Filtration Filtration

Double filtration or Roughening Filters (RF) ♦ Design Problems on Filters

♦ Two SSF in series ♦ Refer to class notes & text books
♦ Two RSF in series
♦ RSF followed by SSF in series (most commonly used)
♦ Preliminary filter is known as roughening filter (RF)
♦ RF uses coarser sand than ordinary RSF
♦ ROF through RF = 7000 l/hr/sq.m
♦ RF reduces load on SSF  increases ROF of existing SSF  Improved quality
of water
♦ Installation of roughing filter doubles the capacity of SSF and hence it is quite
useful where land available for the installation of SSF is restricted

Chlorination & other disinfection methods Chlorination & other disinfection methods
♦ Sterilization: Process of destroying pathogenic & non-pathogenic organisms Mechanism of Disinfection
in water  Act on cell protein to inactivate the critical enzyme systems essential for
♦ Disinfection: Process of destroying pathogenic organisms only in water microbial life

♦ Depends on the nature of disinfectant & type of microbes present  Damage to cell wall

 Destroying the cell protoplasm i.e. DNA

Criteria for good disinfectant:  Altering the cell wall permeability

 Kill pathogens  By forming toxic substances inside the cell

 Effective in a wide range of pH & mineral compositions  Inhibition of respiratory enzymes

 Should not make water toxic or add color
 Ease of availability at reasonable cost
 Safe to handle
 Method of application should be simple
 Should be easy to analyze residuals left over

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Chlorination & other disinfection methods Chlorination & other disinfection methods
Steps involved Methods of disinfection
1. Penetration of disinfectant through the cell wall 1. Chlorination
 Cell wall is negatively charged 2. Ozonation

 HOCl can enter easily 3. UV light disinfection

 HOCl  80 to 100 times more powerful than OCl- 4. Excess lime process
5. Application of iodine or bromine
2. Reaction with enzyme within the cell wall
6. Potassium permanganate
 Mostly neutral ions are more active compared to anions
7. Metal ions  Silver ions (bactericidal), Copper (algicidal & fungicidal)
 Cl2, O3, Chlorine dioxide  Inactivate the critical cell matter
8. Alkali and acids  pH < 3 or >11

Chlorination & other disinfection methods Chlorination & other disinfection methods
Chlorination: 1. Chlorination:
 Chlorine (Cl), Atomic wt = 35.45, Melting point = 101.5 °C, Boiling point = 34.5
°C
 Action of Chlorine: Free available chlorine Vs Combined chlorine
 Disinfecting power ∝ Contact time X Chlorine concentration
 Determination of chlorine dosage: Residual of 0.2 mg/l after 20 minutes of
contact period
 Chlorine demand = Chlorine added (–) Residual chlorine

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Chlorination & other disinfection methods Chlorination & other disinfection methods
1. Chlorination: 1. Chlorination
A. How is chlorine applied? B. Forms of chlorination: Depends on the point of chlorine application
 Compressed Cl2 gas  Stored in 1. Plain chlorination:
cylinders  chlorine solution (most
 Surface water with no other treatment
commonly used)
 Used: Low turbid waters, unpolluted source, emergencies
 In powder form as calcium
hypochlorites or sodium  High organic content  High Cl2 dose
hypochlorite
 Dosage – 0.5 to 1 mg/l
 Chlorine dosage ∝ Volume of flow
and chlorine demand of water 2. Prechlorination:
 Application of chlorine before any other treatment

 Advantages: Improves coagulation, reduces bacterial load on filters thus

increasing filter run time, removes T & O, controls growth of algae in process

 Dosage – Residual Cl2 of 0.1 to 0.5 mg/l when it enters filters

 Normal dosage – 5 to 10 mg/l

Chlorination & other disinfection methods Chlorination & other disinfection methods
1. Chlorination
1. Chlorination
B. Forms of chlorination:
B. Forms of chlorination: Depends on the point of application
4. Break point chlorination or Free residual chlorination
3. Post chlorination:
 Only free Cl2 exists  Powerful disinfectant
 Addition of Cl2 after all other treatment

 After filters & before entering distribution system

 Common practice

 Residual Cl2 at the P.O.E = 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l after a contact period of 20 minutes

4. Double chlorination:
 Cl2 application at two or more points

 Used for highly contaminated water

 Pre chlorination prior to sedimentation tanks + Post chlorination after filtration

& before entry to distribution system

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Chlorination & other disinfection methods Chlorination & other disinfection methods
1. Chlorination 1. Chlorination
B. Forms of chlorination: Depends on the point of application B. Forms of chlorination: Depends on the point of application
5. Super chlorination: 6. Dechlorination:
 Highly polluted waters & need for quick disinfection  Remove excess Cl2 from water causing taste problems

 Cl2 applied beyond the stage of break point to maintain a residual chlorine  Residual chlorine after dechlorination = 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l
after break point of 1 to 2 mg/l
 Methods:
 Dosage = 5 to 15 mg/L  Aeration
 30 to 60 min contact period required  Adding chemicals like sodium thiosulphate, sodium metabisulphate,
sodium sulphite, sodium bisulphite, & sulphur dioxide
 High bacterial removal  Activated carbon

 Need to remove resulting Cl2 tastes using dechlorination, activated carbon,

sodium thiosulphate, etc

Chlorination & other disinfection methods Other disinfection methods

1. Chlorination
Treatment with Ozone:
C. Factors affecting efficiency of chlorination or disinfection:
 Ozone  Strong oxidizing agent  Kills
1. Turbidity bacteria & viruses + reduces organic
2. Metallic compounds like Fe & Mn, organic matter matter

3. Ammonia compounds  Independent of pH

4. pH & temperature  No T&O problems like Cl2

5. Form of chlorination & contact time  On-site Ozone generators due to its
unstability
 Disinfection by free chlorine – 30 minutes
 Dosage – 2 to 3 mg/L
 Combined Cl2 i.e. chloramines – 60 minutes
 Removes color, T&O
6. Type & concentration of microbes:
 Highly unstable & cannot be stored
 Discrete or Floc type

 Bacteria & Viruses

 No residual protection against
recontamination
 Pathogenic bacteria less resistant to Cl 2
 Not suitable for highly turbid waters
 Viruses more resistant than bacteria  longer contact time & higher dose of Cl 2
 Expensive

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Other disinfection methods Other disinfection methods
3. UV light disinfection:
4. Excess lime process:
 Wavelengths = 2000 to 3900 A°
 Softening + disinfection
 Destroys all types of bacteria & viruses
 Excess lime in water increase pH. pH > 9.5 kills most of the bacteria (99
 Low- pressure mercury vapor lamps to 100%)
 No T&O problems & no danger of  Dosage – 14 to 45 mg/L of excess lime
overdose
 Need Recarbonation to remove excess lime
 No residual effect for protection
 Obsolete
 Not suitable for highly turbid waters
 High cost & needs technical skills
5. Iodine & Bromine addition:
 Used for pools, small systems
 Dosage – 8 to 10 mg/L
 Contact time = 5 min
 Produces medicinal taste to water
 Expensive than chlorine

Other disinfection methods

6. Potassium permanganate:
End of Unit 4
 For well water supplies with low pathogen content
 Removes 100% organisms causing cholera
 Only 98% bacterial removal, T & O control, color & iron removal
 Dosage – 1 to 2 mg/L with contact period of 4 to 6 hrs

7. Metal ions  Silver ions (bactericidal), Copper (algicidal & fungicidal)

 Silver dose: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/l. Contact period = 15 min to 3 hrs
 Expensive

8. Alkali and acids  pH < 3 or >9.5

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