Chapter 5: Curriculum Issues and Trends

CHAPTER 5: Curriculum Issues and Trends

CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you finish this chapter will be able to:

 Explain how the information age, changing workplace, media and
greater democracy impact curriculum development
 Evaluate efforts by schools in catering to individual difference
 Justify the importance of character education in the curriculum
 Support performance assessment as an alternative form of evaluating
students
 Identify some methods of studying the future
 Critically evaluate suggestions for retooling schools

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Introduction Thinking goes to school

Challenges facing curriculum Personalised schools
Individual differences Technology-based
Differentiated instruction schools
Compensatory education
Character education Discussion questions
erformance assessment Readings
The Future
Retooling our schools for the
future
Schools for all

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Chapter 5: Curriculum Issues and Trends

‘Developing More Technopreneurs’

The task of developing a strong pool of
technopreneurs in the country is important
to ensure the sustainability of the
information and communication technology
(ICT) sector and to create wealth for the
local sector in the future. According to Dr.
Wilson Tay, Vice-President in-charge of
Technopreneur Development, Industry
Development, Division of Multimedia
Development Corporation (MDC), “there is
always the question posed as to whether
technopreneurs are created by nature or
nurtured”.
The drive of entrepreneurship,
which is needed to create technopreneurs
for the country, can be taught at schools and
universities through engaging students with
a passion for business said Tay.
Here various methods can be
introduced +such as entrepreneurial or
business projects for students to gain
experience and learn to create, start-up,
commercialise and manage their
enterprises.
“As they have little life
experiences, they have to learn by
experience and doing, and also through
mentoring by more experienced
entrepreneurs who serve as their
business coaches and models”, said
Tay.
Other skills and knowledge
that can be picked up include how to
develop a business plan and model an
understanding of the commercial
viability of the business venture and
how to grow the venture.
These, according to Tay, can
be taught through action learning and
experimental programmes, and also
through business coaching and
mentoring.
Apart from developing a
culture for learning entrepreneurship, a
conducive environment is also
important to create and nurture
technopreneurs for the local ICT sector.

[Source: Venturing into Technopreneurship, by Sharifah Kasim, CompuTimes,

New Straits Times, March 3, 2005]

5.0 Introduction

In the earlier chapters we discussed the

factors influencing curriculum and the
curriculum development process. In this
chapter we will discuss certain issues that
concern curriculum and future trends.
Opinions differ on the direction education will
take, and library shelves are filled with
volumes describing current and anticipated
changes in society and education. Despite
disagreements, there is consensus on the broad
trends that are likely to have a major impact
on curriculum planning.

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ACTIVITY
Read the newspaper report and answer the following questions:
“…..there is always the question posed as to whether technopreneurs
are created by nature or nurtured”.
1. What is your opinion of the above statement?
2. List the strategies suggested to develop technopreneurs?
3. Suggest other ways of developing technopreneurs.

5.1 Some Challenges

The world is changing swiftly and each day the pace quickens. Many nations
are aspiring to achieve the status of a modern and prosperous state as quickly as
possible. The rate at which such status is achieved varies, with some countries getting
there earlier than others. The push is towards greater industrialisation, automation,
computerization, decentralisation of power and empowerment. Emphasis is gradually
shifting towards self-help rather than welfare, networking rather than hierarchy, a
global economy rather than a national economy. Decisions are made based on
consideration of multiple options rather than an either/or situation (Naisbitt and
Aburdence, 1989). Amidst these shifts society is concerned and wondering whether
we are adequately preparing the next generation to meet these challenges. Four main
challenges face the education system (see Figure 5.1).

Information Age Changing Workplace

Challenges
Impacting
Curriculum

Mass media Greater Democracy

Figure 44.: Some challenges impacting curriculum

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Chapter 5: Curriculum Issues and Trends

Information Age
It has been reported that more information has been produced in the last 30
years than the previous 5000 years. In the United States alone, as much as 50,000
books are published annually and the amount of information doubles every five years,
and this doubling is predicted to take place every 20 months. Not only is the stockpile
of information increasing, its accessibility has been enhanced with the internet and
advancements in telecommunications. In a matter of seconds, one has at his or her
fingertips a vast body of information covering many different fields of knowledge.
Whether we like it or not, we are ushered into the information age. According to
Wurman (1988), a new disease called “information anxiety” has emerged which has
been defined as the ever-widening gap between what one understand and what one
thinks one should understand. It is the feeling of helplessness of being unable to cope
with abundance of information and feeling of frustration at never finding the time to
mull over the mass of information.

Changing Workplace
Automation and computerisation is rapidly changing the workplace and types
of jobs performed. Individuals will change careers 5 to 8 times in their lifetime. In
other words, the new generation will have to continuously learn, unlearn and relearn
(Toffler, 1972). Occupations and careers in the information age and the knowledge-
based economy will revolve around processing and management of information. The
shift towards knowledge-based jobs will require people who are able to acquire new
skills and knowledge. Brain power will be the dominant force and muscle-power will
be performed by machines and automation. The workforce of the future will need to
acquire skills in shorter periods of time and at a faster rate to keep pace with
knowledge that is fast becoming obsolete; emphasising the need for lifelong learning
to stay competitive and relevant.

Influence of the Media

Increasingly, more countries are having access to many television channels
and together with the internet bring entertainment within easy reach of many
households. The onslaught of the media twenty-four hours a day has brought about
both positive and negative consequences. The average household is bombarded with
Western and American movies, music and advertisements; some of which may
challenge and erode traditional values held by society. Increasingly, violence, sex,
horror, racism, extremism, stereotypes and misinformation are portrayed in the
different types of media. Attempts to ‘scramble’ and censor transmission through the
airwaves has been a loosing battle. How should children be educated to make wise
decisions amidst the plethora of forces competing for their attention?

Participation in the Democratic Process

Democracy appears to be the preferred form of government in more and more
countries. It requires greater involvement of ordinary citizens in the decision making
process. More and more governments are relinquishing their governing role and
passing it on to their citizens. Similarly, these governments are allowing market forces
to determine decision making. Relying on a few selected leaders to decide what is
best for the people is slowly giving way to more “bottom-up involvement”. However,
involvement in the governing process will only be effective if the young are prepared

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for such roles. The ability to think is imperative for participation in the democratic
process because “it helps the citizen to form intelligent judgements on public issues
thus contribute democratically to the solution of social problems” (Glaser, 1985, p.
27). In a democracy, citizens have an obligation to think deeply about important
issues affecting themselves directly and society at large. They should be able to think
critically, transcending ethnic, cultural and religious barriers.

ACTIVITY

1. How do you think the changing workplace will impact school curriculum
development and design?
2. List the kinds of knowledge and skills that will be required of students to
effectively participate in the democratic process and counter the force of
the mass media?

5.2 Considering Individual Differences

We often hear of educational systems making the claim that it caters for
learner differences. Broadly, this would include gifted students, at-risk students and
students with disabilities. Some schools have divided classes according to academic
performance while others have grouped students of varying abilities in one class.
Debate is continuing on the merits of each approach with its proponents arguing the
benefits of each method. Oftentimes, though students have been divided according to
ability, the one-size-fits-all curriculum continues to be implemented. Then, there is
the issue of students with disabilities such as the physically challenged. Should be
kept in a class with others of similar abilities or should they be included with others
who do not have such disabilities?

Differentiated Curriculum
The purpose of a differentiated the curriculum is to provide appropriate
learning opportunities for gifted and talented students. The rationale for such an
approach is because of the capacity of gifted students to learn faster, solve problems
more readily, and grapple with abstract ideas. Gifted students need the opportunity to
work through the curriculum at a quicker pace since they take less time to acquire the
basics. When tasks are consistently too easy boredom sets inhibiting a student’s
motivation to learn and eventually may harm achievement. Students differ in
readiness, needs, interest and abilities and a differentiated curriculum is designed to
tap into these differences and academic diversity.
What is the differentiated curriculum? It is not giving advanced students extra
mathematics problems, extra readings, more independent study or do their own thing
since they have mastered the basics. Curriculum differentiation is a broad term
referring to the need to tailor teaching environments and practices to create
appropriately different learning experiences for different students. It is a philosophy
of teaching in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs, interest and abilities

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of gifted and talented students. Gifted and talented students are those whose potential
is distinctly above average in one or more of the following domains of human ability:
intellectual, creative, social and physical that places them at least among the top 10%
of age peers (Tomlinson, 2000). There are numerous models of curriculum
differentiation that can cater for the range of individual differences in the classroom.
Basically, these models show how an existing curriculum such as science, economics
or history can be modified, extended or adjusted to cater to the needs of gifted
students. In this chapter, the model proposed by C.J. Maker, which has been adopted
in many schools systems is discussed.

Product Modifications
 Real world problems –
investigating real
Content Modifications problems
 Abstraction – going
The  Real audiences –
beyond the facts
develop product
 Complexity – greater Differentiated
evaluated by the
breadth and depth Curriculum
community
 Variety – expose new for the Gifted
 Evaluations – peers
ideas or content & the Talented
evaluating their work
 Organisation – arrange  Transformation – find
the content differently practical uses for what
is produced

Process Modifications
 Higher order thinking –
analysis, synthesis &
evaluation
 Open-ended processing
– divergent thinking
 Discovery – inquiry
approach
 Freedom of choice –
opportunity for self-
directed learning
 Group interaction –
group problem solving

Figure 5.2 Maker’s Differentiated Curriculum Model (1982)

Maker (1982) devised a very practical model of curriculum differentiation

which shows how content can be adjusted to accommodate the ability of gifted
students to manipulate abstract ideas and deal with complexity (see Figure 5.2). The

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process component of the model involves the methods and learning activities used by
teachers to present information, the questions asked of students and the mental and
physical activities expected of them. The emphasis is on higher-level thinking,
creative problem-solving, decision making, planning and forecasting. With regards to
the product component, it was important that students be allowed to create products
that solve real-world problems. It is also important to provide students with the
opportunity to present work to a variety of audiences for constructive appraisal.
Gifted students benefit from negotiating evaluation criteria and being involved in the
process of evaluation itself. However, Maker argues that not everything in the
curriculum needs to be modified or adjusted; only those that will lead to meaningful
outcomes for gifted students should be incorporated.

Compensatory Education
As primary education is made accessible to more children, more children from
disadvantaged backgrounds are entering schools. These are students from poor socio-
economic backgrounds, have low language and quantitative literacy, have limited
English proficiency and learning styles which are not conducive for success in
traditional learning environments. In the context of formal schooling, being different
has too often meant being deficient, and being deficient has meant “being as risk of
academic failure”. What can be done to effectively engage and educate students who
are at risk of low achievement, failure and, eventually, of dropping out of school?
Compensatory education was initiated in the 1960s and 1970s to provide extra
help to chronic underachievers and equalise educational resources and opportunities
across schools. Compensatory education was introduced based on the assumption that
many students, because of poverty and low academic achievement, are disadvantaged
and should be provided with extra help and programmes to “compensate” for the
disadvantages. Two common strategies adopted are:
a) Grouping: Students are placed in homogeneous learning groups within a
grade or within a classroom according to their academic performance. Among
the labels used for this practice is “ability grouping” and “tracking”. The
grouping of students is designed to enable teachers to most efficiently match
content with students’ ability levels and learning paces. Ability grouping has
been criticised because poor students and disadvantaged students are
disproportionately represented in low ability classes. The stigma of being in
such in such classes has produced poor climate for learning and lower
expectations for student achievement. Students in these classes are reported to
have low self-esteem and the source of discipline problems. In addition,
teachers have not been adequately trained to teach such groups and implement
teaching-learning strategies that are similar to high ability groups.
b) Retention: This is the practice of holding back students who fail to
demonstrate required level of achievement. Research seems to indicate that
retention, as it is currently practices in most schools has few positive effects
and mostly negative effects on student learning (Shepard and Smith, 1989).

Of late, there has been a shift in thinking about compensatory education and
its strategies. Among the emerging strategies suggested and adopted to solve the
problem of academic achievement in schools are:
a) Compensatory education programmes that have focused only on improving
basic skills should emphasise higher order thinking and problem-solving
skills.

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b) Less emphasis should be on compensating what poor children lack, and

greater emphasis on teaching-learning techniques that make use of students’
strengths and experiences as stepping stones for further learning.
c) Mainstreaming should be encouraged. Mainstreaming or inclusion is an
educational method that includes many different kinds of learners (including
students with learning disabilities) in the same classroom, instead of
separating them according to their learning abilities. In the mainstreamed
classroom, all students, regardless of ability levels learn together in the same
classroom. The purpose of mainstreaming is to give every student a typical
classroom experience. Teachers need to be trained to use teaching methods
that provide different things for different students, making sure there is
something for everyone. Students may be divided into groups and provided
with different learning situations. Mainstreamed classrooms have specialised
equipment and learning materials at hand. For example, there might be a
variety of books for different reading levels.
d) Early Prevention targeted at young children is advocated to reduce the
inequalities of academic performance through the grades. Preschool and
kindergartens have to be been made more accessible to children from poor
socioeconomic backgrounds. Preschool and kindergartens should aim to
develop language skills and social competencies of disadvantaged children to
help them enter school at the same level as their more advantaged peers. For
example, in the United States the Head Start Project started in 1965 made
available preschool and kindergarten opportunities to millions of young
children to prepare them enter the main school system.

SELF-TEST
1. What is the differentiated curriculum? What is the rationale for
such a curriculum?
2. How have low achievers learners been helped in schools?
3. What are some emerging trends in helping academic low
achievers?

5.3 Character Education

Character education (also referred to as moral education or values education)

has always been the concern of educators. The focus is on how curriculum can be
designed to teach children about basic human values, including honesty, kindness,
generosity, courage, freedom, equality and respect. The goal of character education is
to raise children to become morally responsible and self-disciplined citizens. It is a
deliberate and proactive effort to develop good character in students; or more simply,
to teach students right from wrong. It is assumed that right and wrong do exist, that
there are objective moral standards that transcend individual choice; standards like
respect, responsibility, honesty and fairness; and that we should teach these directly.

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Traditionally, good character is shaped by the family and religious institutions. With
rising crime rates, violence among youths, drug addiction, sexual promiscuity,
breakdown of the family unit, disrespect for authority, increasing dishonesty and drug
abuse; the move is for schools to seriously engage in character education.
There is a kind of values vacuum which is further reinforced by the influence
of television, advertising and the movies to the extent that traditional values have been
challenged. Schools have taken the responsibility of character education in attempting
to teach students right from wrong and teach them a core set of values that will guide
their lives and build a decent society. The development of good character is really part
of every child’s birthright. Parents, schools, and the community have an obligation to
meet that need of children. There are children who are not brought up in environments
where certain values are stressed. For example, there are some children who do not
even believe that honesty really is important. In other words, they think that if they
steal something, it is really not an issue.
However, Kohn (1997) notes that character education in schools has tended to
be an exercise in indoctrinating students in the ways of right behaviour. The
curriculum tends to emphasise drilling students on desired behaviours rather than
engaging them in deep, critical reflection on what it means to be a moral individual or
to act morally. “A person unaware of why he or she believes or behaves even when
such beliefs or behaviours are good is not really a moral person. A person of good
character knows the difference between right and wrong, knows the bases for his or
behaviour, and chooses right over wrong, action that is of benefit to the person and
society over that which is not. There is a difference between having a person engage
in behaving rightly and behaving morally. The latter implies an awareness of the
bases for action or nonaction” (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998, p.372). Problem solving,
decision making and conflict resolution are important parts of developing moral
character. Through role playing and discussions, students can see that their decisions
affect other people and things. It is only through such teaching-learning activities will
students understand and internalise the desired values and habits that they will require
for living and maintaining their well-being.

SELF-TEST
1. Why should schools engage in character education?
2. What is the main weakness of teaching character education in
schools?

5.4 Performance Assessment

An issue that often been discussed refers to how students are assessed. We
have not changed very much in the way students are assessed in school. Paper and
pencil tests continue to dominate from primary school until higher education. Though
are is much talk about assessing the overall development of the individual, assessment
continues to assess a segment of the abilities of learners. What about affective or
emotional outcomes of education? They have been acknowledged as important factors
in learning and yet are not adequately assessed. Performance assessment is assessment

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based on authentic tasks. These tasks are activities, problem or exercises in which
students demonstrate what they can do (Brandt and McBrien, 1997). Some
performance tasks are designed to have students demonstrate their understanding by
applying their knowledge to a particular situation. For example, students in an
economic lesson examine the price trends and production figures of petroleum in the
last five years to determine how supply and demand determines price per barrel.
Performance assessment is about performing with knowledge in a context that relates
to the real world. They are provided with opportunities to show their understanding
and ability to use knowledge in different ways. The goal of performance assessment is
not only to find out whether students understand but also whether they are able to do
what they have learned after having left school. In other words, is the knowledge
learned, skills acquired and values inculcated long lasting or enduring.
 The implementation of performance assessment requires that one works
backward (see Figure 9.1). In other words, think first about purpose of
assessment and about the performances you want students to be able to do, and
then work backwards. What concepts and skills do I want students to know?
At what level should my students be performing? For example, you want
primary school students to be able to write creatively.
 Having agreed upon what you want students to perform and intend to measure,
than you decide what knowledge is to be emphasised and what skills need to
be cultivated. In other words, what activities should be introduced that will
provide opportunities for students to show what they can do. For example, if
you want primary school students to show their creative writing skills, you
should provide a topic, time and resources that allows them to show their
creative writing skills.
 After having determined the activity, you need to set the criteria that will
indicate whether students

Why is performance assessment given importance? The reason is simple. It is

what people want from students in the real world; the ability to use wisely and
effectively what they know. We often hear of society complaining that students are
not able to apply their knowledge and skills in authentic situations. This is because
students are not provided with settings in which they can apply such knowledge and
be assessed accordingly. For example, in a language test students may indicate that
they know that a story has an introduction, body and conclusion. However, we cannot
be sure that students can write a story with these criteria. Performance assessment is
vital to give the link between school and the real-world and to give students the
confidence to bridge the gap. From the students’ point of view, there is no guessing in
performance assessment. Teacher and students work together and state what needs to
be improved. The role of the teacher is more of a coach.
While there are many benefits of performance assessment, some teachers are
hesitant to implement it in the classrooms. One reason being that teachers are not
confident enough to adopt this assessment approach. The second reason being that
earlier failures with the approach has led to teachers rejecting the approach. To
implement performance assessment in the classroom, Brualdi (2000) suggests the
following steps (see Figure 5.1).

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SELF-TEST
1. What is performance assessment?
2. What is the rationale for encouraging widespread use of
performance assessment in the classroom?
3. Briefly describe how performance assessment is implemented
in the classroom.

ACTIVITY
Critical Issues in Science Curriculum
The science curriculum has remained largely unchanged for decades. Often, the
natural curiosity of children, eager to understand their surroundings is often diminished
by instruction that discourages inquiry and discovery. Science instruction has become
increasingly textbook-centred. Even though laboratory experiences are included,
students are rarely encouraged to use scientific methods to solve problems relevant to
their perception of the world.
A new vision of science learning is needed; one that calls for instructional
strategies far different from most traditional approaches. The new paradigm for science
learning should emphasise engagement and meaning in ways that are not consistent
with past practices. The constructivist teaching and learning models calls for learning
that is:
 Hands-on : students are actually allowed to perform science as they construct
meaning and acquire understanding
 Minds-on: activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to develop
thinking processes and encouraging them to question and seek answers that
enhance their knowledge.
 Authentic: students are presented with problem-solving activities that
incorporate authentic, real-life issues in format that encourages collaborative
effort, dialogue with informed expert sources, and generalizations to broader
ideas and application.

This approach to teaching and learning will enable students to participate fully in a
learning community where the teacher is not the only source of knowledge and
information. Technology (internet) becomes a tool, supporting the learning process as
students seek new knowledge and understanding. Accordingly, teachers will use a
variety of alternative assessment (eg. performance assessment, portfolio assessment)
tools to allow students to demonstrate their understanding of science by solving
authentic, real-life problems.

[source: adaptation from Marvin Christensen, North Central Regional Educational Laboratory
(NCREL), 1995. http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/science/sc500.htm

1. What are the critical issues with regards to the science curriculum?
2. Are these issues similar to the science curriculum in your school
system?
3. Do you agree with the suggestions made to improve science teaching
and learning?

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5.5 Retooling Schools

Mental models are ways, in which one views the world and how one makes
decisions; which often goes unrecognised as one of the main obstacles in bringing
about change in an organisation (Senge, 1999). In education, they refer to the invisible
assumptions or beliefs educators have about their student’s ability to learn. Current
school systems evolved on a set of beliefs or “theories in use” that children are
deficient and schools fix them; everyone learns or should learn in the same way;
learning takes place in the classroom, not in the world; there are smart kids and dumb
kids, knowledge is inherently fragmented, schools communicate ‘the truth’; and
learning is primarily individualistic and competition accelerates learning (Senge,
2000). These mental models influences almost everything that is done in schools
today. For instance, knowledge is divided into discreet topics ranging from the
Melaka Sultanate to Newton’s laws of motion and taught at appropriate time slots to
learners sitting in rows listening passively, monitored and motivated by grades.
While, this approach is not necessarily wrong, research in cognitive science reveals
that this approach is not compatible with how humans learn best.
Retooling Malaysian schools to meet the challenges of the knowledge
economy does not mean replacing existing mental models with new ones but rather to
recognise the power of mental models in limiting an educator from thinking
differently about his or her educational practice. More important is for educators to
suspend their mental models long enough to seek new knowledge and to reconsider
some of their beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of technology. Human
learning is a multifaceted process that invokes the prior knowledge of learners, is
innately motivated by the search for meaning, is influenced by emotions, is reinforced
by social negotiation, is regulated by knowledge of cognition, is leads by the
construction of reality and enhanced in authentic situations. In other words, learning is
dynamic and the role of educators is to facilitate the making of dynamic knowledge.
Learners need to be introduced to a world that is beset with uncertainty, multiple
answers and infinite possibilities involving elements of trial and error because that is
reality. Emanating from these revised beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of
technology, it is argued that retooling Malaysian schools be based on four guiding
principles, namely; schools for all, personalised schools with thinking and
understanding being the main goal, and students immersed in a technology-based
learning environment.

1) Schools for All

Malaysia can be proud of having made schooling accessible to most children,
but there is increasing awareness that it is not working for all children and ironically
acknowledged as normal. The bell curve has made it legitimate to say that "we can't
educate all children because not all children are educable." The tests used pinned to a
bell curve allows us to say that some will fail, some will succeed and the majority fall
in the middle. Few people realise that the tool was designed for inanimate objects and
low level organisms and may not necessarily apply to human beings engaged in
learning. It is common practice in our schools to label children early on and respond
to them according to the labels that been have created because of the belief that in any
classroom there is a certain percentage of gifted, average and low achievers. Four

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times a year newspapers, radio and television stations proudly announce schools that
have obtained near perfect scores in the UPSR, PMR, SPM and STPM examinations.

1) Schools for All

4) Technology- Retooling 2) Thinking goes

Based Schools Malaysian to School
Schools

3) Personalised
Schools

Figure 5.3: Retooling schools based on revised mental models

about learning, thinking and technology

High scorers are given extensive media coverage but there is no mention as to
the number of adolescents deficient in language, quantitative and scientific literacy
skills. There is less concern with “Why Ahmad can’t read?” and a decade later “Why
Ahmad still can’t read?” One can only imagine how Ahmad feels being in a class of
low achievers throughout his schooling life and told repeatedly he is not good enough.
Theoretically Ahmad should be taught by the best teachers in the system but
unfortunately the Matthew effect prevails which loosely interpreted states that ‘Those
who need it don’t get it and those who need it don’t get’. It is common knowledge that
learners do not do as well in environments where adults are continually critical,
constantly accentuating the negative, and not accepting them for who they are. On the
contrary, students learn and thrive in a nurturing environment and schools are obliged
to foster a warm and caring environment in which children will bloom. It is from this
realisation that the impetus comes to create schools that work for all children.
Malaysian society is rapidly changing and so too, must the educational beliefs
that underlie the goals of schooling. For example, it is time that accolades are
bestowed on schools that record the lowest number of students who are unable to read
and write. Schools can ill-afford to educate just some of its students and ignore the
rest because of examination priorities. ‘No child left behind’ (Education Act, 2001)

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should be the slogan for all schools in Malaysia to ensure that schools really work for
all students, not just for some. “When it comes to the education of our children,
failure is not an option” (Bush, 2001). Schools should set high expectations for all
students as students have a natural inclination to rise to the level of expectation held
of them (Edmonds, 1986). Expectations communicated overtly or subtly by educators
are immediately felt by students. Unfortunately, many educators and schools do not
effectively communicate high expectations to all students either because they do not
really have them or because they do not believe that all children can learn. Some
believe that not all students need to realise their full potential as there are always jobs
on the farms, in the factories and low level jobs in the service sector.
These beliefs have to be revised and instead educators need to believe in the
incredible potential to learn that is present in all children and that it can be realised in
all children in any school and in any classroom, if the conditions are right. From the
onset students from disadvantaged backgrounds who are at-risk should be identified
and given all the cognitive coaching to succeed and not left behind. Cognitive strategy
instruction (CSI) should be given to all students, especially academically weak
students, where ‘learning how to learn’ is embedded in all instructional practices
(Phillips, 1993). In addition, schools for all must also be grounded in a value system
of cooperation and relationships which is in contrast to the ethic of competition and
individualism. Reaching goals is important, but how they are reached and with who is
just as important. The value system of cooperation and relationship does not discard
competition, but puts it in the context of cooperation and how people get along.
In our increasingly diverse world, creating schools for all children is the right
thing to do but it is not easy. It means a major rethinking of the very core values upon
which schools are built. It means the integration of disciplines and focusing
consciously and specifically on both equity and excellence in the same classrooms in
the same schools for all children.

2) Thinking Goes to School

While some people would agree that developing the

thinking skills of students is the main aim of education,
there is less agreement on what is thinking. Over the
decades a plethora of terms and definitions have been
proposed which has led to further confusion. Among the
common terms used to describe thinking are; reflective
thinking, critical thinking, creative thinking, lateral
thinking, whole-brain thinking, analytical thinking,
mechanical reasoning, spatial thinking, logical thinking,
deductive thinking, inductive thinking, analogical
thinking to name a few.

Rodin’s sculpture of ‘The Thinker’.

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Chapter 5: Curriculum Issues and Trends

Fraenkel (1980) defined thinking as the formation of ideas, reorganisation of

one’s experience and the organisation of information in a particular form. Chafee
(1988) characterises thinking as an unusual process used in making decisions and
solving problems. According to Bourne, Ekstrand and Dominowski, “Thinking is a
complex, multifaceted process. It is essentially internal, involving symbolic
representation of events and objects not immediately present, but is initiated by some
external event. Its function is to generate and control overt behaviour” (1971, p.5).
Nickerson, Perkins and Smith (1985) looked upon thinking as a collection of skills or
mental operations used by individuals. Since thinking is a collection of mental skills,
it can be performed well or poorly. As pointed out by Nickerson;

all people classify, but not equally perceptively,

all people make estimates, but not equally accurately,
all people use analogies, but not equally appropriate,
all people draw conclusions, but not with equal care,
all people construct arguments, but not with equal cogency
(1987, p.28)
The human mind is capable of a multitude of thinking operations and naturally
endowed with the capacity to deduce, classify, apply, infer, generalise, predict and so
forth. It is as natural as breathing! However, these abilities are not well-developed in
all students and not all are able to apply the skills spontaneously and naturally in
different situations. In Malaysia, Phillips (1998) found that among thirteen year old
students, high achievers scored significantly better in inductive reasoning compared to
low achievers but there were no gender differences. Among primary school children,
students from affluent families were better in analogical reasoning, inductive
reasoning and spatial thinking compared to their counterparts from less affluent
families) with the girls better in analogical reasoning compared to the boys. (Phillips,
2000). A synthesis of the various definitions reveals certain common threads running
through these descriptions. Thinking is a process that requires knowledge because it is
quite impossible to think in a vacuum; thinking involves the manipulation of mental
skills; thinking is targeted at the solution of a problem; thinking is manifested in an
overt behaviour or ability and thinking is also reflected in certain attitudes or
dispositions that are indicative of good and poor thinking. For example, a good
thinker welcomes problematic situations, is open to multiple possibilities, uses
evidence skilfully, makes judgement after considering all angles, listens to other
people’s views, reflective and perseveres in searching for information (Glatthorn &
Barron, 1985; Nickerson, 1987).
The development of thinking has not been widely emphasised in schools
which may be partly due to certain perceptions or mental models of educators. First,
there is the belief among some educators that the development of thinking skills
should be confined to academically superior students because they ‘can think’.
Teaching thinking to weak learners would be futile and even frustrating because it is a
serious mental activity involving philosophising, deep thought, contemplation and
deliberation that would be too arduous for low achievers. Second, is the belief that
students should have a complete understanding of a subject area before they can
deliberate and think about the facts, concepts and principles. Educators who subscribe
to this belief are preoccupied with coverage of course content rather than ensuring
understanding. Understanding is the consequence of thinking and if learners are
taught to think about the content, then understanding is enhanced. Third, relates to
assessment and in particular public examinations which tend to test the acquisition of

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Chapter 5: Curriculum Issues and Trends

facts and how well learners are able to remember the facts. There are few questions
that demand higher-order thinking and so schools are rather reluctant to venture into
teaching for higher-order outcomes.

Problem Solving Process of

& Thinking
Decision Making

Critical Creative Macro-Thinking

Thinking Thinking Skills

Examples:
predict generalise what-if
Micro-Thinking
inference forecast classify
Skills
compare causation synthesise
apply fallacy evaluate

Figure 3: The relationship between critical thinking, creative thinking,

problem solving and decision making

[source: Phillips, J. (1997). Pengajaran kemahiran berfikir: Teori dan amalan,

Utusan Publications & Distributors: Kuala Lumpur. p. 23.]

Generally, all thinking is directed towards the solution of a problem which

may involve some elements of decision making which is referred to as the process of
thinking (see Figure 3). Similarly, when one talks about improving the thinking of
students, one is actually referring to their problem solving and decision making skills.
Critical thinking is the ability to evaluate information such as determining the
credibility of sources, detecting fallacies and so forth. Creative thinking is the ability
to generate new ideas, new methods, new procedures, new products as well as being
able to modify and come up with something different.

‘Thinking goes to schools’ is the title of a book by Hans Furth and Harry
Wachs (1975) which reports about a project aimed at developing the thinking ability
of primary and secondary school students based on Piagetian principles. ‘Thinking
will go to school’ to when a culture of thinking permeates all Malaysian schools

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Chapter 5: Curriculum Issues and Trends

where language, values, expectations, habits and behaviour reflect the enterprise of
good thinking. Tishman, Perkins and Jay (1995) identified four ways of bringing the
culture of thinking to the classroom. First is to have models or people who
demonstrate good thinking practices and exhibit behaviours of good thinking, such as
checking the credibility of sources or suspending judgement until all information is
available or tolerating ambiguity. Second is to develop thinking through explanation,
whereby teachers explicitly explain why a particular thinking skill needs to be used,
when it is to be used and how the skill is to be used. Third is through interaction with
other students where opportunities are provided to work in groups when solving a
problem, brainstorm, exchange and accept ideas. Fourth is feedback, when teachers
provide evaluative or corrective information about student’s thinking processes. For
instance, a teacher may praise a student for the way he or she arrived at a particular
conclusion or for the views expressed. Such feedback provides students with
information about their own thinking behaviours which helps them become better
thinkers.
Teachers play a crucial role in the creation of a thinking culture as they are the
ones who establish the educational climate, structure learning experiences and have
almost complete power over the processes that take place in the classroom. Students
from more affluent homes where parents level of education is higher, questions are
more frequently asked and the language used is relatively more complex (Sternberg
and Caruso, 1985). But, students coming to school lacking the experiences of their
more affluent counterparts “succeed because of teachers who served as mediators of
their environment; by discussing, asking questions, modelling and teaching (Swartz
and Lowery, 1989, p.4). Teachers have at their disposal a variety of ways to organise
their classroom to stimulate thinking. The underlying principle of classroom
organisation is to encourage greater participation of learners in the teaching-learning
process; it would be quite impossible to develop the thinking skills of students if the
teacher did most of the talking. Students need to be involved and this might take the
form of teacher-led Socratic-type discussion, cooperative small-group or total-group
investigations (Fisher, 1992).
Teacher response behaviours have a significant effect in stimulating thinking.
Most importantly is the manner in which teachers or even parents react to answers
given by learners and whether these behaviours extend or terminate thinking. For
example, what would happen when a teacher or parent responds to a child’s ideas
with such statements as “What a dumb idea” or “You’re not good enough”. The
chances are, that child might be diffident to give ideas in the future for fear of being
ridiculed or humiliated. The language of thinking plays an important role in
encouraging thinking in the classroom. Using specific thinking terminology will show
learners how to perform particular skills and when used repeatedly chances are they
will become part of their repertoire of vocabularies (Costa and Marzano, 1987). For
example, instead of saying “Let’s look at these two pictures”, it would be more
precise to say “Let’s compare these two pictures”.
As mentioned earlier, thinking can enhanced by explaining explicitly why,
when and how particular skills are used. A metacognitive approach is proposed that
encourages students to describe their thought processes when performing a thinking
task (Phillips, 1993; Wilen and Phillips, 1996). The teacher describes which thinking
skills is to be taught, lists the steps to follow when executing the skill; why it is
important and when learners will need to use it (see Figure 5). The teacher describes
the reasoning process and presents several examples and non-examples that can used
when executing the process. Next, the teacher, seen as the expert models the

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Chapter 5: Curriculum Issues and Trends

reasoning process involved by “thinking aloud” stating when and how the thinking
skill should be used. Various kinds of cues in the form of prompts, examples,
analogies, metaphors and elaboration are provided to help learners refine their
understanding of the reasoning process. Finally, the learner performs the same task
under the guidance of the teacher. As learners describe what is going on “inside their
heads” they become more aware of their thinking processes. The teacher observes the
think aloud protocols of learners and comments when necessary. Then they compare
the different think aloud sessions of their classmates and identify strengths and
weaknesses of each.

Explanation by the Teacher

 Introduce the skill (definition, when it is to be used)
 Show examples and non-examples
 Exercises to practice the skill

Modelling by the Teacher

 ‘Think aloud’ the thinking process
 Learner interpretations of the process modelled
 Teacher provides cues and prompts if there is lack of understanding

Modelling by the Learner

 ‘Think aloud’ the thinking process by the learner in different situations
 Comparison of modelling processes
 Silent modelling whereby the learner is on his/her own

Figure 5: A metacognitive approach for teaching thinking

source: a) J.A. Phillips (1992). Metacognitive training for helping poor readers in
the content areas, Jurnal Pembacaan Malaysia. 1(1), p.14
b) W. Wilen, and J.A. Phillips (1996). A metacognitive approach in
teaching critical thinking. Social Education, 34(5). p.45.

3) Personalised Schools
Many schools have become too large and impersonal and students are just a
statistic. This is especially evident in urban areas where schools have an enrolment of
between 1000 to 2000 students and some with as many as 2500 students which
inadvertently disconnects the majority of learners from teachers and other adults
possibly leading to alienation, boredom and even conflict. Why should a teenager
respect a teacher who knows nothing about him or her? Personalised schools are
schools with a smaller student enrolment. Research is inconclusive as to the
appropriate size of such schools but there is some consensus that for a primary school

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that it should not exceed 400 students and not more than 800 students for secondary
schools (Cotton, 1996). In smaller schools, teachers and students build strong
relationships, and teachers can help students learn more effectively because they
know their students as individuals. ‘Everybody knows your name’. There is also
greater bonding among students as they get to know and learn from each other.
However, even though a school may be small, it need not necessarily be
‘personalised’. Personalised school are learning communities where students,
teachers, and parents know each other personally, and work together to help young
people learn and succeed. In personalised schools, students are cared for, nurtured,
and supported and this is significant given the increasing number of students
experiencing a lack of relationships with caring, attentive, engaged adults when
parents are working full-time. Besides that parents, teachers and administrator create
stronger partnerships in personalised schools, because the opportunity to
communicate and understand each other is enhanced. In a review of 103 studies,
Kathleen Cotton (1996) found that personalised schools have lower rates of negative
social behaviour such as classroom disruptions, vandalism, fights, thefts, substance
abuse or gang membership. Such schools reported a higher rate of school attendance
and lower drop out rates compared to larger impersonal schools. Students in smaller
schools have a greater sense of belonging and relationships with peers was more
cordial and those from low incomes families have considerably more positive
attitudes about school. Also, levels of extra-curricular participation was significantly
higher and students derived more satisfaction from their involvement. Disadvantage
students who attended personalised schools gained greater academic competence and
success compared to those in large schools because they are more likely to become
involved, make an effort and to achieve (Raywid, 1998).
With the decline of the extended family and both parents having to work full
time, students turn to teachers for advice and role models which may be more readily
available in personalised schools. The home-school partnership that is strengthened in
personalised schools will facilitate addressing some of the growing psychological and
emotional needs of students which tends to manifest itself in disciplinary problems.

4) Technology-Based Schools
Technology integration in the classroom has tended to be based on essentially
behaviouristic principles following closely ET1, ET2 and ET3 archetypes. The
unprecedented advances in internet interactivity and multimedia capabilities, is seeing
the emergence of the ET4 archetype or the Technology-Based Learning Environment
Archetype (also incorporating elements of ET1, ET2 and ET3) which has given a new
perspective of technology integration in the classroom. The Technology-Based
Learning Environment (TBLE) Archetype is based on a cognitive-constructivist
theoretical perspective in which learners either individually or collectively are;

…….ultimately responsible for their own learning within

a learning atmosphere in which teachers value student
thinking, initiate lessons that foster cooperative learning,
provide opportunities for students to be exposed to inter-
disciplinary curriculum, structure learning around primary
concepts, and facilitate authentic assessment of student
understanding (Lunenberg, 1998, p.4)

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Schools organised along the precepts of the TBLE archetype engage learners in seven
processes (Phillips, 2001). First, is situated cognition which emphasises that learning
of certain knowledge and skills is best done in situations or contexts that reflect the
way the knowledge will be useful in real life. In other words, students should be
introduced to authentic tasks and the many tools of technology enables the creation of
microworlds (Jonassen, 1996). These are miniature environments that mimic
situations in the real world providing learners with the opportunity to apply concepts,
principles and skills learned. For example, telecommunications and the internet
provide access to emerging disciplinary and interdisciplinary databases, real-time
phenomena, and social communities not accessible through print-based curricula. The
second process is cognitive flexibility which is the ability to represent knowledge from
different perspectives tailored to the needs and levels of the learner. Multimedia
technology such as virtual reality permits knowledge and skills to be presented in a
variety of different ways, adapting content to individual student learning styles.
The third process is exploration wherein learners try out different hypotheses,
methods and strategies to see their effects. The resources of the web and the related
internet tools allow learners to make these discoveries on their own. Computers and
ancillary electronic devices facilitate the manipulation of data and visualisation
which assists with experimenting and understanding actual, futuristic, and
hypothetical concepts, principles, relationships, and probabilities The fourth process is
cooperative learning in which learners work in groups by questioning each other,
discussing and sharing information towards the solution of a problem using
communication tools such as e-mail and chat rooms. The fifth process is collaborative
learning in which learners or groups of learners discuss and try out their ideas and
challenge the ideas of others across state and international borders. For example, a
group of learners in Malaysia could be working on a project in cyberspace on ‘what
teenagers do besides schooling’ with a group of learners in Canada or Kuwait using
both asynchronous and synchronous tools. Cooperative and collaborative learning
practiced in the TBLE are skills required in the workplace. The sixth process is
articulation which refers to methods of getting learners to make their tacit knowledge
explicit through websites and electronic portfolios. When learners make available to
others (even across long distances) what they have done, learners are able to compare
strategies and provide insight into alternative perspectives. The seventh process is
reflection which refers to learners looking back over what they have done and
analysing their performance. It enables them to see the thinking processes they used in
solving problems and based on the product and be able to determine if their strategies
were appropriate.
Technology integration into teaching and learning has not been widespread
because of insufficient equipment and internet connection, inadequate training of
teachers and more importantly a lack of understanding on how to use the new
technologies. As more schools are wired with the relevant hardware and software, the
TBLE archetype provides a convenient framework with a theoretical basis for
realisation of technology-based schools.

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Chapter 5: Curriculum Issues and Trends

Key Terms

- Differentiated instruction - Performance assessment

- Problem-based learning - Character education
- Technology integration - Career education
- Cultural diversity - Thinking across the curriculum

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