Short Lines

ϕ’ lower than line angle

Additional resistance coverage can be obtained by setting ‘ϕ
∅’. Useful on wooden poles, no earth wire...
‘∅

B
D
C ϕ)

AD = Relay setting (Z) along RCA (ϕ

AB = Required setting along the line

Z
AD = Z = AB
COS ( ∅ - ϕ )

∅
ϕ
A
 Mho Characteristic Generation
Via Phase Comparator

Voltage to Relay = V
jIX
Current to Relay = I
IZ
Replica Impedance = Z

Stable S1
V1 <90°
S2
Trip
V2

V3
>90°

Trip condition : 90°°<∠

∠S1-S2<270°°
IR

Where : S2 ≈ V - IZ
: S1 ≈ V
 Mho Characteristic Generation
Via Phase Comparator

jX
Z

S1
Stable
ZF1 <90°
S2

Trip ZF2
V = IZF
ZF3
>90°
Dividing by I :-

S2 ≈ V - IZ ≈ ZF - Z
R
S1 ≈ V ≈ ZF
 Offset Mho Characteristic Generation
Via Phase Comparator

jX

V-IZ
S1
Trip condition : 90°°<∠
∠S1-S2<270 °

V

Where :-
S2

S2 ≈ V - IZ ≈ ZF - Z

S1 ≈ V + IZ’ ≈ ZF + IZ’
V+IZ’ R

-Z’
 Sequence Comparator Voltage
for Mho Characteristics

IX

V - IZ

IZ Fault Outside
Characteristic

Fault on Boundary

IR Fault Inside
Characteristic

Vpol = V -90
 Sequence Comparator Voltage
for Offset Mho Characteristics

jIX

V - IZ

IZ

V
V + IZ

IR
- IZ

(V + IZ ) - 90
 Comparator Logic Variables

Sine wave inputs A B B A

A = V - IZ

∠90°
B = V∠

A
A
Squared inputs
B
B
Logic states
AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB

Restrain condition Operate condition

 Characteristic Available for
Commissioning

X MHO measuring unit

characteristic with
restraint voltage present

R.C.A.
OPERATE
75°

NON-OPERATE
R
15°

MHO measuring unit

characteristic with restraint
voltage removed
 Mho Relays

Directional circular characteristic obtained by

introducing VPOLARISING into the operate circuit.

Inputs to the comparator :-

VRESTRAINT (VF) from faulty phases

IOPERATE (IF) from faulty phases

VPOLARISING

VF → self polarised

VSOUND PHASE ∠Ø → fully cross-polarised

VF + xVS.F. ∠Ø → partially cross-polarised
{
VPRE-FAULT → ‘memory’ polarised
or a combination of these.
 Inadequacy of ‘Mho’ Characteristic
for Close-Up Faults (1)

ZSA ZL ZSB
EA EB

jIX jX
IZ Z

IR R

Forward
Close-Up Fault
 Inadequacy of ‘Mho’ Characteristic
for Close-Up Faults (2)

jIX jX

IR R

-IZ Reverse -Z
Close-Up Fault

NB: When V = 0
no directional or operate

S2 ∝ V - IZ
decision can be made

S1 ∝ V
 100% Cross Polarised ‘Mho’ for
Forward Fault

Z I Z
E S F

B-C fault
Z

j
X
S1
Z
ZF
S2
Trip condition : 90°< ∠S1 - S2 < 270°

R
S2 ∝ VBC - IBC Z ∝ ZF - Z

S1 ∝ IBC (ZS + ZF) ∝ ZS + ZF

-ZS
 100% Cross Polarised ‘Mho’ for
Reverse Fault

ZS ZF ZL ZS
E A B
IB-C
B-C Z
Fault Zone 4
jX

ZF

R
-S1

For reverse fault: Fault current reverses
S2 w.r.t. other voltages
∴ IBCZR → -IBCZR

∴
-ZR

Trip condition: 90°< ∠S1 - S2 < 270°

S2 ∝ VBC -(- IBC ZR) ∝ ZF + ZR

S1 ∝ IBC (ZSB + ZL + ZF) ∝ (ZSB + ZL) + ZF
-(ZSB + ZL)
Zone 4
 3ph Close-Up Fault Considerations

For 3Ø faults there is no

healthy phase. All phases
jX
suffer loss of voltage for a
Offset MHO Zone-3 close-up 3Ø fault in forward of
reverse direction.
MHO with
exaggerated
To achieve directional
‘Stability Notch’ stability for 3Ø faults, a stability
notch or memory voltage
polarising system is required.
R

During closure of breaker
onto a close-up 3Ø fault, fault
will be seen by an offset MHO
element. Such non-directional
elements can be allowed to trip
without delay for short periods
following line energisation.
 100% Cross Polarised Mho

jX

ZR Resistive Fault
Coverage

-ZS

ZS
Resistive coverage of 100% X-POL Mho depends on ratio of
ZR
 100% Cross Polarisation
for a B-C Fault

Solution to close-up fault problem for Mho is to derive an artificial

polarising voltage from the healthy phase voltages.

VA = EA

Assuming 100% cross polarising:-

S
2 ∝ V
BC
- I
BC
Z
Rotate VA by 90°

S
1 ∝ V
A ∠ -90°
VC VB
EC EB
VBC

V
A ∠ -90° = E
A∠
-90° ∝ E
BC

ZS ZF
E = I (Z + Z )
I BC BC S F
E
B-C fault  ∴ S
2 ∝ Z
F
- Z
Z
 S
1 ∝ Z
S
+ Z
F
 Memory Polarised Mho (1)

Forward 3Ø Fault
ZS ZF
I
E

V IF

S2 = V - IZ = IFZF - IFZ

S1 = E = IFZS + IFZF

∴ S2‘ = ZF - Z ; S1‘ = ZF + ZS
 Memory Polarised Mho

Forward Fault
jX

S2 = V / I - Z

Z
V/I

ZS S1 = V pol / I
 Memory Polarised Mho (3)

Reverse 3Ø Fault

ZF ZS
I = -IF
E

IF
V

S2 = V - IZ = V + IFZ = IFZF + IFZ

S1 = E = IFZS + IFZF

∴ S2‘ = ZF + Z ; S1’ = ZS + ZF
 Memory Polarised Mho (4)

Reverse 3Ø Fault
Z
jX

R
ZS

ZF
-Z S2' = ZF + Z

S1' = ZS + ZF
 Resonant Type Voltage Memory

C L VMEM

t
 Modern Synchronous Memory
System

Sinusoidal Synchronous
input voltages polarising output
voltages

VA 11 cycles

Shift
VMA
Registers
VB Majority
60° 3720 120° 120°
Gate
°

VMB

VC 120°

VMC
Clock pulses 252
x power
frequency
 A - G Polarising Mixing Circuit
(LFZP Relay)

E
VKA = - (V B + V C ) + 0.16VMA
R4

R3 IC1
VMA +
VB -
R2
R6
IC2
+
R1 -
R5
VC
Partially cross-polarised
VA E
signal VQA = VA + 0.16V KA
 A - G Polarising Mixing Circuit

-(VB + VC)

0.16V MA

VC VB

VB + VC
 B - C Polarising Mixing Circuit
(LFZP)

VKA VNA = ( VA + 0.16V KA ) - 90°

R6

+
- 90°
R5
IC2
VA
R11 Partially cross polarised
signal
R12 VQBC = VB - VC + 0.16V NA
VB

VC
IC3
R10 +
-

R9
E
 B - C Polarising Mixing Circuit

VA

0.16V KA 90º

V NA

VB + VC
 Adding Fault Voltage Waveform to
Square Polarising Waveform - 1

VF
0.16 Vx - POL

VF + 0.16 Vx - POL
Ø
VPOL

VF Sin Ø < 0.16 Vx - POL VPOL = Vx - POL

Relay is 100% X POL

Ø = Small for fault impedance close to RCA

VF = Small for high SIR’s

 Adding Fault Voltage Waveform to
Square Polarising Waveform - 2

0.16 Vx POL VF

Ø
VF + 0.16 Vx . POL
VPOL

VF Sin Ø > 0.16 Vx . POL VF < VPOL < Vx . POL

Relay is < 100% X - POL

> 16% X - POL

Ø = Large for fault impedance away from RCA

 Polarising System Gives Unique
Modified Mho Characteristic (LFZP)

X Fully cross polarised

Self polarised

Z Unique shield
R
characteristic

ZS Extra resistive
coverage
=6
ZR

-KZs Conventional 16%

partially cross polarised
 Cross Polarised Mho Characteristics

Showing Resistive Expansion

X Source impedance / Relay setting ratios

0 2 6 12 24 60

R
Solidly earthed system
 16% Cross Polarising Level Deals
with CVT Transients

Fault incidence

CVT error
Faulty phase voltage

16% Synchronous polarising

Polarising voltage

(Before squaring and

90 phase shift)
 Quadrilateral Characteristic

Provides better ground fault resistive coverage

on short lines

jX

Z
L

Z Load
1
R
F

R
R
S
 Quadrilateral Characteristic is Ideal
for Resistance - Earthed System

Z Z
E SE F

R
R
E
jX

Z RE

Resistive coverage

R
RS

-K(R +Z )
E SE
 Reactance Characteristic
(Via Phase Comparator)
S1

S2

jX >90°
ZF1
<90° Restrain
XR ZF2 Trip

Trip condition:
ZF3
90° < ∠ S1 - S2 < 270°
S2
Where:
R
S2 ∝ V - IXR S1 ∝ IXR

∝ ZF - XR ∝ XR
Generating a Quadrilateral Zone-1 Impedance
Characteristic via Phase Comparators (LFZR)

IX S2 = V - IZ
S 1 = I2

IZ

(Memory Polarised
Directional Line) S2 = V - IR
S1 = -IZ

θ
IR
I
Generating an Offset Quadrilateral Zone-3 Impedance
Characteristic via Four Phase Comparators

IX
A1 = V - IZ
B1 = IPHR + INR
IZ

A3 = -IZ A2 = V - IR
B3 = V + IR B2 = -IZ

- θ
IR

IZ'

A5 = IPH R + INR
B5 = V + IZ'

Trip criterion:- 180° < ∠A - B < 0°
 Alternative Numerical Method:
Iteration to Find the Fault

X

All zone timers started
at the instant of fault
detection

Z1
<5% change in Between

X & R iterations gives
4.. convergence
3
2

1
R

Directional Line
 Impedance Measurement
R and X Calculation
Compute R and X for 6 impedance loops
(ZAN, ZBN, ZCN, ZAB, ZBC, ZCA)

Line characteristics:
D
R= Ω/km)
line resistance (Ω
ZSource R + jX
X= Ω/km)
line reactance (Ω
ZLine

Fault characteristics:

D= calculated position of the fault (km)
I

I = fault current on the faulted phase(s)
U RF as measured by the relay (A)
J

RF= apparent fault resistance (Ω Ω)

V= (R + jX) x I = linear voltage drop on
the line (V/km)

U = voltage measured by the relay (V)
U =(D x V) + (RF x J)
J = fault current through the fault
resistance (A) … generally assumed to be
=(R + jX) x I x D + (RF x J) the residual current for earth faults.
 R and D Are Interdependent Unknowns -
Need for Iteration

Gauss-Seidel

Fault distance D :

DN Σ U x V - R fault N-1 x Σ V x J
=
Σ (V)²

Fault resistance R Fault :

R Fault N = Σ U x J - D N-1 x Σ V x J
Σ (J)²
 Design Considerations When
Using Mathematical Methods

Distance relays have line impedance “reach” settings, and

measured voltages and currents at their disposal

There are two unknown values - the distance along the line
to the fault (D), and the fault arc resistance (Rf)

An initial assumption of D and Rf is needed prior to
processing of the first iteration

Fast tripping - assume D = 0, and Rf = 0

Successive iterations yield a very close approximation of

the real “D” and “Rf”

Compare with a look-up table

Iteration result not sufficiently accurate for close-up
directional decision - use a “delta” technique for this
 Fault Detection , Direction
and Phase Selection

P44x uses “Superimposed” Current Prefault Fault

and Voltage:

Compares pre-faulted system to Current :-
faulted system
irly

Acts as a fault detector and faulted
phase detector

Provides secure phase selection for
complex fault conditions =

Sensitive to any fault type i mem

ir
= Superimposed

Faulted = Unfaulted + Superimposed

 P44x Distance Protection
Delta Algorithms/Principle

A transition is detected if:

∆I > 20% In OR ∆V >10% Vn

Then three tasks are started in parallel:

Fault confirmation : ∆I AND ∆V (3 consecutive samples)

Faulted phase selection (4 consecutive samples)

Fault direction determination (5 consecutive samples)

Start ∆
Confirmation

Phase selection

Direction
 Directional Decision: Sign of
the Superimposed Power

Zone 1

Forward fault

V I

Superimposed current and voltage

are in antiphase for a forward fault
Zone 1

Reverse fault

V I
 MiCOM P43x
Distance Protection
General

Fault Detection Logic does not use delta values.
Any fault will cause a system voltage fall, a rise in
current compared to load current, and/or a reduction in
the measured impedance. This can be detected using
a combination of I>>, V<, Z< elements.

4 (or 6) Distance Zones actually perform the finite
calculation of: Z = V / I to determine fault impedance
and phase angle. (No numerical approximation of the
impedance).

Polygonal or circular characteristics - Once the
fault impedance is calculated for the fault loop, the
relay checks to see in which Zone the fault will lie.

Memory voltage used to ensure directionality for
close-up faults.
 MiCOM P433/ P435/ P437
Distance Protection

Fault Detection Logic

Detection of fault inception

Determination of fault type

Enabling of measuring loop(s)

Triggering of all timers

Control of directional voltage memory

Load avoidance
 MiCOM P433/ P435/ P437
Distance Protection

Fault detection in V/I-plane

Z< ( ϕ )
V/V
V< fastest, must be set
nom less than minimum healthy
or voltage, typically set at 70%
V/V
nom
/√ 3 Vn.
1,0 Load ( ϕ )
I>> should be set above
maximum load and power
V< swing current, typ. 2.5 In.

I> sets relay sensitivity,
0,5 usually 10% or 20% In.

Z< is a special shaped
starting zone to avoid load.

1,0 2,0 I/I

nom
I> I>>
 MiCOM P433/ P435/ P437:
Underimpedance Zone

Fault detection in Z-Plane

X
X
fw

70°
β
Load Load

R
R
R fw,PG
fw,PP
 Polygon Tripping Zones -
A Variation on the Quadrilateral

X
X1

σ1

Line
impedance

α1

R1,PG
-45° R1,PP
(Directional characteristic)
 Effect of Z-plane Starting Zone -
Load Blinder Addition

X
X1

Line Beta
impedance

Load
area R

-45°
(Directional characteristic)

Zfw
 Calculating the Magnitude of the
Measured Impedance

100

Magnitude: kV
50 |v +| |v+ |
|v +| + |v -| vM
| Z| = 0
| i +| + | i -|
-50 |v |-

-100
0 10 20 ms 30
t

Use positive and 10
negative peaks to kA
avoid errors from 5
iM |i +|
offset waveforms
0
|i −|
-5

-10
0 10 20 ms 30
t
Data window
 Calculating the Phase Angle
Displacement of V and I

100 10
Voltage v (t)

Phase Angle: kV kA
50 Current i (t) 5
tϕ = ∆tV + (n - m) · ∆ T + ∆tI vM
m n iM
0 0
tϕ
-50 -5

Zoom view shows

-100 -10
how an accurate 0 10 20 ms 30
current zero t
crossing is
determined when it
occurs in between i prior ∆T
samples ∆tI = i - i · ∆T
prior after
iprior
iafter
∆tI
 Mho - Forward Blinder

Z3

Rf

Z2

Z1
Load area

Enhanced resistive coverage for remote faults

 Lenticular Characteristic

Aspect ratios a/b

X
Z3
0.41
0.67
1.00
a

Load impedance area

Z3 reverse
 Lenticular Loid Avoidance
Characteristic

jIX
Lenticular characteristic created

from two offset Mho comparators:
Comparator 1

Comparator 1: Φ < ∠S1 - S2
IZ < (360 - Φ)
Comparator 2

Comparator 2: (180 - Φ) < ∠S1 - S2
< (180 - Φ )

b S1
a S1
Φ
180-Φ
S2
Φ

IR
S2
-I Z' a 1
Aspect ratio : =
b Tan (180 - Φ )
2
 Slow Operation for Cables -
On Angle Fault

I2
V V = IZ

IZS

VPOL

VPOL ≈ (IZS + IZ) ∠90°

θ VPOL not in phase with ∠θ(V

Xθ ∠θ - IZ) leads to slow operation
 Offset Characteristic
for Cables (1)

Zone 1

ZL
F

- Zs

Synchronous polarised characteristic

 Offset Characteristic
for Cables (2)

ZL Zone 1
F

- Zs

Direction line
(memory polarised)

LFZR offset characteristic / forward fault

 Offset Characteristic
for Cables (3)

X
Directional element
(memory polarised)
Z S´

ZL Reverse fault

R
F