Principles of Biotechnology

Asst. Prof. Fatma Gizem AVCI

fatmagizem.avci@uskudar.edu.tr
MA210
Biotechnology
• Biotechnology is broadly defined as the science of using living organisms, or
the products of living organisms, for human benefit (or to benefit human
surroundings)—that is, to make a product or solve a problem.

• The use of living organisms (especially microorganisms) in industrial, agricultural,

medical, and other technological applications.
• The application of the principles and practices of engineering and technology to the life
sciences.
• The use of cellular and biomolecular processes to solve problems or make useful
products.
• The use of biological processes to make products.
Biotechnology

SCIENCE OF INTEGRATION
History of Biotechnology
History of Biotechnology
History of Biotechnology
History of Biotechnology
History of Biotechnology
• 2013: Two research teams announced a fast and precise new method for editing snippets
of the genetic code. The so-called CRISPR system takes advantage of a defense strategy
used by bacteria.
• 2015: Scientists discovered a new antibiotic, the first in nearly 30 years, that may pave the
way for a new generation of antibiotics and fight growing drug-resistance. The antibiotic,
teixobactin, can treat many common bacterial infections, such as tuberculosis,
septicaemia, and C. diff.
• 2016: For the first time, bioengineers created a completely 3D-printed ‘heart on a chip.’

• 2017: Blood stem cells grown in lab for the first time.
History of Biotechnology
• 16 April 2019 – Scientists report, for the first time, the use of the CRISPR technology to
edit human genes to treat cancer patients.
• 27 April 2020– Scientists report to have genetically engineered plants to glow much
brighter than previously possible by inserting genes of the bioluminescent
mushroom Neonothopanus nambi.
• 11 December 2020 – Scientists report that they have rebuilt a human thymus using stem
cells and a bioengineered scaffold.- Tissue Engineering

2021
• Bioprinting method to produce steak-like cultured meat.
• A plant proteins-based biodegradable packaging alternative to plastic based on research
about molecularly similar spider silk known for its high strength.
• Embedded biosensors for pathogenic signatures – such as of SARS-CoV-2 – that
are wearable such as face masks.
Traditional (Ancient) Biotechnology
• Traditional biotechnology refers to the conventional techniques that have been
used for many centuries to produce beer, wine, cheese etc. These techniques
are still being used and if they do not include the use of any genetically
modified organisms, they are considered to be under traditional biotechnology.
Chinese, Sumerians and
Babylonians are considered
to understand anaerobic
principles which helped
yeast to make alcohol.
Egyptians on the other
hand showed adeptness at
using aerobic principles to
leaven bread.
Traditional (Ancient) Biotechnology
• The use of microorganisms for fermentation,
• Domesticating animals for livestock,
• Alcohol in the form of wine and beer,
• Herbal remedies,
• Plant balms for the treatment of wounds and ailments.
Modern Biotechnology
• Two important technique which enable development of modern
biotechnology:
1. Genetic engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic
material (DNA and RNA), to introduce these into host organisms and
thus change the phenotype of the host organism.
• Hybridization procedures often lead to inclusion and multiplication of
undesirable genes along with the desired genes.
• The techniques of genetic engineering which include creation of
recombinant DNA, use of gene cloning and gene transfer allows us to
isolate and introduce only one or a set of desirable genes without
introducing undesirable genes into the target organism.
Modern Biotechnology
• Three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism:
• Identification of DNA with desirable genes
• Introduction of the identified DNA into the host
• Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA
to its progeny.
Modern Biotechnology
2. Maintenance of sterile conditions: Microbial contamination-free
environment in processes to enable growth of only the desired
microorganism/eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of
biotechnological products like antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, etc.
Products of Modern Biotechnology
• Many products reflect the current needs of humans—for example,
pharmaceutical production, creating drugs for the treatment of human
health conditions.

• In 1982, the California biotechnology company Genentech, widely regarded

as the world’s first biotech company, received approval for recombinant
insulin, used for the treatment of diabetes, as the first biotechnology
product for human benefit.
Products of Modern Biotechnology
Products of Modern Biotechnology

Biopolymers
Enzymes
Biofuels
.
.
.
Types of Biotechnology
• Microbial Biotechnology
• Agricultural Biotechnology (Plant Biotechnology)
• Animal Biotechnology
• Forensic Biotechnology
• Environmental Biotechnology
• Nanobiotechnology
• Aquatic Biotechnology
• Medical Biotechnology
• Industrial Biotechnology
Biotechnology Regulations
• An essential aspect of the biotechnology business involves the regulatory
processes that govern the industry.
• Although the FDA sets the standards for biotechnology products, many times
the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency
are involved.
• Two important aspects of the regulatory process include quality assurance
(QA) and quality control (QC). QA measures include all activities involved in
regulating the final quality of a product, whereas QC procedures are the part
of the QA process, involving lab testing and monitoring of processes and
applications to ensure consistent product standards.
Ethics and Biotechnology
Potential promise of biotechnology
applications raises many ethical concerns.

A wide range of ethical, legal, and social

implications of biotechnology are a cause
of great debate and discussion among
scientists, the general public, clergy,
politicians, lawyers, and many others
around the World.

Human cloning
Animal tests ?
An Introduction to Gene and
Genomes

Asst. Prof. Fatma Gizem AVCI

fatmagizem.avci@uskudar.edu.tr
MA210
A Review of Cell Structure
• Cells are the structural and functional units of life.
• Cells vary greatly in size and complexity, they all share a common component,
genetic information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Prokaryotic Cells

Cell wall – Protection of the cell.

Plasma membrane - Outer boundary
Ribosomes - Protein synthesis
Flagellum - Locomotion
Cytoplasm - contains DNA (single
circular molecule, attached to the
plasma membrane)
Eukaryotic Cells

**Organelles allow cells to carry out thousands of different complex reactions simultaneously. Each organelle is
responsible for specific biochemical reactions.
DNA: Inherited Genetic Material

Griffith’s experiments demonstrated transformation, the uptake of DNA by

bacteria. But he didn’t actually identify DNA as the “transforming factor.”
DNA: Inherited Genetic Material

Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty

Homogenized mixtures of bacterial cells from S.

pneumoniae (S cell)

Treatment of extracts with proteases, RNA-degrading

enzymes (RNase), or DNA-degrading enzymes (DNase).

Mixing extracts from killed S cells with living R cells and

injection into mice

*DNase-treated extracts could not transform R cells to S

cells because DNA in these mixtures was degraded by
DNase.
*Extracts treated with protease or RNase still maintained
their transforming ability because DNA in these mixtures
remained intact.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Structure
• The building block of DNA is the nucleotide.
DNA Structure
The proportions of A’s and T’s are
equivalent in an organism’s DNA,
as are the proportions of G’s and
C’s, because they pair with each
other in a DNA molecule.
Gene
• A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides cells with the instructions
to synthesize a specific protein or a particular type of RNA.

• Genes influence how cells, tissues, and organs appear. These inherited
appearances are called traits. Through the DNA contained in your cells, you
have inherited traits from your parents, such as eye color and skin color.

• Some traits are controlled by a single gene, but many others are determined
by multiple genes, which produce many proteins that interact in complex
ways.
Chromosome Structure

• The size and number of chromosomes vary from species to species. Most
bacteria have a single circular chromosome, while eukaryotes typically contain
one or more sets of chromosomes.
Karyotype analysis for studying chromosomes

Karyotype- Study of chromosome

number and basic aspects of
chromosome structure.

- Identification of human genetic

disease conditions associated with
abnormalities in chromosomal
structure and number.
 Genome

• All of the DNA in an organism’s cells is called the genome.

• The study of genomes, a discipline called genomics, is currently one of the

most active and rapidly advancing areas of biological science.

• Human Genome Project: Provided exciting insight into human genes, their
locations, and their functions.
Replication, Transcription, and Translation
Flow of genetic information in a typical cell (Central Dogma)
DNA Replication
DNA Replication
Transcription
• Transcription is catalyzed by RNA polymerase.
• Process of transcription has 3 stages:
• Initiation binds RNA polymerase to the promoter
region at the beginning of the gene.
• Chain elongation then occurs forming a 3'-5'
phosphodiester bond, generating
complementary copy.
• Termination is the final step of transcription when
the RNA polymerase releases the newly formed
RNA molecule.
• RNA splicing is the removal of portions of
the primary transcript that are not protein
coding.
• Bacterial chromosomes are continuous – all DNA
sequence from the chromosome is found in the
mRNA.
• Eukaryotic chromosomes are discontinuous
• There are extra DNA sequences within the
genes that do not encode any amino acid
sequence called introns.
• Presence of introns makes direct translation
to synthesize proteins impossible.
• The introns are cut out and the exons (coding
sequences) are spliced together.
a
The Genetic Code
• Each group of three nucleotides in the sequence of
the mRNA is called a codon, and each codes for a
single amino acid.
• All 64 codons have meaning.
• 61 code for amino acids.
• Three code for the “stop” signal.
• Multiple codes for an amino acid tend to have two
bases in common.
• CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG code for leucine.
• Makes the code mutation resistant.
• Codons are written in a 5'  3' sequence.
Translation

1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
RNA and Protein Synthesis
Basics of gene expression control
• Gene expression refers to the production of
mRNA (and sometimes protein) by a cell.
• At any given time in a cell, only certain genes
are “turned on” to produce proteins, while
many other genes are silenced or repressed.
These genes may be expressed by cells in
response to specific cues from inside or
outside of the cell, to make proteins as
needed.
• How can genes be turned on and off in
response to different signals? Biologists call
this process gene regulation.
MicroRNAs: Gene expression regulation
MicroRNAs: Gene expression regulation
Gene silencing
Mutations: Causes and Consequences
• Mutations are a major cause of genetic diversity.

Types of Mutations
Sometimes mutations occur through spontaneous events such as errors during DNA
replication. Mutations can also be induced by environmental causes (e.g. Mutagens)
 Types of Mutations

• Classified by the kind of change that

occurs in the DNA:
• Point: substitution of a single
nucleotide for another
ATGGACTTC: normal DNA sequence
ATGCACTTC: point mutation
• Deletion: one or more nucleotides
are lost
ATGGACTTC: normal DNA sequence
ATG TTC: deletion mutation
• Insertion: one or more nucleotides
are added
ATGGACTTC : normal DNA sequence
ATGCTCGACTTC: insertion mutation
Recombinant DNA Technology
and Genomics

Asst. Prof. Fatma Gizem AVCI

fatmagizem.avci@uskudar.edu.tr
MA210
 Introduction to Recombinant DNA Technology and
DNA Cloning
• Recombinant DNA: Genes from two different sources (often different species)
are combined into the same molecule.
• Offer unlimited opportunities for creating new combinations of genes that do
not exist under natural conditions.
Restriction Enzymes

• Restriction enzymes: DNA-cutting enzymes.

Restriction enzymes are also called
restriction endonucleases. Because they cut
within DNA sequences as opposed to
enzymes that cut from the ends of DNA
sequences (exonucleases).
• Restriction enzymes cut DNA by cleaving
the phosphodiester bond.
• HindIII (from Haemophilus influenzae), the
first restriction enzyme to be well
characterized and used for DNA cloning.
Restriction Enzymes
• Restriction enzymes bind to, recognize, and cut (digest) DNA within specific
sequences of bases called restriction sites.
Restriction Enzymes
• Each restriction site is a palindrome—the arrangement of nucleotides reads
the same forward and backward on opposite strands of the DNA molecule.
• Some restriction enzymes cut DNA to create DNA fragments with overhanging
single-stranded ends called “sticky” or “cohesive ends”; other enzymes
generate fragments with double stranded ends called blunt ends.
Restriction Enzymes
Types of Vectors
Types of Vectors
Viral vectors: They are occasionally
created from pathogenic viruses, they are
modified so as to minimize the risk of
handling them.
• The viral vector should have a minimal
effect on the physiology of the cell it
infects. Another issue related to viral
vectors is that some viruses are
genetically unstable and can rapidly
rearrange their genomes. Most viral
vectors are engineered to infect as wide
a range of cell types as possible.
• Retroviruses, lentiviruses, adenoviruses,
etc.
Practical features of DNA cloning vectors
Plasmid DNA: Circular extrachromosomal form of self-replicating DNA that scientists
can manipulate to carry and clone other pieces of DNA.
• Plasmids can be used as vectors—pieces of DNA that can accept, carry, and replicate
(clone) other pieces of DNA.
• Plasmid cloning vectors usually include most of the following desirable and practical
features:
• Size—They should be small enough to be easily separated from the chromosomal
DNA of the host bacteria.
Practical features of DNA cloning vectors
• Origin of replication (ori)—Site for DNA replication that allows plasmids to
replicate separately from the host cell’s chromosome. The number of
plasmids in a cell is called copy number (High copy number plasmids are
desirable).
• Multiple cloning site (MCS)—The MCS is a segment of DNA with recognition
sites for different common restriction enzymes. These sites are engineered
into the plasmid so that digestion of the plasmid with restriction enzymes
does not result in the loss of a fragment of DNA.
• Selectable marker genes—These genes allow for the selection and
identification of bacteria that have been transformed with a recombinant
plasmid (ampR, tetR, lacZ).
• RNA polymerase promoter sequences—These sequences are used for the
transcription of RNA in vivo and in vitro by RNA polymerase.
Recombinant DNA
Transformation of Bacterial Cells and Antibiotic Selection
of Recombinant Bacteria
• Transformation: A process for inserting foreign DNA into bacteria.
• Chemical transformation
• Electroporation

• Selection: The identification of recombinant bacteria while preventing the

growth of non-transformed bacteria and bacteria that contain plasmid
without foreign DNA.
• Antibiotic selection
+
• Blue-white selection (screening)
Blue-white selection
Blue-white selection
Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Laboratory Techniques
Polymerase Chain Reaction
• The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a
technique for making copies or amplifying a
specific sequence of DNA in a short period of time.
• The greatest advantage of PCR is its ability to
amplify millions of copies of target DNA from a
very small amount of starting material in a short
period of time. After 20 cycles of PCR,
approximately 1 million copies (220) of target DNA
are produced.
• A disadvantage of PCR cloning is that, to design
primers, you need to know something about the
DNA sequences that flank your gene of interest.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Agarose Gel Electrophoresis

**Migration distance is inversely proportional to the size of a DNA fragment.

DNA Sequencing
DNA Sequencing (Sanger Method)
DNA Sequencing (Sanger Method)
DNA strands were separated on a thin polyacrylamide gel, which can separate sequences
that differ in length by a single nucleotide.
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)
• A demand for sequencers that are faster and capable of generating millions
of bases of DNA sequence in a relatively short time, leading to the
development of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies designed to
produce highly accurate and long stretches of DNA sequence, greater than 1
gigabase (billion bases) of DNA per reaction, at a low cost.
• Roche 454 Life Systems was the first company to commercialize a next-
generation sequencing technology (Pyrosequencing).
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)

• Fluorescence in situ hybridization can be used to identify which

chromosome contains a gene of interest.
• Determination of the cell type that
is expressing a particular mRNA.
• Analysis of genetic disorders.
Southern Blotting
• Southern blotting is a laboratory technique used to detect a specific DNA
sequence in a blood or tissue.
Studying Gene Expression
Northern Blot Analysis

• Bands show the presence of

mRNA for the gene of interest
and the size of the mRNA.
• The amounts of mRNA produced
by different tissues can be
compared.
Reverse transcription PCR
• Sometimes the amount of RNA produced by a tissue is below the level of
detection by Northern blot analysis. PCR allows for detecting minute
amounts of mRNA from even very small amounts of starting tissue.
• In RT-PCR, isolated mRNA is converted into double-stranded cDNA by the
enzyme reverse transcriptase.
• The amount of cDNA produced in a RT-PCR reaction for a particular gene of
interest reflects the amount of mRNA, and thus the level of gene expression.

Real-time PCR
• Real-time or quantitative PCR (qPCR), enables researchers to quantify
amplification reactions as they occur in “real time”.
Gene Microarrays (DNA microarray)
Gene Microarrays (DNA microarray)
Gene mutagenesis studies
• Site-directed mutagenesis. In this technique, mutations can be created in
specific nucleotides of a cloned gene contained in a vector. The gene can
then be expressed in cells, which results in the translation of a mutated
protein.
• This allows researchers to study the effects of particular mutations on
protein structure and serves as a way of determining which nucleotides are
important for specific functions of the protein.
Bioinformatics
• An interdisciplinary field that applies computer science and information
technology to promote an understanding of biological processes.
• Databases - search the new sequence against all other sequences in the
database and create an alignment of similar nucleotide sequences if a match is
found.
• Widely used DNA sequence databases worldwide is called GenBank.
• For example, an NCBI program called Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST)
can be used to search GenBank for sequence matches between cloned genes
and to create DNA sequence alignments.
Bioinformatics and Genomics
Whole-Genome “Shotgun” Sequencing
• The entire genome, introns and exons, is sequenced. The complete genome
sequence is assembled with the help of software programs, and then individual
genes are identified through bioinformatics.
‘Omics’ Technologies
• Proteomics—studying all of the proteins in a cell.
• Metabolomics—studying the chemical processes involving metabolites, the
small molecule substrates, intermediates, and products of metabolism.
• Glycomics—studying the carbohydrates of a cell.
• Transcriptomics—studying all genes expressed (transcription) in a cell.
• Metagenomics—the analysis of genomes of organisms collected from the
environment.
• Pharmacogenomics—customized medicine based on a person’s genetic profile
for a particular condition.
• Nutrigenomics – Understanding interactions between diet and genes.
Proteins as Products
Asst. Prof. Fatma Gizem AVCI
fatmagizem.avci@uskudar.edu.tr
MA210
Protein Structures
• Proteins are large molecules required for the structure, function, and
regulation of living cells.
• Ribosomes are factories that produce proteins.
• Proteins have specific molecular weights. They also have an electrical charge
that cause them to interact with other molecules.
• The way the chemical structure and electrical charge of an amino acid can
influence its interactions with water: The molecules will be either hydrophilic
(water loving) or hydrophobic (water hating).
Protein Structures
• Primary structure: Sequence of the amino
acids. The 20 commonly occurring amino
acids are the building blocks that make up
proteins.
• Secondary structure: Hydrogen bond
formation, alpha helix, beta sheet, beta turn.
• Tertiary structure: Covalent bond formation,
determines protein’s function.
• Quaternary structure: Unique, globular, 3D
complexes built of several polypeptides
(chain).
Protein Structures
Posttranslational modifications: Phosphorylation, glycosylation, acetylation,
acylation, prenylation, methylation, ubiquitylation, and proteolytic cleavage.

Glycosylation
• In glycosylation, carbohydrate units (sugar
molecules) are added to specific locations on
proteins.
• Glycosylation can increase solubility and orient
proteins into membranes.
Protein Structures
Protein Folding
• Everything that is important about a
protein—its structure, its function—
depends on folding.
• Misfolding: Sickle cell anemia,
Alzheimer’s disease, mad cow
disease etc.
Protein Structures
Protein Engineering by Directed Molecular Evolution
• Introduction of specific, predefined alterations in the amino acid sequence can
be done with directed molecular evolution technology.
• Allows researchers to create proteins with specific enhancements.
• Production of enzymes - with high activity by random mutations
- that tolerate high concentrations of toxic compound.
• A mutation resulting in this type of organism is not possible in a natural
selection.
• Scientists have used directed evolution and rational design with varying
degrees of success to improve activity, stability, and selectivity of native
enzymes.
Protein Production
• Two major phases in producing proteins: Upstream processing and
downstream processing.
• Upstream processing: Actual expression of the protein in the cell.
• Downstream processing: Separation of the protein from other parts of the
cells and isolation from other proteins, verification of purity and
functional abilities, preserving the protein.
• The choices made during upstream processing can simplify downstream
processing.
Protein Expression: Upstream Processing
Bacteria: - The fermentation processes of bacteria are well understood.
- They can be cultured in large quantities in a short time.
- Bacteria are also relatively easy to alter genetically.
Protein Expression: Upstream Processing
Fungi: - Fungi are eukaryotic and capable of doing some posttranslational
modification.
- Many species of fungi are good hosts for engineered proteins.
Protein Expression: Upstream Processing

Plants: - Biologically active molecules, and 85 percent of all current drugs

originated in plants.
- Plants can be genetically modified to produce specific proteins. This
process encourages rapid growth and reproductive rates in plants.
- Not all proteins can be expressed in plants.
- Tough cell walls make the process of extracting proteins from them
time-consuming and difficult.
- Finally, although plant cells can often properly glycosylate proteins,
the process is slightly different from that of animal cells.
Protein Expression: Upstream Processing
Mammalian cell culture systems
-The nutritional requirements of mammalian animal cells are complex.
-Mammalian cells also grow relatively slowly.
-The opportunity for mammalian cell cultures to become contaminated is
greater than that of other culture systems.
-Despite these issues, mammalian cells are still the best if not the only choice
for proteins destined to be used in humans.
Insect systems
-Baculoviruses (viruses that infect insects) are used as vehicles to insert DNA,
causing the desired proteins to be produced by the insect cells.
-The posttranslational modification of proteins is slightly different in insects
than it is in mammals.
Protein Expression: Upstream Processing

• Although it is possible to conduct the entire

protein production process in a small flask in
the laboratory, microorganisms/cells can also
be grown in large-scale fermenters
(anaerobic) or bioreactors (aerobic).
• Cell growth is monitored carefully.
Protein Purification Methods: Downstream Processing

Separating proteins from all other cellular contents is not easy, and isolating the
target protein from the other proteins in the sample can be even more difficult.
Step one: Preparing an extract for purification
• If the protein is intracellular, the first task is cell lysis, disrupting the cell wall
to release the protein.
• Freezing and thawing
• Detergents (used to dissolve cell walls)
• Mechanical methods
• After the cells have been ruptured, organic alcohols and salts may be added
to the mixture to coalesce protein (initial concentration).
Step two: Stabilizing proteins in solution
• Maintaining a low temperature is crucial to protecting proteins, so most
purifications must occur at low temperatures.
• Maintaining the proper pH for the activity of a protein is also important.
• Natural proteases that can digest the target proteins in a preparation are
another threat. Protease inhibitors can be added.
Step three: Separating the components in the extract
Protein precipitation:
• Salts, most commonly ammonium sulfate, can be added to the protein
mixture to precipitate the proteins by removing water from between the
protein molecules (ethanol, isopropanol, acetone, and diethyl ether).
Filtration (size-based) separation methods:
• Centrifugation separates samples by spinning them at high speed.
• In membrane filtration, thin membranes of nylon or other engineered
substances with varying pore sizes are used to filter out all of the cellular
debris from a solution. First, microfiltration removes the precipitates and
bacteria. Ultrafiltration then uses filters that can catch molecules such as
proteins and nucleic acids.
Filtration (size-based) separation methods:
Step three: Separating the components in the extract
Filtration (size-based) separation methods:
• Diafiltration and dialysis are filtration methods that rely on the chemical
concept of equilibrium, the migration of dissolved substances from areas of
higher concentration to areas of lower concentration. Dialysis is often
required to remove the smaller salts, solvents, and other additives used
earlier in the purification. Diafiltration adds a filtering component to dialysis.
Step three: Separating the components in the extract
Chromatography:
Allows us to sort proteins by size or by how they cling to or separate from
other substances.
• Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) uses gel beads as a filtering system.
• Ion-exchange chromatography, relies on an electrostatic charge to bind
proteins to resin beads in a column.
• Affinity chromatography relies on the ability of most proteins to bind
specifically and reversibly to uniquely shaped compounds called ligands.
Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC)
Ion-exchange chromatography
Affinity chromatography
Analytical methods

• High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) systems use greater

pressure (instead of gravity or low pressure pumps) to force the extract
through the column in a shorter time.
• Mass spectrometry (MS) is a highly sensitive method used to identify small
differences between proteins. A larger protein can be digested into
fragments (peptides) and analyzed to determine the amino acid sequence.
Verification
• At each step of the purification
process, it is important to verify that
the target protein has not been lost
and that concentration efforts have
been successful. SDS-PAGE
(polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis)
is often used for verification.

Preserving Proteins
• One means of preserving the protein is lyophilization, or freeze-drying.
• Many freeze-dried proteins may be stored at room temperature for
prolonged periods of time.
Proteins as Biotechnology Products
• Biotechnological drugs and other medical applications (hormones, antibodies)
• Food processing (baby food, cheeses, baked goods, beer, dietetic foods)
• Textiles and clothing (spider silk fibers)
• Detergents (proteases, lipases, amylases)
• Bioremediation-treating pollution with proteins
Proteins as Biotechnology Products
Proteins as Biotechnology Products