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    Alg - Abstracta Herstein (Solucionario)

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    Dario Arciniegas Vega

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    STUDENT’S SOLUTION MANUAL, Abstract Aligebra I.N. Herstein University of Chicago ite Macmillan Publishing Company N ke Collier Macmillan Publish@rs London Preface As stressed in the book Abstract Algebra, itis very important that you try to solve many of the problems. I's rice to solve a given problem, but its more important to make an attompt to solve it There is no better way for you to test how much control you have over the material tis too much. to expect that you will try, or solve, all, or most. of the large number of problems appearing in the book. The chiel thing is tat you take a stab at a good cross-section of them. In this addendum to the book you will ind solutions to many of the problems. Roughly one-half of the so-called Easior Problems are solved here; a slightly higher fraction of the Middle-Level Problems also have their solution given. Tho solution is given for a rather large fraction of the Harder Problems or Very Hard Problems. There is no systematic way—for instance, every second ‘ene—in which I chose those exercises for which | give solutions. The choice was made on the basis of how instructive or useful a given solution would be for the student who attempted a gven problem and did not succeed in solving it Even if you do solve a particular one, it might be of interst to you to compare your approach and mine to that exercise. ‘There is a great temptation to peek at the solution after an initial attempt at a problem fails. Don't give in © this temptation. Only after you have thought about a problem and approached it from a variety of angles, and stil didn’t get it should you look up the solution in this booklet To give in and peek prematurely is selt-deteating for ittakes away from both the challenge and teaming experience that you could have in thinking through the matter on your own. What | have writen above applies particulary to those problems designated as Harder Problems or Very Hard Problems. These problems, in general, were designed to challenge the would-be solver to the utmost So don't be discouraged i you fal to solve a great many of them. The fun you derive should be in the attempt, and not necessarily in the success, of grappling with somet difficult. ‘The problems are occasionally not rated as to difficulty. This is deliberate on my part The ability tb guess or to judge the diffculty of a situation can be an essential part of the learning process. Solutions to some problems depend on those of other ones. There is often some cross-reference indicated in the statement of the problem. Some problems come a litle before the required material nooded to handle thom has been discussed. This sorves two purposes. First, it gives you a chance: to develop some of the needed notions on your own. Second, it tends to show you that this material ‘has some bite to it, and that it allows you to do things which you were unable to do witiout it ‘Atany rate, Lope you have lots of fun with the problems, that they challenge you enough, and that they don't rustrate you too often. INH Contents CHAPTER 1: Things Familiar and Less Familiar CHAPTER 2: Groups «2... CHAPTER 3: The Symmetric Group ....... CHAPTER 4: Ring Theory... 2... eseseeeeeee 1 Things Familiar and Less Familiar SECTION 2. Easier Problems. 3. AnBnC isthe set of all women residents of the United States who are Canadian citizens, A - B is the set of all non-Canadian residents of the United States, A - C is the set of all male residents of the United States, and C - A is the set of all the women in the world not residing in the United States. 4 a-9 6 IfACBandifueAuC thenueAorueC; ifueAthenucB since ACB, hence u ts certainly in 6 uC. On the other hand, if ue C then u € BuC. Thus, in either case, ue BuC, whence AUC C BuC. 8 If uis in(A - B)u(B - A) then uis certainly inAu 6; ifuis inA-B then u is not in B so ts not inAnB hence u is in (Au B) - (ANB). Similarly, if u is inB - A then u is in (Au B) - (AnB). Therefore (A - B) u (B - A) C(A UB) - (An B). On the other hand, if ue (Au B) - (AnB) then ue Au 8 andu is not in both A and8, thus if u is in A then u is not in Bhence u is in A - B. Similarly, if u is in B then u is not in B - A Thus in all cases u is in(A - B) u(B - A), whence (A u B) - (An B) C(A- B)u (B-A). We thus get the required equality of these two sets. 10. Since Au(B aC) is contained in both AUB and AUC we get that (AuB) a (AUC) > Av (BAC). For the other way, if ue (AuB) a (Au C), then u is in both Au B and AuC and, if u is not in A, thenue B andue C50 2 / Student's Solutions Manual that ue BaC, and so ue Au (BAC). If u should nappen to be in A then certainly u Is in Au (Bn C). So we get that if uis in(AuB)a(AuC) thenu is in Au(B nC), hence (AuB) a (AuC)CAu(B aC). This proves the desired equality of the sets. IL. The subsets of S = (1,2,3,4) are 16 in number. They are: S, (1),(2),(3}, (4), 0.,2),0,3),0,4),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4),(1,2,3),01,2,4),01,3,41,(2,3,4), and the empty set. Middle-Level Problems. 12. (a). If ue (An BY then u cannot be in both A and B. If u is not in A then u ts in A’ and if u is not in B then u is in 6’, hence ue A’ u B” Thus (An BY CA UB. Since AD ANB, A C (AnBy; similarly B’ C(AnBY, hence A’ u B’ (AnB)’. This proves that (AnB)’ = A uB’ (b) For any subset C of S, (C= C from the very definition of C’. Thus, by Part (a), (Cy DY =(C’y n(O'Y = Ca. Let A = C’ andB =D"; we get (Au B) = (Cy (0) =A 0B. 13.(a), A+B =(A-B)u(B-A)=(B-A)U(A-B)=8+A (b). A+ 0-(A-0)u(0-A)=AUO=A (c), AA=ANA=A AGL AS ASAT ALUM AT® @. (e). To show that A + (B + C) = (A+B) + C we first prove the Theorem. A+ (B+ C)=(AuB uC) -(((An Blu(An Chu(6 9 C)) - (An BAC). Proof. Let 0 = ((AaB)u(AnC)u(B nC)! - (An BAC) and E =(AuBuC) -0. If UeE and if Uis not in A then ue BUC. We claim that if vis inBaC thenueA+B+C. For, if ueBac, then, since u ts not in A, so not in ANB aC, umust be in D, contradicting that it is in € Thus u isnot in B aC CHAPTER 1: Things Familiar and Less Familiar / 9 and being in B uC we have that u € B + C, hence in A + (B + C). On the other hand, if ue A thenu then, if u isnot inB +C thenue A -(B + C) As(BrC). Hence ue A+ (B+ Cl and soE CA + (B+ C). To finish the proof we show that A+ (B+ C)CE IfxeA+(B + C) andif x is not in A then x is in B + C; therefore x is inBuC but not inBac, thus x Is not in D, So must be in. If x is inA thenx isnot InB+C; if x ts not in Bu C then x is not in D hence must be in E. if, on the other hand, x is in BuC then since it is inB+ Cit isnot inBAC so isnot inAnBa C thus not in D, hence must be in E, This finishes the proof. To finish Part (e) we note that (A +B)* C = C + (A + 8), and using the theorem above, C + (A+B) = Cu Au8B - [{(CaAu(CaB)u(AnB)} - (A nBaC)) = A+(B+C). (tf) IPAS B=ArC then A+ (A+B)= A+ (A+ C), => by Part (e) we get (A+ A) +B =(A © A) ©C. From Parts (a) and (D) we ge> that B = C. (g A (B+C)=An ((B-C)UAC -B)) = (An (B-C) ))u(An(C - B)) by the result of Problem 9. The analagous proof to that of Problem 9 shows: that An(B - €)=(An6) - (AAC). Thus, from the adcve, PND PR A UAN DE OMAR CUA AO ARO PT ATL KAD TAN. 1S. Let D=BuC; thenm(A uB uC) =m(A uD) = mA! + miD) - miAn D) = m(A) + m(B) + m(C) ~ MIB AC) - MLA MB) A (AAC) = A) + m(B) + MCC) - M(B. AC) = (MAAB) + MAAC) - MAABAC) = m(Ar > MiB) + m«C) - mAnB) - mAAC)-mBAC) + mANB AC). 16 Toobtainm(A; UU An) we form the sum of the m(A,) for i= 1... and subtract from this the sum of the m’s of all the intersections of every m- | distinct Aj's plus the sum of the m’s of all the intersections of 4/ Student's Solutions Manual every m - 2 distinct A's and so on. (The formal proof can be carried out after we have studied induction in Section 6.) 17. Let Abe the set of Americans that have gone to high-school and let B be the set of all Americans that read a daily newspaper. Then A uB Consists of at,most all, Americans. if there are n Americans then A> m(A UB) = mA) + m(B) - m(A 1B) = .8n + .2n - m(A 0B) from the data given. Hence m(A a B) > 8n + .7n -n=.5n, thus at least SOR of all Americans are in An 6, that Is, have gone to high-school and read a daily newspaper. 17 J. Arguing as in the solution to Problem 17 we easily obtain that the set of veterans who lost an eye, an ear, and an arm is at least 25% of the group of disabled veterans. Thus those who, in addition, lost a leg is at least 85 +25 - 100 = 10 percent 21 QB) (ad. Let s+ (a},.., ag) and tet Abe a subset of 5. We assign toAa binary number as follows: if a; A the i'M digit of this number ts 1 and if a isnot in A the i digit is 0. Thus the subset {a -3,4g) has the binary MOMMEC TEEN assigned to 1, 5 has 1111! assigned to it, the empty set has 00000 assigned to it, and so on. On the other hand, given a S-digit binary number It Is the number assigned to some subset of S. For instance, 01101 would come from the subset (5,25,a5). Since the number of S-digit binary numbers ts 52 there are 32 subsets In 'S. (Of course we could solve the problem by enumerating all 32 subsets of S.) (0). Since there 1s only one subset of S naving 4 elements wnich does Not contain a given a; and there are S a;’s we have exactly five 4-element ‘Subsets of S. CHAPTER 1: Things Familiar and Less Familiar / 5 (©. The number of subsets of S having 2 elements ts the number of ways we can pick 2 objects out of a set of ‘S objects without regard to order. This number is 10 = 5.4/2 22. (a). Arguing as above in the solution to Problem 21, by assigning an n-binary number to each subset of S we see that Shas 2” subsets. (b). The number of subsets of S having exactly m elements is equal to the number of ways of picking m objects, without regard to order, out of a set onn objects. This number is nl/(mKn-m)!) A formal proof of this canbe more readily given once we have studied induction. SECTION 3. Easier Problems. 1. (a). f isnot a mapping since not every woman has a husband. (b). f is not a mapping of S into T for f(1) = 0 and O ts not in T. (c). fis amapping from the positive integers to the nonnegative ones. (d). f is not a mapping of the nonnegative integers into themselves for £(0) = -1 which is not in T. (e). f is a mapping on the set of all integers. (1). f 1s not a mapping from the reals Into themselves since {=I 1S not areal number: (g). fis. a mapping from the positive real numbers into themselves because every positive real number has a positive square root. 3. If f isa 1-1 mapping of S onto T then f7! defines a mapping from T to S since, given t in T, there is one and only one element s in S such that t= f(s), and s is defined to be 4!(t), That 7! is onto and 1-1 follows from the fact that f 1s a 1-1 mapping from S onto T; that it ig onto is a consequence of the fact that f is defined on all of S so that every element 6 / Student's Solutions Manual s InS has image t = f(s) nT, nences=7'(t), it ts 1-1 because, if clay = Mtg) then ty = Ht) = Mtg = ty, 5. Given u inU then u = ((t) for some t in T since f maps T onto U; because f maps S onto T, the t above is of the form t = f(s) for some s in S. Thus u =f(t) = f(g(s)) = (F gX(s), whence f g is a mapping of S onto U. 6. If tisinT thent = f(s) for some s in S since f is onto. Thus g(t) = G(f(s)) = (g FAs) = th HLS) = Hils)) = h(t), therefore g =n 8. (2). F defines a function from S to T. (b). Since even + even is even, odd + odd is even, and even + odd is odd we easily verify that f(s;+ $9) = f(s, f(Sp) (c) By the definition of f, f(3) = -1 and ((2) = 1, yet 1 = (6) = ((S)(2) = -1, hence f(s |S) #5, In general, not equal to fis, If(so). ee i ie i ces i aa ea Sa ne ST eee en ee eee (b). (g 1s) = G(t(s)) = g(s4) = 52 +1 (©). from (a) and (0) we see that f g=g fF 10. (). (fay fe giis= fap(cs+ d) = ales + d)+ b= acs + ad + b= Fac.adep's), nence fp fe,4 * fac adeo (b). From the result of (a) we know that C3 e.g" facadeb and fod fap = leached , thus these two products of mappings are equal if and only if ad + b = cb +d. This does not hold, for instance,if a= b=d~= 1 and c-2. (c). Ifc=d= 1 then the result of (b) shows that for fap 1,1 tobe equal tof, | fap We must havea+b= b+ 4d, that is, a=d. So the on it fap ly CHAPTER 1: Things Familiar and Loss Familiar / 7 ones satisfying the condition are all the f 5. (@), Suppose that fy,y* fa.) = 14,0 the Identity mapping. By the formula of Part (a), xa= 1 and xb + y = 0. Thus x= a7! andy =-a7'b are solutions . Furthermore, for this x andy, f ty hy® Faxay +p and since ax= 1 and ay +b=al-a"'b) + b= Owe see that fa ntfyy = 4,9. Thus far -g7lp tS the required inverse for T.5, Middle-Level Problems. 12. (a). the f so defined ts not a mapping, since, for instance, f(1/2) = 2!32 while ((1/2) = (2/4) = 2234 = 2! 52, so we cannot assign a unique value to (1/2), hence f is not a mapping, (d). given a positive rational number r we can write r as m/n where m and n are positive integers having na comman factor Then f defined on Sto T by fr) = 273" does detine a legitimate function (mapping). 13. To show that f defines a function we must show that to every s In, f assigns a unique element of T. if 23" = 2330 where m,n,a,b are non - Negative integers, then m = a andn =D. For suppose m > a, say; then n m. Clearly F 's I-1 and from its very definition F(fg) = F(NF(Q). 15. If Shas 3 or more elements define f: S +S by f(s4) = $9, (39) = 5 and f(s) = s for all the other s in S. Define gS > S by g(s})= $5, 9(53)- 5 and g(s) = s for all the other s in S. Thus (fgX(s})= (gis, ))- (33) = 53, CHAPTER 1: Things Familiar and Less Familiar / 13 while (g(Ms1) = g(f(s1)) = g(sp) = 5}. Thus fg * gf. 16. (a). Suppose that { €M moves only 3}, 52, .., Sm, leaving the other elements of 5 fixed, and g ¢M moves only ty, tz, .., ty, leaving the other elements of S fixed. Then, since (fgXs) = f(a(s)), we see that fg leaves all elements of S fixed with the possible exception of $),... Spyatys toe. . ty: Thus f(s) * s for at most a finite number of s, hence, by the definition of M fg is inl. (b). If fe Mand {(s) = s for all s other than $), S9,.., Sq then (7's) = $ for all s other than $},S9, .. , Sm, hence! eM 18, (a). Since UCT) Is the set of all f in A(S) which take T into Itself, and i(t) = t for every t in T, clearly i takes T into itself. Thus 1€ UCT). (b). If f,¢ € LUT) then g takes T into itself, so if * € T then g(t) eT, hence (fgyt) = figit)) is in T since f takes T into itse'’. Thus fg € UT). Suppose that the elements of T are ty,..., try and f(t) = ty where t) is in T. Let the mapping F be defined by F(T)(s,) = Sj. 1 CV om. FCA) Tes 1M Spy and, from its definition, maps U(T) Onto Spy, FOr If GE S_ and o(S;) = Sy for 1 Cigm then, f fe U(T) ts such that 1(t)) = ty then F(MS)) = Sy, hence F(t) = a. To see that F(fg) = F(1)F(g) note that if ty) = t, and g(t))= ty then (Fgh) = ty, hence F(11(55) = 5, FCQXS}) = 5), and FiFgXs,) * 5, * (FCDFEQINS;) for each 1 Ci O we proceed by induction onn. If n= 1 then certainly (ab)! = ab. Suppose that for some m we know that (a*b)m = a™*b™; then Cardy" = Campym(and) = (ambye(a™™D™) = am(be(a™*yM)) sa*((b¥a™)*p™) =a%((alb)*b™) = aX(a™™(b*d™M)) = (axa™)(b¥b™) = a™*!np™* |, naving mage use of the fact that G ts abelian and * 1s associative This completes the induction and proves the result for all positive integers n. By definition 20 = e for all a inGso that (a*b)9 =e = m where m > 0 and a =(a7}ym; Tap! so (ab) = (ary Ym = (a7 lp“ FM = (a7 1)Me(>7 1) (by the result we proved for m > 0) = ap! ete = ap? Finally, ifn 0 thenn since G is abelian, (a*b)"! = in future caiculations we shall not be as formal as above and will use the associative law freely, and avoid these long chains of equalities. CHAPTER 2: Groups / 27 9. Suppose a2 = e for every a in the group G. If a,b are in G then (aXb)2 = FE ae ne RS em eT Rare aR Cy Mee mE Se ae eae a®*b*aéb = a, and since a2 = e, b¥aXb = a Multiply both sides of this relation on the left by b to obtain b2*a*b = b¥a, and since b2 = e, we end up with a* = ba, Thus G Is abelian Il. Since the * in the example ts just the composition of mappings, for ease of notation we drop it and write the product a*b simply as ab. We are considering the elements ('n where (2 = h3 =e and fh= hy Thus th? =n7!th = nr; so tnt = n°*r tor all integers t, and n'r= th-t. Thus Clichy = tn dts tnt d and (Inch = find*s these two results canbe succinctly written as (f!h)y(fSnt) ~ fn? where a= i+ j and b= t+ (-1)5), Thus 6 1s closed under the product of mappings. Since e = £2h5, eis inG Also, (fh)! =n Ie! + tlnJ so ¢s in. (Don't forget, the exponent of f is calculated mod 2 and that of h is “nod 3.) Finally,since we are talking about the product of mappings, the product is associative. Thus G is a group. That G is of order 6 is easy since, in {'nJ, thas 2 possibilities and j has 3, and these give rise to 6 distinct elements (Check it) That 6 is Non-abelian is clear since fh = nf. 13. Suppose that G has 4 elements; let e, a, andb be 3 distinct elements of G. Thus both ab and b*a are in G; if they are not equal then b¥a = e, a, or b. If a*b =e then we quickly get b*a =e and so a* = b*a. If ab = a then b= e and if aXb=b then a = e (see the next problem for this), both of which are contradictions. So we get that a*b - b*a and G consists of e, a, b, and a*b. To check that G 1s abelian one should also check that a(a*b) ~(a"b)a and b(a*b) = (a*bJb; we leave these to the reader 14, See the proof of Lemma 2.2.2. 28 / Student's Solutions Manual 16. Since a? = e for every a in G, by the definition of a7! we have that a= a7! Thus, if a and b are inG then a*d = (a*b)"! = p~! a7! = bea, hence G is abelian 18. Suppose that G is a finite group of even order; if a= a”! for every a inG other thane, since a =(a~!)"! we get an even number of elements which are not e, together with e this would give G an odd number of elements, contrary to our assumption. Middle-Level Problems. 21. If G is of order 5, then for every element a in G there is 2 least Positive integer k, depending on a, such that ak =e. If k= 5 then G must consist merely of e, a, a2, a°, and a4, so ts abelian. If k= 4andb in G is not @ power of a then a*b = a! any i soe, a, 2, a5, and a*b exhaust G; now b¥a is in G and is not a power of a, for if b*a - al we immediately get that ao ao! , acontradiction. Thus b*a is forced to equa! 2*b, and so we see that G is abelian If k = 3, thene, 2, a2 are already 3 distinct elements of G Let b in G not be @ power of a; then, as above, b = ab, so the elements of G are e, a, a“, D, and ab. What Can b™a possibly be? As above we quickly arrive at ab = b¥a. So we are left with the only possibilty, namely that every a in G satisfies a2 = e. By the result of Problem 9, G must be abelian. In actual fact, as we shall see in Section 4, the first case, k = 5, is the only possibility if G has order S. 24, G is generated by 2 elements f and h satisfying {2 = h =e and fh = nl, and all the elements of G are of the unique form dn) where i= Qort and j can be any integer 0 0. Therefore a to some positive power falls in H. Thus there is a smallest positive power k such that ak is in H. Suppose that y is in H; theny = a for some m. By the Euclidean Algorithm, m = ak +r where 0 0. Therefore r= 0, hence m = gk. This shows that y = (2-9; thus H is a cyclic group with generator ak 14. Suppose that G has no proper subgroups. Let a = © be in G and consider H= (al |i any integer). As is immediate, if x andy are in H then xy and x7! are in H, Thus H Is a subgroup of G, and H = (e) since 2 = e is in H. Thus, by hypothesis, H = G. Thus G is cyclic with a as generator Middle-Level Problems. 16. By the result of Problem 14 any element of G other than e generates G. If ais inG and a2 = e then the group generated by a has 2 elements, that is, G has 2 elements, If a2 e then every element of G is a power of a2: in particular, a= (22) = 22", ence a2"! = e, for some integer m Since 2m - 1 =O one of 2m - 10 or 1 -2m>O At any rate we get that a? «e for some smallest positive integer p. Thus G consists of the p distinct 7 elements e, a, a2, ..., a°”!. We claim that p is a prime. If p = uv where both u> | andv> 1 then if b= a! =e the subgroup T generated by b consists of CHAPTER 2: Groups / 33 the v elements e, b, b,.... bY"! since bY = a” = a = e. But T= G, sov=p since v is the order of T, andp 1s tnat of G. But then u = |, contrary to u> I. Thus p is a prime and IGl = p. 18. Since 5 is finite A(S) is @ finite group. If f and g are in T(x) then £X) CX and g(X) CX; ence (FgXX) = F(GX) € F(X) CK and so fg is in TO) Since A(S) is a finite group and T(X) is closed under the product of A(S), T(X) is a subgroup of ACS) 19. Suppose that x = 21D, and y = ag are in AB, where aj, a9 are in A and by, Dp are in B. Since G is abelian, xy = ay) agbz = ayaqb)bo € AB, and xo !=(ayby)7! =b)7!ay7! = ay7!by "| € AB. Thus AB is 2 subgroup of G. 22. and 23. We saw in Problem 19 that AB is a subgroup of G. How can AB =[ab | a€ A, b € B) fail to have mn distinct elements? Only if there is some collapsing of these elements, that is, if and onty if for some distinct pairs (a),bj), (azbz] we have ayb, = abo. But this implies that az’ !a, =bzp,"! and since the left side is in A and the right side is in B, the elements on both sides are in AaB, Thus a, =a9¢ and b, = cb where c is inAnB. But, if ce AnB and if ae A ,b€B then a, = ac is inAand by =¢7'b is in B and.ayb, = (acXc™'D) = ab. Thus there are exactly 1A 6 pairs giving rise to the same ab. Thus [AB] = mn/|A 6) = [AIIBI/IA 9 Bl. This solves Problem 23. However, to solve the present problem, we must show i ec i Na i ek ie ate" This is most easily done after we learn Lagrange's Theorem. Note that the argument used for |ABI did not depend on G being abelian. This will many times in ms in the ¢ 24 That N is a subgroup follows because the intersection of any number 34 / Student's Solutions Manual Of subgroups of G is a subgroup of G. (This is a Slight generalization of the result in Problem 1; the proof we gave there works in this more general Situation). If x.y €G then y~!Ox"lHxly = (xy)! H(xy) and as x runs over G with y fixed then xy runs over all the elements of 6. Thus y~!(n (x"!Hydly = 9 (xy) !Hixy), as x runs over 6, = 0 x"!Hx, as x runs over G by the remark above. Thus y~'Ny = N Harder Problems. 25. Let 5 be the set of all the integers and let X be the set of Positive integers. Let f be the 1-1 mapping of S onto itself defined by finy=ne for every integer n. Then certainly f(X) CX, hence f € T(x) out 17! Is not in TX) since (7 '(1) = 0, which is not in X. Thus T(X) cannot be a subgroup of ACS). 26. See the proof of Lagrange's Theorem (Theorem 2 42) in the next section, 28. We first check that MN 1s a subgroup of 6 If mn, mn) are inMN, where m, m) are inM and, n, are inN then (mom jn, = mmm”) nn and by the hypothesis on M, nn”! is inM thus mnmn”! is in, and An) is iN. Therefore (mn)(mjn,) is in MN, hence MN is closed under the product in G. Also (mn)! = a7 'm=! = (a“!m='nin7! so ts in MN since n~'m='n is in Manan! is in N. Thus MN is a subqoup of G KR Ire 6 then x 'OMNdx = OC IMac" lke) C MN by our hypothesis on M and 30. Consider the element a= mnm=!n7!. bracketing it one way, a= (mnm-'In-! so is in since mam”! and”! are in N On the other hand, bracketing it another way, a= miam™'n”!) so is intt since mand nm7!n~! CHAPTER 2: Groups / 35 are inM. Thus a¢MaN = (e). This tells us that e= a= mam 'n”!, which implies that mn = nm. SECTION 4. Easier Problems. 2. The relation ~ defined on R by a~ b if both a> b and b > a satisfies the symmetry and transitivity properties but fails to satisfy a~ a 3. The argument starts with “if a ~ b ..., however there may be no. element b which satisfies this, as is exemplified in Problem 2. However, if we insist that for every a there is some b such that a ~ b then the argument is valid and ~ is then an equivalence relation 4. Suppose that S Is the union of the mutually-dis joint, non-empty subsets Sq. Thus, given s in S there is one and only one Sy Such that $ € Sq, so if we define a ~ b if a and lie in the same S,, then we easily see that ~ is an equivalence relation and the equivalence class of sis precisely that Sq in which s lies. 8. Suppose every left coset of Hin G is aright coset of H inG. Thus, if a is in G, Ha must be a right coset of H in G, thus Ha = bH for some b in G. But ats in Ha so a must be in DH; because a is in aH and, by Problem S, the right cosets are equivalence classes, we have that DH = aH. Thus Ha = aH, hence H = aa”! 11. Let Mibe the set of all left cosets of H in G and N the set of all right wget cosets of H in G. Define the mapping F from M to N by F(Ha) = a 'H This ts clearly a mapping of Monto N because, given the right coset xH, then 36 / Student's Solutions Manual xH = FCW!) Is F 1-12 Yes, because if F(Ha) = F(Hb) then a!H=o ly, and 80H = ab"!H; this puts ab™! in H whence Ha = Hb. So, even for infinite groups there ts a 1-1 correspondence of M onto N; for finite groups this translates into : MI and N have the same number of elements. Thus there are the same number of left cosets of H in G as there are right cosets of H ing. 12. The answer is no. For instance if G = S53 and H is the ‘subgroup in Problem 6, then Hg = (g, fq) and Hfg = (fg, 12g = g) = Hg, while gH = (q, gf) and fH = (fg, fg =g). Because fq = gf we see that fgH = gH yet Hig = Hg, 15. The elements of Ug are ((1], (51, (71, (111, [13], (17). The orders of these are: o(f1]) = 1, o((S)) = 6, o(f7)) = 3, off 11)) = 6, o(f13)) = 3, off 17) = 2 We verify one of them, namely that o({7]) = 3; the other verifications are similar. (71'= (7), (77 = (49] = (13], (795 = (71013) = (91) = (1) Thus the order of [7] is 3 since that is the first positive power of (7] which is the identity element of Uyg. The group Is cyclic since o({S}) = 6, so the Powers of [5] sweep out all of Ug 15. If x2 1 mod then pI (x2 - 1)= (x= 1x + 1) Since p is aprime SE ES NE IN PEN ON POR oe Ne Tirst Of these yields that x m | mod p and the second yields x a -1 mod p. 16. For every a inG there is an inverse a"! inG, if a~ar!, then inthe Product @4..dp, a cancels against a! since G is abelian. Thus the only terms remaining uncancelled in aj...a, are those elements of G which are their own inverses, Since each such element has square equal to e, we get, again using that G is abelian, that (a,4..a,) = e 0 CHAPTER 2: Groups / 37 20. Recall the basic multiplication rule: Ta oT¢.q = Tac,adeb from which “ ‘i ot * we saw that Te g d= Ted Facade = “1 dTacadeb * Taye” Maddy - e7!a* Tayx where x = 67 Hala 1)+0) | by choosing appropriate appropriate c and d we can realize any x in the above form provided that_not both a= | andb * 0. Thus, if Tay *T),9 the identity map, then the conjugacy class of T, y= (Ta 1 all x) 21. Tne dinearal group of order 6 is the group generated by f and h where 12 =n4=e and tn =n7!t (=n). A computation shows that there are 4 conjugacy classes, namely cle) = (el, cin) = thn“), cl(n2) = th), c(t) = (f,n2A), and et¢th) = (fh, he) 24. fp is.aprime of the form 4n + 3 then Up is 2 group of order p- I= 4+ 20 its order Is not divisible by 4. However, if a2 = -1 modp then (a) has order 4 in U,, which would force 4 to divide tpl. a contradiction. So lb» there is no sucha Middle-Level Problems. 27. Suppose that aH = bH forces Ha = Hb; but if h is in H then aH = ahk, thus Ha = Hah, and soH= Haha, that is, aha”! € H for all h eH and all a€G. Thus ata”! CH for all a in G; by Problem 29 of Section 3 we get that ata”! = H for alla inG. 28. Let G be acyclic group of order n and a a generator of G. When Is b= al also a generator of G, that is, when is b of order n7 If (in) =d* 1 then V4 = (giy/4 =e since dl i. On the other hand, if (i,n) = | then if bk = alk = © then n| ik (see Problem 51 below), because (i,n) = | we must 38 / Student's Solutions Manual have that nk, hence k » n, and $0 k = n. Thus a! has order n if and only if i and n are relatively prime (and 0 < i ..a, = eb ; then (be)? = (b). Let b=eandc*e,b*c, be such that b2 = c2 2c2 =e Thus any such pair b,c gives rise to the triple b, c, be of elements which are their own inverses, Morever, be(bc) =b2c? = e. In the product a)29..a,, which reduces to the product of the elements of G which are their own inverses, every pair b, c with b? = c2 = e gives rise to the triple a,b, bc such that be(bc) = e. Thus aya9..a, = (c). If n= [Gl is odd, by Part (a), we have x =e, since x: SECTION 5. Easier Problems. 1. (a). The mapping @ is a homomorphism of G onto G' since @(a + b) = [a + b] = [al + {b] = @(fa}) + @({b)). It is not 1-1 since, for instance, @(1) = on + 1) = (11 (b). In any group G, (ab)"! = b”!a7!thus @(a) = a7! for a in G satisfies (ad) = @(d)@(2), Thus @ Is not a homomorphism. Such a map is called an antl-homomorphism. (c). If G is abelian then the mapping in Part (b) is a homomorphism since @(ab) = @(b)@(a) = o(a)@(b). Moreover it ts onto, for, given a inG, 42 / Student's Solutions Manual then a= (a'"! = @(a"!), It is also 1-1, for if (a) = o(b) then a”! po! 30a~b. (d). That @ is a homomorphism is a consequence of: positive times positive is positive, negative times negative is positive, and negative times positive is negative in the real numbers. The mapping ¢ is onto since e(1) = Land @(-1) = -1. It isnot 1-1; for instance @(2) = @(26.51) (e), Since G is abelian, (ab)" = ab" for all a, b in G. Thus @(ab) = (a)@(b). Whether or not it is onto or 1-1 depends on G andn. For instance, if G is a cyclic group of order n> I then @(a) = € for all a in G, hence in this case ¢ is neither I~! nor onto. If G is acyclic group of order 3 andn = 2 then, as Is easily checked, @ is both 1-1 and onto. (loo ly); thererore 1! 1s an isomorphism of Go onte G,, thus Gp x6, 3. (2). Given x in then x = (xala”!, so x = La(xa), hence L is onto Moreover, if La(x) = Lafy) then xa"! = ya"! so that x=y, Thus La is 1-1. Therefore Ly ¢ AG), (b). If x is in G then (Laby Xx) = La(ly0x) = Lgoxd7 4) = oo ham! = x07 1a!) = x(ab)7! = Lay) thus Lap = abb (€). Wad) = Lap = Lalp = WlarHib), by Part). If wa) = wid) then Lp hence a”!=L4(e=Ly(e) = b”!, thus a = b. So w is a monomorphism D a ‘D of G into A(G). S. Suppose that V € G satisfies VT. V for all a inG. Let c = V(e); then (VT, Xe) = ViT(e)) = V(x) for all x in G. Also (TV (e) = TCvCe)) = CHAPTER 2:.Groups / 43 T,(c) = xe. Since VT, = T,,V for all x in G we get that V(x) = xe = Lylx) where d= co! Thus V=Ly 6. Let (G) be the image of G in G'; If x, y are in @(G) then x = @(a) and y = @lb) for some a, b inG, hence xy = @(a)@(b) = @(ab) so is in (6), as is etl cele ole Tis Sit) te a cierto OE hen (a +p) = 23° = 2829 = (ayr(b) so that f is ahomomorphism of G into G’. It is 1-1 because 22 = 20 implies 8. Define f from G to G' by f(a) = 23; that 2 =b. Finally, if c = logy (a) then f(c) = 2° = a; therefore f is onto G. 10. Computing, ff! = tgt=g7' tt = g™' =g5 , (rglagitgly”! = ¢glggutr-! = tg! = g3, and glgg) = gare all in So aga”! is in H for all a inG; thus (aga! )=agla”! is also in H for every i. Hence H is anormal subgroup of 6. 13. We already know that # is a homomorphism of G into itself by (e) of Problem |. The kernel of is the set of all the elements a in G such that a™ = e. Thus this kernel consists of e alone only if a” = e forces a=e. This happens if and only if m andn are relatively prime. 16. This problem occurred as Problem 28 in Section 3, see the solution there. 21. Lets, t, and v be 3 distinct elements of S. There exists anf in A(S) such that f(s) = s and f(t) = v; also there exists ag in A(S) such that g(s) = t. Thus (g7! tgs) = g” (rigis))) = green) = 7 tv) * s because g°'(t) = s. Thus, although f is in H(S), g”'fg is not in H(S); thus H(S) cannot be normal in G. 24. (a). Gis clearly closed under the product. Also (ee), where e, 1s the unit element of 6) and eo that of G9 is the unit element of G since (Gy,9gXej 29) = (Gy €1.92€9) * (G).99), and, similarly (e),¢91g) G9) = 44 / Student's Solutions Manual (g).92). A simflar verification shows that (g,~!,g"!) acts as the inverse of (gy,92). The associative law easily checks out as a consequence of the fact that the associative law holdsin G, and Go. Thus G is a group. {b). The mapping # defined by #j(a}) = (ay,€9) is 1-1. Also @(aya9) = (41 82,€9) = (@),¢2Mag,e9) = ¢ 1(2) (a9), hence 1 is ahomomorphism, thus 1s a monomorphism. (c). Trivially the similar argument works for Go. (A). Given (ay,a9) in G then (4,49) = (@j,€9%e} a9), and (a ,69) Is in 1(G1) and (¢,49) Is in @2(Gp). If (@y,49) 1s In @)(G,) n@QGp) then | =e] and ap = €9, so this intersection consists of the identity element of G. Middle-Level Problems. 26. (a) Ifa, b are inG then, for all g in G, (63051(q) = o3(dab"!) ra(bgo™!)a”! = (ab)g(ad)"! = ogy(g). Therefore op = ‘Gq0p, whence (ab) = Sab = Fa%p * (ab), sow is a homomorphism of G into ACG). (0). If 2 2(G) then @,(g) = 2gz™! = g for all g in, thus gy Is the Identity mapping on G, hence z is inKer w. Therefore 2(G) ¢ Ker w. For the other direction note that if a Ker w then 9g = v(a) = identity Mapping on G, hence g = oa(g) = aga”!, from which we get that ga = ag for all g in. This puts a in Z(G) Therefore Ker w Z(G). Thus we get that 2(G) = Ker 27. If gis inG the, since @ ts onto, g = (a) for some a in G. Thus g lang = oa)” a(ndea) = (2! 8(N)@(a) = 6(2”!Na) C A(N), since N Is normal In, CHAPTER 2: Groups / 45 Thus @(N) is normal in G. (the result is also a consequence of the result in ae ee ese ee 29, (a). The mapping def ined by #(x) = a” 'ya is an automorphism of G, thus if Mis a characteristic sudgroup of G then a”'ma = aaitt) CM for alla in. Thus M is normal in. (b). Since M and N are normal tn G we already know that MN is (normal) subgroup of G. If @ is an automorphism of G then, since @(M) CM and @(N) CN, we get that (MN) = @(l)@(N) C MN. Thus MN is a characteristic sudgroup of G. (c). Let G be the group of order 4 having the elements e, a, b, aD where a2 = b2=e, and where ab = ba. Since the group G is abelian, every subgroup of G 1s normal in G, thus A = {e,a] is a norma! subgroup of G. The mapping « defined on G by w(e) = €, @(a) = b, w(b) = a, and @(ab) = ad can be seen to be an automorphism of G. But @(A) = (eb) is not contained in A. Thus A is not a characteristic subgroup of G. 3@ Since H is of order p and 1s normal in, If @ is an automorphism of 6 and if @(H) = H then Hq(H) is a subgroup of G and is of order p2. (See Problem 16 to see that He(H) is a subgroup of G; to see why it has order p2 see the argument given in Problem 22 of Section 3). Thus p2 = [Heo(H)| must. divide {Gl = pm, by Lagrange’s Theorem. Thus p2 I pm, and so pm, contrary to assumption. Thus H is a characteristic subgroup of G. 33. If Nis normal inG then, for a in G, 63 defined by 6(x) = a” !xa ts an automorphism of G and ea(N) CN since N is normal in 6. Thus a induces (gives rise to) an automorphism of N, hence takes M1 into itself because M ig a characteristic subgroup of N. Which is to say gg(t) = a” 'Ma cM for all ainG. Thus M is normal in 6. 46 / Student's Solutions Manual 34. Let @be an automorpnism of G and consider ©, the automorphism of G def ined by o(x) = a” 'xa for all x in G. Then (687! )(x) = 860.46" '(x)) = 9(a"!9"l\x)a) - 6a)" !x0¢a) = ogcqy(x), hence eae-! = 89(a) 80 is in 1(6) Thus (6) 1s normal in 6). Harder Problems. 37. Let 6 be a non-abelian group of order 6. If every element were of order 2 then, by Problem 9 of Section 1, 6 would be abelian. Also, if there were an element of order 6 inG then G would be cyclic. Since G Is of even order it nas an element a = e such that a2 = €. If D =e inG is of not of order 2, by what we said above and Lagrange’s Theorem, b has order 3 by the result of Problem 30 the ‘subgroup 6 = (e, b, v2) ‘3 normal in G. Now, since 6 is non-abelian, ab = ba, yet aba 'is in B since B is normal inG. Thus aba"! =~! Since a =b5 = e and ab = b”!a the mapping of G onto 33 which sends a to f and b to g, where {2 = 3 = e and (g=g7!r gives an tsomorphism of G onto Sz 38. (a). (TyTe Had = Ty(Te(Ha)) = TyHacé)) = Hac !b”! = Hatbey"! = TyclHa) for every a in G, Thus The = TpTe (bd). Suppose u is in K(w); thus. Ty > WU) ~ ig, Thus, for every a inG, Hau = Ty(Ha) = Ha, and so Haua”' = Ha, Therefere gua”! is in H for every a in G. Conversely, if aua! is in H for every a in G the argument reverses to Show that Ty = w(u) = ig. Thus KG) = (ue GI ava”! €H for every a in G) This tells us that if u 1s in K(w) then u is in every a~'Ha; from this we get that K(W) is the intersection of all a” 'Ha as a runs over G. CHAPTER 2: Groups / 47 (c). K(w) is anormal subgroup of G, being the kerne! of a homomor- phism of G, and lies inH since aua’! is in H for every a in G, so in particular, for a = e. Thus K(w) CH. Suppose that N CH is a normal subgroup of G, then aNa~! CNC H, nence NC K(), 40. Suppose that H is a subgroup of G, IGI = n, and that n does not divide ig(Hl. 17 5 15 as in Problem 36, A(S) has elements has ig(H)! elements, so, by Lagrange's Theorem, has no subgroup of order n. Thus the mapping w of Problem 38 cannot be an isomorphism. Therefore K(w) = (e) is a normal subgroup of G contained in H 41. IF {Gl = 21 andH is a subgroup of order 7, then ig(H) = 3, and since 7 does not divide 3! = 6, H contains a normal subgroup N = (e) of G. But, since the only subgroup of H which is different from (e) is H itself, we conclude that N=H Hence H ts normal in G 43,, 44,, and 45. Let G be a group of order p2 where p is a prime. If G is cyclic therrwe are done, for then G is abelian. So if a =e is in G then o(a) = p, and the subgroup A = (a) is of order{ Thus ig(A) = 92/0 = p, and p2 doe not divide p!, G has anormal subgroup T = (e) contained in A. Hence T= Aand A is normal in G So if b is inG then bab"! = al since A is normal and generated by a, From this, since t? =e, we get that a= bPabP = aM where m = IP. (See Problem 29 of Section 4 for the kind of argument needed for this last step) Since a"! = ¢ and ais of order p, p must divide m-1~=iP - 1, however by Fermat's theorem, iP = i mod p. The outcome of all this 1s that 1= 1 mod p. Hence a! = a and so bab"! = a, that is ab = ba for all b inG This argument held for any a = e in G. Thus all elements of G are in 2(G). So G is abelian, Note, for Problem 44, that if G is cyclic and generated by a then aP generates a subgroup of order p; If G Is not cyclic 48 / Student's Solutions Manual then every a = e InG Is of order p, so generates a ‘Subgroup of order p. At any rate, G must have a subgroup of order p, and it is normal since G is abelian. If G is of order 9 then p = 3, and is abelian. 46. If G is cyclic with a as generator then.a? has order S and a9 has order 5, and we would be done. So suppose that G is not cyclic. Every non-identity element has order a divisor of 15, so has order 3 or 5, Suppose that there aren't elements of both orders 3 and 5, So every element has order 5 or every element has order 3. If a and b are of order 5 and b isnot a! for any i, then the elements albK, where j,k take on all values between 0 and 4 give us 25 distinct elements-~ rar too many for G which only has 15 elements. ‘Suppose then that every element in G other than e has order 3. If a= @ is inG and ba = ab we claim that b - a! for some i. If not, since the Subgroups 6 = (b) and A = (a) satisfy AB = BA, AB is 2 subgroup of G of Order 9, and since 9 does not divide 15 this is not possible. Suppose that ¢ is not in A; thus the 3 elements c, aca”!, a2ca"2 = a” lca are distinct, $0 ¢ Gives rise to a triple of distinct elements in this way. If d is not e nor any of c, aca”!, a” 'ca then, ada”!, a” 'da give us 3 new elements. For, if ada”! say, is one of these earlier elements then ada”! = alca™!, leading to the contradiction that d= a!"!ca““!-). continue this way to get k distinct triples. These together with e exhaust G so the number of elements in G is 3k + 1 = 15, which implies that 3| 14 which is false. So not every element of 6 can have order 3 Very Hard Problems. 49. We first show that If ig(A) and ig(B) are finite for the subgroups A and 6 of G then ig(A.n B) is also finite Let Auy, Au, ,Auj, be all the a x CHAPTER 2: Groups / 49 distinct left cosets of A inG, and Bv;, Bv9, ..., BY, those of B in G. Since A166 ts a sudgroup of B, B is the (possibly infinite) union of left cosets (An dw, where the w, are in 8, We claim that there are at most m distinct left cosets of AnB in B. For suppose Wy, ..., Wye give us mt such distinct cosets. Since G is the union of the Au; each wy, = au; where the a, are in A Since the number of uy ism, we must have that for two different k, athe same | appears for Wy, and Wg; that 1S Wy = aU; and Wa = aghh- But these imply that W,Wq”! = aaq”! so is in A; but w,Wq"! 15 In B since each of wy and Wa 1s. Thus w,W,”! is in AnB, contrary to the fact that they give distinct left cosets of An B in 8. Thus B is the union of at most m left cosets (An 5)w,, nence By; i= tne union of {AnB)w, } and so G Is the unton of the (An Biwevj, which are at most mn in number Thus ig(A a B) 1s Finite. By induction we easily then get that if G), Go, 1g are of finite Index In G then Ay MAg A... Ag Is Of finite index in G. If H is of finite index in G we claim that there are only a finite number of distinct a”!Ha in G. By the result of Problem 19, NIH) = (ae Gl a” ‘ha =Hl isa subgroup of G and contains H, so is of of finite index in G; in fact ig(N(H)) < ig(H). Also the number of distinct 27 !Ha equals ig(N(H)) (Prove!) Hence there are only a finite number of distinct a 'Ha in 6. Each of these is of finite index in G (Prove!) ; so their intersection N is of finite in 6. By Problem i 8, Nis normal in G. 50. Let aandb be such that a2 =b* = e anda = eb, anda=b, and 50 / Student's Solutions Manual ab = ba. The group, N, they generate (e, a, b, ad) 1s abelian, hence all its subgroups are normal. Let G be generated by a, b, and g where g2 = ¢, ga = bg, gb = ag, and gab = abg, Then N is normal in G but M =(e,a) which is normal in N is not normal in G, for gag"! = b is not int SI. Let f be the mapping defined by f(x) = 0x | if fo) = fly) then @(x)x7 | = @(y)y7!, 50. x7 !y = lx)" lly) = lx” !y). By our hypothesis on @ we must have x7! y + € and sox ~y. Thus f is 1-1, hence maps G onto itseif Therefore, given a in G, then a= @(x)x"! for some x in G; thus @(a) = @2(x)@(x-!) = x@(x)" | =a"! since @2 is the identity automorphim of 6. Thus b”!a"! = (ab)! = (ab) = @lae(b) = a 'b"!, whence G is abelian 52. Let A= (a € G1 @(a) = a7], and suppose that b © A Thus both A and AD have more than 3/4 of the elements of G, hence An Ab has more than half he elements of & If x is in Ain Ab then x = ab, where a is also in A, and =a!" consequently ab « ba (x) x7! = plan! But 60 = elale follows. So whenever ab is in A we must have that ab = ba. The number of ‘such a is more than half the elements in G, so the subgroup C(b) = {x €B | xb = bx) has order greater than |GI/2 yet divides (Gl by Lagrange’s Theorem. Hence C(b) = G. So b € Z(G); thus A ¢ Z(G). Therefore 1(G) has order larger than 3/G\/4, so must be all of G. Therefore G is abelian, Because G is abelian, A becomes a subgroup of G, and since its order is larger than 3IGI/4, A = G. Thus @(x) = x7! for all x in. SECTION 6. 2. If ais areal number identify Na with lal; since the cosets of N inG multiply via NaNb = Nab which jibes with the fact that abl - fallbl 4 IfaisinG then. sinceM is normal inG/N. if X =No then x7 my cK. this gives us that Ng!tMg cM, and so g”!Mg CM. Thus M is normal in 6. CHAPTER 2: Groups / 51 6. Every point in the plane has a mate in the unit square where 0 Ha Ker f = Ha, so the image of Hunder g is isomorphic to H/(H .N). The image of H under g, g(H), 1s the normal in G! 54 / Student's Solutions Manual SECTION 8. Middle-Level Problems. 2. If Gis of order 35 then, by Cauchy's Theorem it has an element a of order S and an element b of order 7. If B = (b) then B is a subgroup of order 7 and, for g in G, C = gBg"! is also a subgroup of order 7. If B = C then BC has 49 distinct elements (Provel), which is impossible since IGI = 35. Thus 8g"! = 8 for all ginG, Thus 8 is normal in G. Therefore, since aba”! is in B, aba”! = b!. Therefore b = aba~> = bk where k ~ 9, and so bK~! ~ e. This implies that 71 (1° - 1), and since, by Fermat's Theorem, 7 | a -1) we get that 71 (i - 1). But this says that b! = b, and so ab = ba. But then c = ab is of order 5:7 = 35; hence G is cyclic. 4. Let G be generated by @ and b where a = b? = € and aba"! = b2 The 21 distinct elements b'aJ, where 0 < j «3. andO< 1 <7, form.a group for, as can be verified from the relations between a and b, (bla )(bJa" = baS where r=i+ 2™) ands = m+n 5. Suppose that |GI = p"m where p does not divide m, and suppose that P is anormal subgroup of order p". If @ is an automorphism of G then Q = @{P) is 2 subgroup of order p" and Pd has IPIIAI/IP 9 Ol = p2"VIP a al elements. Thus, if P= Q, then [Pal = pS, where s 21+ 1 But pS does not a ut ut divide p''m since p does not divide m. With this contradiction we get that a(P) =P, hence P 1s a characteristic subgroup of 6. 6 Since [ABI = 1AIIBI/IA 0 BI < 1G), [A a BI 2 IANBIZIGI VIG! YIGI/IGI > 1. Thus a ANB =(e), \A nl = |, hence AB has IAIIBI = mn distinct elements. 8. By Cauchy's Theorem G has an element a of order 11. Thus for the subgroup A = (a) of order 11, igfA) = 9 and 11 does not divide 91, hence, by a Problem 40 of Section S, A is a normal subgroup of G CHAPTER 2: Groups / 55 10. By Problem 9, G has a normal subgroup of N of order 7; thus G; = G/N is a group of order 6. As such, 6 has a normal subgroup T of order 3. By the Second Homomorphism Theorem (Theorem 2.7.2) the subgroup T= (ae [Nae T)) is anormal subgroup of G and T/N = T). Since Ty = IT/MI = {TI/INL, we get that [Tl = IT jIINI= 37 = 21 Harder Problems. 12. Since G 1s a group of order 2! it has an element aof order 7 and an element b of order 3. The subgroup A = (a) of order 7 Is normal in G since 7 Goes not divide ig(A! = 3!= 6, Therefore bab”! = al, Since G is non-abelian, |= 1, But since b3 = @ we get that a= a where k = 19, thus 13 - 1 Is divisible by 7. This gives us that |= 2 or 4 If |= 2 then p2ap~ = a4, so in all circumstances G has an element c such that cac™* = a4 1 G is another non-abelian group of order 21, the same argument shows that G, has elements u and v such that u4 = v3 = e and vuv"! u4 Define the mapping f SEMA SAE Ee Near OREM, eee of G to G, by fla isomorphism of G onto Gy Very Hard Problems. 13. By Cauchy's Theorem G has an element 2 of order 11, and since A = (a) 1s a subgroup of order 11, ig(A) = 9; because 11 does not divide 9! we have that A is a normal susgroup of G We claim that A € Z(G); for if gis ING - all then gag! = al since it is in A, nence g! !ag"!! = a™ where m = 11! By Fermat's Theorem , i! ! m {mod 11; thus a™ = al. The net result of all this 56 / Student's Solutions Manual ts that g! !ag"!! = al = gag™!, trom which we get that g!a = ag! Since 10 does not divide 99 = |G, we easily get from this that ga = ag. Thus a€ 2(G), hence A = (a) < 116) Also G/A 1s of order 9, hence Is abelian. Thus if u and v are in G then uv"!v"! is in A (see Problem 12 in Section 6). Hence uv = 2vu where 2 is in A, thus in 2(G), and 2!! = e, Thus u2v = uluy) = uzvu = zuvu ~ zvu2, since Z is in Z(G). Continuing this way we get that u'v = z'vul in particular, if i= 11, sincez!! +e, we get ul !v =vu!!. Thus if u is of order 3 we get 'y = vu! for all v in G. In short, umust be in tat ul! =u2 =u"! sou” 2(G). Thus 2(G) has order at least 33 since it contains an element of order 11, namely 2, and an element of order 3, namely u. Thus the order of G/2(G) is 1 or 3; at any rate, G/2(G) is cyclic. By Problem 11 of Section 6, G must be abelian 14, Consider the group generated by the two elements a and b where we impose the conditions that a = b= ¢ and bab"! = a! What value should we assign to i in order to get consistency with the relations a? = I= e and to insure that the group so obtained is a non-abelian group of order pq? ‘As we have done many times, this implies that bab“ = a™ where m = if Thus if r= q, since D9 = e we get a= a™, andsoa™"! = @ This would require that qi (m ~ 1) = (i9- 1) and (since we want 6 non-abelian) q does not divide i - 1. Can we find such anr ? Yes, since Up 1S a cyclic group and QI (p -1) there is an element (i] = [1] in Up such that (1]9= [1], that is, an integer i, where | G, defined by f(aUnY) = cUd’ is then an eee eee eee SECTION 9. 2 If mandnare relatively prime and G, and Go cyclic groups of orders m and n respectively, if a generates G, and b generates Gp then the elements (,¢2) and (eb) In G)x Go are of orders m and n respectively Thus, because m and n are relatively prime, (a,b) = (a,e2)e),b) is of order mn, On the other hand, if d # 1 is the greatest common divisor of m andn then the elements (a™!79. 591/49) where 0¢ i,j ¢d+1 give us d2 solutions of the equation x4 = (e),29) in Gx Gp. But ina finite cyclic group the number of solutions of x= ¢ is at most d, and since d2 > d, we get that (Gy ,G9) camot be cyctic 58 / Student's Solutions Manual 4. Since P; and Po are of relatively prime orders, the subgroup P,P Is of order py1 p92. Continuing by induction we get that P)Po..Py is of order p)™ Ip9™2..py™k = IGI. Thus G - P)Po..Py. Moreover every element g in G has @ unique representation in the form g = ayap..a, where each aj is in Pj, because, if aap..ay = bjbo...by are two such representations of g then byay7! = bo.beay ta”! = (bag 4)..ddyay!), so byay~! is in Po..Py. But, since bya;~! is in Py its order is a power of pj; the subgroup Po..Py 18 of order pM2..p,™k and since p; does not divide po™2..p,™k we get that bja;~!=e, hence a, = by. Similarly we get that a; = bj for all the i's, Thus g has a unique representation in the form g = a..ay. By the a def inition of internal direct product, G is the internal direct product of Py, .., Pgs thus by Theorem 2.9.4, 6 @ Px Pox. xP, 5, The order of NyNo..Ny is at most INjlINoL. IN! = IGl; if for any two different products n)no..ny = myMo..my where each of mj and n, are in Ny, for every i, then we cannot achieve this maximum for the number of elements in Ny..Ny. Thus every element of G =NjNo..Ny has a unique representation in the form n ynz..n. By the def inition of internal direct product and Theorem 2.9.4 we get G is the direct product of Nj, No, ... .Ng- 6. To show that G is the direct product of Ny,.No, .. , Ny, given (a) and (b) we merely must show that each g in G has a unique representation in the form g = ny..Ny where each nj is in Nj From the hypothesis (b) we have that Nj aNy = (e) IF i= j since Ny CNyNi_ [Nie yk and, since the Ny are CHAPTER 2: Groups / 59 normal InG, we get that ninj = njnj and nym, « mn. In consequence, If 9.* Mju.ty = My..my where each m; is also in Nj then we obtain that Phony layne”) Aus a AMY Hoi eM pee Na] so nym)! is in Ny a (Ny Nyy Nis p-Ng) = Ce). Thus nj = mj for each i, whence g has a unique representation in the form g = nj... Ny. Therefore Gis the direct product of Ny, No, .. Ny. SECTION 11. Earier Problems. 1. The conjugacy classes in Ss are (e), (f,fg, gf, and (g,92), where f and g generate 53, and 1? = g> = e and rg = g~'r (See Problem 19 In Section 4). Also C(e) = 53, C(f) = (e,1) and C(g) = {e,g.92) so IC(f)| = 2 and IC(g) = 3, and ISSI/ICCeM = 1, ISSIICCAI = 2 and IS3I/IC(gN = 2, and | + 2*3=6is the check on the class equation. 2. The dihedral goup of order 8 is generated by a and b where a2=b4 =e and ab = b”'a The conjugate classes are (e), (b2), (b,b>), (a,ab2), (ab,ab3) and Cle) = 6, C(d2) = 6, Cb) =(e,0,b2,b>), Cla) = (e,a,a2,b2), Therefore IGI/ICCeN = 1, IGI/ICI2) = 1, |GIZIC(DY = 2, IGV/IC(ail = 2, and IGI/ICCab)l = 2; thus the class equation checks out as 1+ 1 + at 2*2s8, 6. If P isnormal in G and Q =P is ap-Sylow subgroup of G of order p™ then PQ = QP, so Pd is a subgroup of G and [POI = |PIQI/IP al = p2"/[P nal > p" 'must divide IGl. Since Gl = p"™m whe (m,p) =1, this is not possible. Thus P = Q and P is the only p-Sylow subgroup of 6. 60 / Student's Solutions Manual 8. We proceed by induction on |G| to prove that if the prime P divides IGI then G has an element of order p. IT IGI = p the result is trivially true since every a =e inG is of order P. Suppose that the theorem is true for all groups H such that [HI < IGI. Let 2(G) be the center of G with Z(G) = z 2 1. If pI IHl for any subgroup H = 6 of G then, by our induction hypothesis, H has an element of order p, and so the result is correct in this instance. So we may assume that p does not. divide the order of any proper subgroup of G. Thus, if a is not in Z(G) then C(a) = G is a proper subgroup, hence p does not divide IC(a)l. But then p does divide IGI/IC(a}l. The class equation tells us that Gl = z + ZIGI/IC(a) where the sum E runs over one element from each conjugacy class of the elements of G which are not in Z(G). For each {GI/IC(a)] which appears in the sum E we know that p | IGI/IClall, hence p | ZIGIIC(a)l. Since p also divides IGl we get that p!z But we already have proved Cauchy's Theorem for abelian groups in Theorem 26.4. Since 2(6) is an abelian group and p | Z(6)1, Z(G) has an element of order p. This completes the induction and proves the theorem. 11 Since P is 2 p-Sylow subgroup of G and P< N(P), P is also a p-Sylow Subgroup of N(P). But P is normal in N(P), thus, by the result of Problem 6, P ts the only p-Sylow subgroup of N(P) 12. Let 1Pl=p" If ais of order p™ and if a"!pa =P then, if A= (a) we have A is of order p™ and that AP = PA is a subgroup of G. But [API « IAIIPIIA A PL= p™ipVIA a Pl=p™ VIA BL If a isnot in P then AnP=A, so1A n Pl =p where r ¢m. Thus IAP| = pM | and since m- rz 1, the integer m+ n-r2n+ 1, sop" does not divide IGI. But since AP isa subgroup of 6, IAPI = p™*""F must divide IGl. With this contradiction we obtain that a is in P CHAPTER 2: Groups / 61 14 Since P< N(P), we know that p= [PI must divide IN(P)I, thus INCPII = p%k and so ig(N(P)) = IGI/INCP)] = p"m/p% = m/k, an integer; since p does not divide m we get that p does not divide ig(N(P)). Since the number of distinct x” !Hx equals ig(N(P)) we have established the result. Middle-Level Problems. 16. Let S be the 3-Sylow subgroup of G of order 9. Thus ig(S) = 4and since 9 does not divide 4!= 24, by the result of Problem 40 of Section 5, S contains a normal subgroup N= (e). Since N isa subgroup of S, INI = 3or 9 17. {G1 = 108 = 3322. since the 3-Sylow T subgroup of G has order 27, igD = 4 By the argument used in solving Problem 40 of Section S there is a homomorphism’y of G into S4, which is of order 24, such that Ker » is contained in T. Thus 108/IKer wi = IGI/IKer wi = IG/Ker wl < 24, hence IKer pl 2 108/24 > 4. Since it is a subgroup of T and ITI = 27, |Ker wlisa subgroup of T, its order must divide 27.We thus have that {Ker wl = 9 or 27. 18. Let abe in N(N(P)), thus a” 'N(P)a C N(P), and since Pc N(P), a"!Pa 1s contained in NXP). But then a”! Pa isa D-Sylow subroup of N(P). By the result of Problem 6 we know that P Is the only p-Sylow subgroup in N(P). Thus a~ ‘pa = P, whence a € N(P) ; therefore N(N(P)) C N(P). Since N(P)C N(N(P)) (since HC NCH) for any sugroup H of G), N(N(P)) = NCP). 19. We go by induction on n. For any n =1 a group of order p has an element of order p, thus 4 subgroup of order p. Thus the result is correct forn=1 ‘Suppose that any group G of order p™ has a subgroup of order p™ for all 0

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