1

Review of Related Literature

Level of Stress

Stress is something that can affect everyone. However, few people would

understand what causes it, how it develops, how it affects their bodies, and how they

can be more effective in managing their stress 1. When stress is unrelenting and out of

control, it is a villain that causes unhappiness, sickness, and even death. 2 While great

progress has been made over the years in the study and treatment of law enforcement

stress, this progress has been running equally strong with increased pressures placed

on police officers.3

Police officer stress is heavily influenced by both internal and external factors.

Requirements to adhere to standard operating procedures and, in turn, departmental

policies and procedures were found to have an impact on officer stress. Officers believe

their lack of influence on how police work is accomplished, as well as their lack of

influence over departmental policies and procedures are significant sources of stress. 4

1
J.A. V. Gutierrez, J. A. Ilagan, J. C. M. Aviñante, M. J. D. Reyes, V. O. Idaewor, and R. E. Mojares.
(2015). Stress Management Among Police Officers in Batangas City, Philippines, College of Criminology
Research Journal, Vol. 6, 2015 1 ISSN: 2094-7631

2
C. Blau. (2013). "The phenomenology of traumatic experiences in police work", Policing: An
International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 26 Iss: 3, pp.419 – 438
(http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid= 872410)

3
J. Loose. (2009). "Traumatic experiences and post-traumatic stress disorder in the New Zealand
police", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 21(1).

4
M. Morash, R. Haarr and D. Kwak (2006). Multilevel influences on police stress. Journal of
Contemporary Criminal Justice, 22(1), 26-43. DOI: 10.1177/1043986205285055
 2

They are also more likely to think agency personnel policies involving job assignments

and discipline are unfair, correlating with burn-out. 5

Over 25 years ago, Kroes and Hurrell and others noted that exposure to line-of-

duty critical incidents and certain aspects of police organizations were especially

stressful for officers6. Examples of stressful management characteristics associated with

policing include complex and bureaucratic department organizational structures, poor

communication among divisions, lack of diversity, rigidity regarding policies and

procedures, lack of opportunity for advancement, poor supervision, and various job/task

factors (such as workload).7 In terms of critical incidents, one of the most stressful

experiences in policing, not surprisingly, is the death or injury of another officer in the

line of duty8. Other highly stressful critical incidents include involvement in a hostage

crisis, the arrest of a violent perpetrator, and being investigated by the internal affairs

division.9

In keeping with current work stress/health models, these and other types of

stressors may potentially lead to adverse health outcomes (i.e., stressors 3 perceived

stress 3 stress outcomes).10 However, research has shown that this relationship may be

5
W. P. McCarty and W. G. Skogan. (2012). Job-related burnout among civilian and sworn police
personnel. Police Quarterly, 16(1), 66-84. DOI: 10.1177/1098611112457357

6
W.H. Kroes and J.J., Hurrell. (1975). Job Stress and the Police Officer. Washington, DC: US
Government Printing Office; 1975.
7
J.M. Brown and E.A. Campbell (1994). Stress and Policing, Sources and Strategies. New York:
Wiley & Sons.
8

P. Finn and J.E. Tomz (1997). Developing a Law Enforcement Stress Program for Officers and
Their Families. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice; 1–19.
9

E. Kirschman (1997). I Love a Cop. New York: The Guilford Press.

10

J. Quick, J.D. Quick, D. Nelson, and J.J. Hurrell (1997). Preventive stress management in
organizations. In: Meidenbauer E, ed. Individual Consequences of Stress. Washington, DC: American
 3

modified by certain types of coping styles, in particular, by the application of problem-

solving coping strategies (i.e., making a plan of action and following through). 11

Alternatively, coping responses may be maladaptive, and, in law enforcement, such

behaviors (i.e., alcohol abuse, cigarette smoking) are common. 12

The current study finds relevance in the study conducted by Robyn R. M.

Gershon, Susan Lin, and Xianbin Li on “Work Stress on Aging Police Officers” in 2002.

Based on the findings of the study, data are sparse regarding the impact of

psychosocial work stress on the health and well-being of aging workers, even for

employees working in high-stress occupations, such as law enforcement. 13

To improve the understanding of this issue in older workers, we assessed and

characterized work stress, coping strategies, and stress-related health outcomes in a

sample of police officers aged 50 years and older (n105). The most important risk

factors associated with officers’ perceived work stress were maladaptive coping

behaviors (i.e., excessive drinking or problem gambling) (odds ratio [OR], 4.95; 95%

confidence interval [CI], 2.11 to 11.6) and exposure to critical incidents (i.e., shootings)

(OR, 3.84; 95% CI, 1.71 to 8.65). In turn, perceived work stress was significantly

associated with anxiety (OR, 6.84; 95% CI, 2.81 to 16.65), depression (OR, 9.27; 95%

CI, 3.81 to 22.54), somatization (OR, 5.74; 95% CI, 2.47 to 13.33), posttraumatic stress

Psychological Association; 65–87

11

J.C. Latack and S.J. Havlovic (1992). Coping with job stress: a conceptual evaluation framework
for coping measures. J Organizational Behav; 13:479–508.
12

J. Reese, and E. Scrivner. (1994). Law Enforcement Families: Issues and Answers. Washington,
DC: US Government Printing Office;57–66.
13
R. R. M. Gershon, L. Susan, and L. Xianbin. (2009). Work Stress on Aging Police Officers,
Criminal Justice and Behavior, p.160.
 4

symptoms (OR, 2.89; 95% CI, 1.29 to 6.47), symptoms of “burnout” (OR, 5.93; 95% CI,

2.54 to 13.86), chronic back pain (OR, 3.55; 95% CI, 1.57 to 8.06), alcohol abuse (OR,

3.24; 95% CI, 1.45 to 7.22), and inappropriately aggressive behavior (OR, 4.00; 95% CI,

1.34 to 11.88). These data suggest that older workers in high-stress jobs may be at

increased risk for work stress–related health problems, especially if they rely on risky

health behaviors to cope with stress. Given the size of the rapidly aging US workforce

and the likelihood that many are employed in high-stress jobs, interventions are urgently

needed to address this emerging public health issue. 14

The current study is also related to the study conducted on “Stress and Coping

among Police Officers: An Integrated Review of Literature” by Mqemane Tshababa,

Ngonidzashe Mutanana, and Patrick Senderayi. The main objective of this paper was to

analyse stress related issues among police officers. The authors reviewed literature on

workplace stressors, coping with stress and job burnout among police officers. From the

discussions, the authors concluded that stress can be seen as the stimulation of psyche

and body in reaction to strain made on them. Stress is observable at four levels;

cognitive, behavioral, physical and psychological. The occupational stress that police

officers experience is not an objective occurrence but is chiefly subjective in nature.

There are five most common contributors to stress among police officers that have been

identified as; type of work, organizational culture, personality type, interpersonal

relations and management behavior. 15

14
Ibid.
15
M. Tshababa, N. Mutanana, and P. Senderayi. (2019). Stress and Coping among Police Officers:
An Integrated Review of Literature. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Research,
ISSN: 2455-2070, p159.
 5

Coping Strategy

Coping has been defined variously in the literature but a widely accepted

definition is that proffered by Lazarus and Folkman in 1984 cited in Oosthuizen and

Berndt in 200816 who see it as encompassing the dynamic cognitive and behavioural

effort to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are seen as taxing or

above the resources of the individual. According to Essau and Trommsdoff in 1996,

coping thus can be divided on a polarity from problem-focused coping to emotion-

focused coping.17

In order to cope with major stress, the related emotions need to be managed and

reduced in such a manner as to bring relief to the person. 18 This requires that a person

constantly changes her functioning in order to manage the demands she is experiencing

as exceeding her available resources. 19 The person can thus counteract emotional

distress and succeed in coping with threatening demands. Problem-focused coping,

which is also termed direct action, is whereby a person tries to master the stressful

transaction with the environment. It entails the effort to remove the threatening stimulus

or diminishing its impact. Oosthuizen and Berndt in 2008 indicate that a person who

employs this form of coping style will resort to action-orientated techniques which

16
T.F.J. Oosthuizen and A.D. Berndt (2008). Stress management behaviour among academic
employees. Journal of Contemporary Management; 5:90-105.

17
Ibid, Tshababa, et al.

18
M.A.J. Olivier (2005). How do academics handle their job-related stress? SAJHE. 19(2):345-358.

19
Ibid.
 6

enable the individual to face the stress by giving them power to use the situation to their

advantage. This also increases the resources that can be used in the situation. 20

Problem-focused coping includes defining the problem, generating, evaluating,

and selecting potential solutions, and attempting to cognitively reappraise the situation

by shifting level of aspiration, reducing ego involvement, finding alternative channels of

gratification, or developing new standards of behaviour as accorded by Edwards

Baglioni in 1993.21 It therefore is a strategy applied externally to the environmental

source of stress. A police officer who might feel that they are inadequately informed in

their day-to-day activities at work might opt to directly approach his immediate superior

to get information that they require to effectively carry out his duties. In this way he will

directly reduce the stress of working from an uninformed position.

On the other hand, emotion-focused coping, also termed palliation or indirect

coping is a strategy that is used to one’s own emotions. 22 Emotion focused coping

entails the use of emotionally-orientated techniques which are aimed at enabling the

individual to change the way they think about the stress, and as a result, change the

way they think and feel about the stress. This means that the individual will adjust his

perceptions of the situation.23 Quite often, the effects of either problem or emotion

focused coping are difficult to disentangle in that emotion-focused coping can facilitate

problem-focused coping by excluding some of the distress that can inhibit problem

20
Ibid.

21
Ibid.
22

P. Senderayi (2007). Stress in academe: Sources of stress and coping strategies used by
lecturers at Joshua Mqabuko Nkomo Polytechnic in Matabeleland South province (Unpublished Master
of Education dissertation, Midlands State University).
23

Ibid.
 7

focused efforts. Similarly, problem-focused coping can render the threat less forbidding,

thereby directly diminishing distress emotions.24

A study by Folkman and Lazarus in 1984 found out that individuals tend to use

more problem-focused coping in situations that they appraised as changeable and used

more emotion-focused coping in those situations they perceived as unchangeable

realities that they have to accept.25 Emotion-focused coping includes minimization,

selective attention, avoidance, distancing, self-deception, positive comparisons, and

reality distortion.26 For purposes of this study a more detailed examination of coping

beyond the foregoing simplistic dichotomy was seen as imperative. While it is worthy to

note the problem versus emotion focused coping dichotomy, coping can be further

explained as active or inactive. Active coping involves confronting or trying to change

the source of the stress or oneself, whereas inactive coping strategies involve

avoidance or denial of the source of stress by cognitive appraisal or physical means.

The combination of the dichotomous dimensions generates four (4) coping strategies;

direct-active, direct-inactive; indirect-active, and indirect-inactive. 27

Common techniques associated with direct-active strategy are confronting or

finding positive aspects in the stressful situation. Direct-inactive strategies are

24

C.S. Carver and M.F. Scheier. (1994). Situational coping and coping dispositions in a stressful
transaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 184–195.

25
S. Folkman and R.S. Lazarus (1985). If it changes it must be a process: study of emotion and
coping during three stages of a college examination. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 48, 150–170
26

J.R. Edwards and A.J. Baglioni. (1993). The measurement of coping with stress: Construct
validity of the Ways of Coping Checklist and the Cybernetic Coping Scale. Work & Stress, 7(1), 17–31.
27

A.M. Pines, E. Aronson, D. Kafry (1981). Burnout: From Tedium to Personal Growth. New York:
The Free Press.
 8

characterised by ignoring or avoidance and it is imperative to test the hypothesis that

this strategy is synonymous with introverts more than it is with extroverts in this

particular research. Indirect active strategies evolve around talking about the source of

stress or getting involved in some other activity that takes away the mind from the

stressor. Finally, indirect-inactive coping includes behavioural consequences such as

the use of drugs, alcohol or smoking more.28

Coping is both a cognitive and behavioural effort made to master, tolerate and

reduce external and internal demands and conflicts. Coping therefore functions to avoid

or eliminate a stressor, containing the proliferation of secondary stressors, altering the

meaning of the situation and managing states of arousal. 29 Coping and support, terms

are terms which are at times used unclearly. Coping refers to the actions taken on one’s

own behalf, whereas support refers to actions undertaken by another person. In light of

this, coping and social support should be taken as functionally isomorphic concepts. 30

Social support is an important resource that enables an individual to cope with

31
stress and present burnout. Social support can be described a relationship with one

or more persons which is characterised by relatively frequent interactions, strong and

28

T.F.J. Oosthuizen and A.D. Berndt (2008). Stress management behaviour among academic
employees. Journal of Contemporary Management. 5:90-105.
29

C.S. Aneshensel and U.A. Mitchell. (2014). The stress process: Its origins, evolution, and future.
In R. J. Johnson, R. J. Turner, & B. G. Link (Eds.), Sociology of mental health: Selected topics from forty
years, 1970s-2010s (pp. 53–74).
30

S. Malik, Sorenson and C.S. Aneshensel. (1997). Community and dating violence among
adolescents: Perpetration and victimization. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21(5), 291–302.
31

E.J. III. Daly, C.M. Bonfiglio, T. Mattson, M. Persampieri and K. Foreman-Yates (2005). Refining
the experimental analysis of academic skills deficits: Part 1. an investigation of variables that affect
generalized oral reading performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38(4), 485–497.
 9

positive feelings, and especially perceived ability and willingness to lend emotional

and/or instrumental assistance in times of needs.32

The buffering hypothesis suggests that individuals who have high social support

are able to rely on others in dealing with stressful situations. As a result, they are less

adversely affected by stress and burnout. It has been found that social support can
33
buffer the negative effects of stress. A major emphasis of stress research invariably

concerns whether social support acts as a stress buffer ameliorating the deleterious

effects of stress. The mental health impact of stress is buffered by emotional and
34
perceived social support but not by membership in social networks. This view would

suggests that personality type is an important factor, as ones disposition cannot be

discounted as a critical factor in emotional reactions of people in interpersonal and

group situations. The work environments presented in the eight police stations are a rich

ground for examining some of the emotions and reactions which the police officers

understand will show. In addition, self-efficacy has to be examined in the context of it

being a cognitive dimension in stress appraisal. Self-efficacy is seen as a cognitive

orientation attributing such outcomes as success and failure to personal attribute, such

as ability and effort. Self-efficacy can be called mastery, perceived control of the

32

P. Armum and K. Chellappan. (2016). Social and emotional self-efficacy of adolescents:

Measured and analysed interdependencies within and across academic achievement level.  International
Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 21(3), 279–288

33
Bonfiglio, D. (2005). The interaction of dispositional optimism and social support in the
moderation of cardiovascular responses to acute psychological stress. Ph.D, Dissertation. Graduate
School of the Ohio State University. Brain P. Time management for student. York university.

34
Kessler, R. C., & McLeod, J. D. (1985). Social support and mental health in community samples.
In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.), Social support and health (pp. 219–240).
 10

environment and instrumentalism. Active problem or approach focused coping is most

likely to occur among persons who feel a sense of subjective control. 35

Examining various personality types based on the introversion-extroversion

dichotomy may sharply focus attention on how each type appraises and responds to

particular stress dimensions in an occupational environment, especially in the degree of

control each personality type will likely to perceive or exhibit. Kim-Wan in 1991 revealed

that there is growing evidence that differences in personality dimension are related to

job stress and in view of this, the efficacy of coping behavioural is very much situation
36
specific. Autonomy or control is a critical aspect in coping with stress by police

officers. In light of this, the amount of authority an individual police officer has in making

decisions regarding the way work is organised and performed refers to control. Control

goes hand in hand with authority and levels of utilization. 37

Makin, Cooper and Cox explain that individuals who perceive that they can

control their environment are less likely to suffer stress than those who do not. 38 It was

found that the inability to exercise control in the workplace (uncontrollability) contributes

35
C.E. Ross and J. Mirowsky (2013). The sense of personal control: Social structural causes and
emotional consequences. In C. S. Aneshensel, J. C. Phelan, & A. Bierman (Eds.), Handbook of the
sociology of mental health (pp. 379–402). 

36
M. Kim-Wan (1991). Teacher Burnout: Relations with Stress, Personality, and Social Support.
Education Journal, v19 n1 p3-11
37

J. de Jonge, M.M. E. N. Reuvers, I. L. D. Houtman, P.M. Bongers, and M. A. J. Kompier. (2000).

Linear and nonlinear relations between psychosocial job characteristics, subjective outcomes, and
sickness absence: Baseline results from SMASH. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(2), 256–
268
38

J. C. Quick, C. L. Cooper, D. L. Nelson, J.D. Quick, and J. H. Gavin. (2003). Stress, health, and well-
being at work. In J. Greenberg (Ed.), Organizational behavior: The state of the science (pp. 53–89).
 11

to negative psychological states especially when there is a discrepancy between career

aspirations and occupational achievement -that is, if there is career dissatisfaction. 39

In the study of Tshababa, et al., in order to cope with major stress, the related

emotions need to be managed and reduced in such a manner as to bring relief to the

person. Increasing burnout rates among police officers is indicative of them facing

increased and prolonged levels of stress. 40

Recommended Plan

Working as a police officer can be a rewarding job, but it can also be a stressful

one. Policing is one of the few professions where individuals deal with many stressors,

which exceed the usual expectations of society. Although there is no way to eliminate

stress and the burnout it can cause, there are methods law enforcement agencies can

utilize to help officers prevent stress from worsening and to make it more manageable. 41

Suggestions for better practices to decrease officer stress include exercise

programs, stress reduction programs, anonymous surveys to determine levels of stress,

efforts to increase job meaningfulness, and clear promotional criteria for advancements.

One study found ten-hour shifts most favorable for officers because they experienced

less fatigue, more quality sleep at home, and increased overall work satisfaction. Those

with eight-hour shifts reported less sleep in twenty-four hour periods, as well as logging

39

J. P. Viljoen and S. Rothmann. (2009). Occupational stress, ill health and organisational
commitment of employees at a university of technology. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology. 35(1):1-11.
40

Ibid, Tshababa, et al.

41
Portland State University. (2014). Prevention and Management of Stress in Policing: A Review
of the Literature Portland State University. Criminology and Criminal Justice Senior Capstone
 12

more overtime than other shifts. Those with twelve-hour shifts were less likely to

perform self-initiated tasks. 42

Kop and Euwema found officers who most often exercise use of force were those

experiencing significant emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. They suggest

better management applications, such as implementation of policies to develop norms

of reasonable use of force and providing feedback for behavior might help alleviate the

problem.43 It is also important to have a specific protocol in place for officer-involved

domestic violence. By adopting an International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP)

Model Policy, an organization might be able properly to respond to intense crisis

situations with set protocols.44

Morash et al. found organizational psychologists employed to monitor negative

workplace conditions can reduce employee stress. Taking action to decrease bias and

allow officers more influence over work activities has the potential to be beneficial by
45
allowing officers to perceive fair treatment and control over their work. The Employee

Assistance Program (EAP) is essential to the law enforcement field in dealing with daily

operations and challenges facing police agency personnel.

42
National Institute of Justice. (2012). Officer work hours, stress, and fatigue. Retrieved from
http://www.nij.gov/topics/law-enforcement/officer-safety/stress-fatigue/pages/welcome.aspx
43

N. Kop and M.C. Euwema. (2001). Occupational stress and the use of force by Dutch police
officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28(5), 631-652. DOI: 10.1177/009385480102800505
44

K.A. Lonsway. (2006). Policies on police officer domestic violence: Prevalence and specific
provisions within large police agencies. Police Quarterly, 9(4), 397-422. DOI:
10.1177/1098611104268884
45

M. Morash, R. Haarr and D. Kwak. (2006). Multilevel influences on police stress. Journal of
Contemporary Criminal Justice, 22(1), 26-43. DOI: 10.1177/1043986205285055
 13

Peer-led critical stress debriefings help reduce stresses of those affected by

critical incidents, by allowing all participants to express their feelings in controlled

46
environments and offering understanding of the situations. Zhao et al. found that

police officers could handle their jobs efficiently when given effective support and

counseling.47 Aaron’s research in 2000 revealed police officers who disassociate or use

avoidance to cope with negative on-the-job experiences experienced increased stress

and poor psychological skills. Officers confronting challenging tasks and negative

thoughts or feelings can expect healthier outcomes when dealing with these obstacles.

Structured debriefings after critical incidents can help with policies, attitudes, and

behaviors. Proactive screenings for dissociative behaviors conducted by law

48
enforcement administrators could identify and lessen risks of negative outcomes.

Styles of policing play roles in amounts of stress encountered by officers.

Individuals with service-oriented approaches to policing encounter fewer stressors (e.g.,

they experience more respect for their authority from the public), than do officers with

strict crime-fighting styles.49 Education is also an important factor in managing stress.

46
Newbold, K.M., Lohr, J.M., & Gist, R. (2008). Apprehended without warrant: Issues of
evidentiary warrant for critical incident services and related trauma interventions in a federal law
enforcement agency. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(10), 1337-1353. DOI:
10.1177/0093854808321655
47

Zhao, J., He, N., & Lovrich, N. (2002). Predicting five dimensions of police officer stress: Looking
more deeply into organizational settings for sources of police stress. Police Quarterly, 5(1), 43-62. DOI:
10.1177/109861110200500103
48

J. D. K. Aaron. (2000). Stress and coping in police officers. Police Quarterly, 3(4), 438-450. DOI:
10.1177/109861110000300405
49

J. Terpstra and D. Schaap. (2013). Police culture, stress conditions, and working styles.
European Journal of Criminology, 10(1), 59-73. DOI: 10.1177/1477370812456343
 14

Morgan et al. in 2002 found officers with higher levels of education perceive

higher levels of personal accomplishments. Morgan suggests based on the findings,

50
incentives should be put in place for officers to continue their education. The United

States (U.S.) Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs (DOJ) in 1996 found

many criminal justice planners believed in establishing formal advisory boards or

diverse steering committees, to be helpful in moderate to large law enforcement

agencies.51 Formal boards are especially important in selecting stress management

programs and referral sources for police officers. With adequate planning, criminal

justice agencies will be able to train officers to deal with the job stressors and provide

better services to them.52

50
Morgan, R.D., Van Haveren, R.A., & Pearson, C.A. (2002). Correctional officer burnout: Further
analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29(2), 144-160.
51

U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs. (1996). Developing a law enforcement
stress program for officers and their families. NCJ163175. Retrieved from
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/163175.pdf

52
Ibid, 141-144.