Gratitude, Emotional Intelligence, and Life Satisfaction Among Older Adults: Evidence For A Broaden and Build Model or An Amplification Model?

Journal of Happiness Studies (2022) 23:2597–2611
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-022-00515-4
RESEARCH PAPER
Gratitude, Emotional Intelligence, and Life Satisfaction

Among Older Adults: Evidence for a Broaden‑and‑Build
Model or an Amplification Model?
Olivia D. Chang1 · Nicolás Sánchez‑Álvarez2 · Lourdes Rey2 · Natalio Extremera2 ·

Misu Kwon3 · Mingqi Li4
Accepted: 20 February 2022 / Published online: 14 March 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2022
Abstract
The present study was concerned with how gratitude and facets of emotional intelligence
(i.e., self-emotions appraisal, others-emotions appraisal, use of emotion, & regulation of
emotion) are related to life satisfaction in older adults. Two models were examined in a
sample of 191 Spanish older adults: (1) a broaden-and-build model, in which gratitude
might be associated with greater life satisfaction by broadening and building facets of emo-
tional intelligence; and (2) an amplification model, in which gratitude might interact with
facets of emotional intelligence to amplify life satisfaction. In examining a broaden-and-
build model, mediation analysis indicated that gratitude was associated with greater life
satisfaction in older adults via broadening one’s use of emotions. In addition, in examining
an amplification model, we found evidence of an Others-Emotions Appraisal × Gratitude
interaction effect, such that the life satisfaction of older adults with an adept understanding
of others’ emotions was enhanced by dispositional gratitude. The present study contributes
to the extant literature by delineating specific pathways by which gratitude and emotional
intelligence influence life satisfaction among older adults. Our findings provide evidence
of potential strengths-based mechanisms to support older adult life satisfaction. In addition
to existing therapies and psychoeducational interventions, it would seem valuable for prac-
titioners to not only consider ways to promote older adults’ gratitude, but also the use of
emotions, and adept appraisal of others’ emotions to facilitate their life satisfaction.
Keywords Gratitude · Broaden-and-build model · Amplification model · Emotional

intelligence · Life satisfaction · Older adults
* Olivia D. Chang
ochang@umich.edu
1
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
2
Faculty of Psychology, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain
3
Department of Psychology, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
4
Department of Psychology, DePaul University, Chicago, IL, USA
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Vol.:(0123456789)
2598 O. D. Chang et al.
1 Introduction
By 2030, it is projected that the global population of older adults, persons aged 60 or
greater, will rise to 1.4 billion, outnumbering children under the age of 10 (United Nations
[UN], 2017). This aging process cannot be isolated to any one region and is anticipated
to occur in virtually every country around the world (UN, 2017). For example, in 2050,
42% of the population in Spain is projected to be comprised of older adults, making it the
second leading country with the greatest share of older adults, marginally following Japan
(UN, 2017; Vespa et al., 2020). Thus, as the world population grays, it is anticipated that in
addition to providing psychobehavioral treatments for mental health issues, such as depres-
sion or suicidal ideation (Heisel et al., 2009; Pinquart et al., 2007), there is also a pressing
need for research to develop strengths-based psychosocial approaches that can be used to
facilitate the promotion of psychological well-being and health throughout older adulthood
(Friedman et al., 2017).
One construct that might be particularly relevant to the psychological health of older
adults is subjective well-being, defined as both a cognitive and affective appraisal of one’s
life (Diener, 2000; Diener et al., 1998). Indeed, studies indicate that subjective well-being
extends a range of benefits to older adults, including offering protection against psycholog-
ical maladjustment (e.g., suicide ideation, depression; Hirsch et al., 2007; Wood & Joseph,
2010). For example, in their longitudinal study, Rissanen et al. (2011) found a robust and
lasting impact of poor subjective well-being on adults’ likelihood to be diagnosed with
major depressive disorder in the future. In addition, although subjective well-being alone
cannot entirely offer protection against age-related declines in functional and physical
health (Pinquart, 2001), subjective well-being does appear to play a supportive role in
slowing or reducing such declines (e.g., later onset of frailty, lower mortality risk, stroke
incidence; Ostir et al., 2001, 2004; Steptoe et al., 2015). For example, Ostir and colleagues
(2000) found in a sample of older Mexican American adults that positive affectivity scores
predicted better functional health (e.g., mobility performance, ability to independently
complete daily living activities) and reduced mortality risk two years later, after control-
ling for baseline sociodemographic and health characteristics. Importantly, their findings
emerged independent of negative psychological adjustment variables (e.g., depression,
negative affectivity), evidencing the unique contribution of the presence of subjective well-
being in contrast to the absence of negative psychological variables. Accordingly, subjec-
tive well-being represents an important area of focus for research and health practitioners
seeking to promote the positive health of older adults.
As a global self-evaluation of one’s life, life satisfaction is considered a fundamental
component of subjective well-being (Busseri & Sadava, 2011; Diener et al., 1985). While
satisfaction with one’s life stands alone as an important achievement of a basic human
goal, life satisfaction is also beneficial in that it is associated with other forms of posi-
tive adjustment, especially among older adults. For example, Fernández et al. (2015) found
among Latinx older adults that the negative relationship between perceived health and
depressive symptoms was accounted for by satisfaction with one’s life. Specifically, greater
overall perceived health was positively related to life satisfaction, which in turn, was nega-
tively related to depressive symptoms. In addition, Caprara et al. (2016) found that age
interacted with life satisfaction to predict common health problems in older Spanish adults
(e.g., energy, pain, & physical mobility), such that those with high life satisfaction (com-
pared to low) and of older age (70–80 years of age compared to 60–70) experienced fewer
health problems. Taken together, these findings underline the importance of perceived life
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Gratitude, Emotional Intelligence, and Life Satisfaction… 2599
satisfaction, and point to the value in identifying the mechanisms by which life satisfaction
in older adults is supported.
A construct that has become increasingly highlighted in studies of subjective well-being
is gratitude. As an affective trait, dispositional gratitude has been defined and measured as
one’s tendency to recognize and respond with grateful emotions to positive experiences
that emerge from other people’s kind gestures and actions (McCullough et al., 2002). Grat-
itude has been found to have a consistent and robust association with life satisfaction, cor-
roborating its recognition as a core strength of character and well-being (Park et al., 2004;
Peterson et al., 2007). Studies on gratitude in adults have shown that the disposition to be
grateful is relevant to the well-being of adults across the lifespan, especially among older
adults (Chopik et al., 2019; see Wood et al., 2010, for a review). Moreover, findings from
studies on adults have shown that having a grateful disposition is associated with greater
levels of life satisfaction (e.g., Bhullar et al., 2015; Przepiorka & Sobol-Kwapinska, 2021;
Robustelli & Whisman, 2018; Salvador-Ferrer, 2017; Wood et al., 2008).
Beyond gratitude, emotional intelligence has also been linked to subjective well-being
in older adults. Emotional intelligence has been conceptualized and measured as a multi-
faceted ability to effectively manage and use emotional information. This includes the abil-
ity to perceive and acknowledge one’s own emotions and that of others (i.e., self-emotions
appraisal and others-emotions appraisal, respectfully), use emotion adaptively to motivate
oneself towards goals and productivity (i.e., use of emotion), and control emotion (i.e.,
regulation of emotion; Law et al., 2004; Salovey & Mayer, 1989). Indeed, findings from
a number of studies have shown that emotional intelligence is reliably associated with
greater life satisfaction in older adults (e.g., Chen et al., 2016; Delhom et al., 2017; Rey
et al., 2019). For example, Luque-Reca and colleagues (2018) found that in a sample of
institutionalized Spanish older adults, emotional intelligence was positively associated with
life satisfaction, health, functional ability, and engagement in activity and leisure. In this
regard, one might consider two ways in which gratitude and emotional intelligence might
function to predict life satisfaction in older adults, namely, via a broaden-and-build model
and an amplification model.
2 The Role of Gratitude and Emotional Intelligence in Predicting

Life Satisfaction in Older Adults: A Broaden‑and‑Build Model
or an Amplification Model?
First, according to Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) broaden-and-build theory, positive emotions

broaden temporary thought-action repertoires and build lasting personal resources. Con-
sistent with the broaden-and-build model, it might be that gratitude helps to broaden and
build emotional intelligence, which in turn is associated with greater life satisfaction in
adults (see also, Fredrickson, 2004; Wood et al., 2010). For example, in considering the
multifaceted nature of emotional intelligence, as measured by the Wong and Law Emo-
tional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS; Law et al., 2004), one might distinguish between ele-
ments that are more focused on the presence of resilience and agency, from those that are
more focused on the use of thought-action repertoires. In this sense, the present study dis-
tinguished between personal and private points of resiliency that may be built within the
individual (i.e., understanding of one’s own emotions and that of others) from performed
thought-action repertoires that may be broadened by the individual (i.e., use of emotions
and emotion regulation). Thus, gratitude in older adults might help build one’s ability to
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better understand one’s emotions and/or the emotions of others. In contrast, gratitude might
help broaden one’s use of emotions to motivate oneself on a task and/or in controlling
one’s emotions in various situations.
Second, some researchers have raised the possibility of considering gratitude as an
important amplifier of positive psychological adjustment in adults (Emmons & Mishra,
2011; Gruszecka, 2015). Specifically, Gruszecka (2015) found that by engaging in grati-
tude (i.e., recalling and describing a time one felt grateful), participants were engaged in
an upward spiral of improved interpersonal relationships, heightened trust in others, and,
noteworthy, enhanced life satisfaction. Accordingly, these results suggest that the positive
relationship previously identified between emotional intelligence and life satisfaction in
adults (e.g., Rey et al., 2019) might be amplified or strengthened when gratitude is present,
versus absent. Beyond this general possibility, it remains unclear if gratitude significantly
amplifies the positive association between all, or just some, facets of emotional intelligence
and life satisfaction in older adults. Accordingly, the present study was conducted to pro-
vide a preliminary examination of both of these possibilities by testing a broaden-and-build
model and an amplification model to better understand their contribution (or lack thereof)
to life satisfaction in a sample of Spanish older adults.
3 Purpose of the Present Study
Given these concerns, the present study sought to examine: (1) a broaden-and-build model
consistent with the notion that gratitude might help broaden and build emotional intel-
ligence associated with greater life satisfaction in older adults; and (2) an amplification
model consistent with the notion that gratitude might amplify the positive association
between facets of emotional intelligence and life satisfaction in older adults.
Given past research findings and the perspectives of the broaden-and-build model and
amplification model, we predicted gratitude to be positively correlated with facets of emo-
tional intelligence and life satisfaction. Moreover, as support for the role of gratitude in
building and broadening emotional intelligence and in turn enhancing life satisfaction, we
expected the link between gratitude and life satisfaction to be mediated by emotional intel-
ligence. As support for the role of gratitude in amplifying the effect of emotional intel-
ligence on life satisfaction, we expected an interaction between gratitude and emotional
intelligence would contribute to greater life satisfaction in older adults.
4 Method
4.1 Procedure
University and community participants were solicited using non-probabilistic conveni-

ence sampling techniques. A student-recruited sampling methodology was used, which
allowed us to access a community sample from a university setting. The community par-
ticipants were recruited with the assistance of students enrolled in a psychology course
at the university who were asked to recruit 10 adults at maximum through their personal
network and administer the battery of questionnaires to them. Students delivered the com-
pleted questionnaires to the study authors without providing identifiable information of
the participants, so the anonymity of the data was secured. The questionnaires given to
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the researchers were assigned a numerical code in order of delivery. This process ensured
that the researchers would not have any personal information about the participants. Prior
research has considered these sampling methods as a reliable technique with community
adults (Demerouti & Rispens, 2014). All participants provided written informed consent
according to the Declaration of Helsinki and ethical guidelines and completed the survey
in paper-and-pencil format. The responses of the participants were voluntary, and they
received no monetary incentives. Thereafter, participants completed a written survey that
included sociodemographic questions, the GQ-6, WLEIS, and SWLS.
4.2 Participants
Participants were 191 Spanish older adults living in a city in southern Spain. The major-
ity of the participants (54%, N = 103) identified as male. Ages ranged from 56 to 82 years
(M = 63.41, SD = 5.41). Most participants were married (74%, N = 142), completed pri-
mary education (50%, N = 96), and were retired (56%, N = 107).
4.3 Measures
4.3.1 Gratitude
To assess gratitude, we used the Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ-6; McCullough et al., 2002).
The GQ-6 is a six-item measure of dispositional gratitude (e.g., “I am grateful to a wide
variety of people,” “I have so much in life to be grateful for”). Respondents are asked to
rate items using a Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7).
Scores on the GQ-6 were summed such that higher scores on the GQ-6 are indicative of
greater gratitude. We used a well-validated Spanish version of the GQ-6 in the present
study (Magallares et al., 2018). Cronbach’s alpha for the GQ-6 in the present study was
0.71.
4.3.2 Emotional Intelligence
To assess emotional intelligence, we used the WLEIS (Law et al., 2004), a 16-item meas-
ure of emotional intelligence. The WLEIS is made up of four subscales containing four
items each that tap into different dimensions of emotional intelligence, namely, Self-Emo-
tions Appraisal (e.g., “I have a good understanding of my own emotions”), Others-Emo-
tions Appraisal (e.g., “I have a good understanding of the emotions of people around me”),
Use of Emotion (e.g., “I would always encourage myself to try my best”), and Regula-
tion of Emotion (e.g., “I have good control of my own emotions”). Respondents are asked
to rate items using a Likert scale ranging from totally disagree (1) to totally agree (7).
In the present study, scores on Self-Emotions Appraisal and Others-Emotions Appraisal
are viewed as tapping into resilient and agentic facets of emotional intelligence, whereas
scores on Use of Emotion and Regulation of Emotion are viewed as tapping into action
repertoire facets of emotional intelligence. Scores on the WLEIS Self-Emotions Appraisal,
Others-Emotions Appraisal, Use of Emotion, and Regulation of Emotion subscales were
add-summed such that higher scores on the WLEIS subscales are indicative of greater
emotional intelligence in that facet of emotional intelligence, respectively. We used a
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well-validated Spanish version of the WLEIS in the present study (Extremera et al., 2019).
Cronbach’s alpha for the WLEIS subscales in the present study ranged from 0.65 to 0.77.
4.3.3 Life Satisfaction
To assess life satisfaction, we used the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener
et al., 1985), a five-item measure of a person’s satisfaction with life as a whole (e.g., “I
am satisfied with my life,” “The conditions of my life are excellent”). Respondents are
asked to rate items using a Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly
agree (7). Scores on the SWLS were add-summed such that higher scores on the SWLS
are indicative of greater life satisfaction. We used a well-validated Spanish version of
the SWLS in the present study (Vázquez et al., 2013). Cronbach’s alpha for the SWLS in
the present study was 0.83.
5 Results
Table 1 presents the zero-order correlations, means, and standard deviations for all
study measures. All study measures were correlated in the expected directions. Specifi-
cally, gratitude was found to be significantly and positively correlated with each facet of
emotional intelligence, ranging from r = 0.28 (regulation of emotion) to r = 0.34 (use of
emotion). Gratitude was also found to be significantly and positively correlated with life
satisfaction (r = 0.36, p < 0.001). Age was the only control variable found to be signifi-
cantly related to life satisfaction (r = 0.23, p = 0.001).
5.1 Broadening and Building Facets of Emotional Intelligence: Does Emotional

Intelligence Explain the Link Between Gratitude and Life Satisfaction in Older
Adults?
To test the hypothesized mediation model with multiple mediators, in which disposi-
tional gratitude might help broaden and build emotional intelligence associated with
greater life satisfaction in older adults, Hayes’s (2013) PROCESS macro for SPSS was
used. Age was entered as a covariate to control for potential confounding effects. To
obtain the 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals, bootstrapping with 10,000 resam-
ples was performed. When the 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals do not contain
zero, statistically significant mediation is demonstrated (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Thus,
this procedure enables multiple dimensions to be examined, and determines the inde-
pendent effect of each mediator, while controlling for the others. In the present study,
Cohen’s (1977) convention for small (f 2 = 0.02), medium (f 2 = 0.15), and large effects (f
2
= 0.35) was used to determine effect sizes.
The direct effect of gratitude on life satisfaction was significant (c’ = 0.23, p < 0.001).
Results of parameter estimates for the total and specific indirect effects on the link
between gratitude and life satisfaction as mediated by facets of emotional intelligence
are presented in Table 2. As shown, both the total indirect effect and the specific indirect
effects of use of emotions were significant (p < 0.05) in predicting life satisfaction in
older adults. Thus, as shown in Fig. 1, use of emotions was a significant mediator such
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Table 1 Zero-Order Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations of Gratitude, Facets of Emotional Intelligence, and Life Satisfaction in Older Adults
Measures M SD 1 2 3 4 5
1. Gratitude 33.12 5.94 –

2. Self-emotions 21.83 3.94 0.29*** –
appraisal
3. Others-emo- 21.85 4.08 0.31*** 0.61*** –
tions appraisal
Gratitude, Emotional Intelligence, and Life Satisfaction…
4. Use of emo- 21.13 4.73 0.34*** 0.62*** 0.40****** –

tion
5. Regulation of 20.29 4.60 0.28*** 0.68*** 0.48*** 0.66*** –
emotion
6. Life satisfac- 25.87 5.67 0.36*** 0.33*** 0.25*** 0.43*** 0.39***
tion
N = 191
***
p < 0.001
2603
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Table 2 Total and Indirect Mediators Parameter estimate SE 95% BC CI

Effects of Gratitude on Life
Satisfaction Through Different Lower Upper
Facets of Emotional Intelligence
in Older Adults, Controlling for Total 0.72* 0.23 0.29 1.20*
Age
Self-emotions appraisal 0.13 0.24 − 0.25 0.56
Others-emotions appraisal − 0.02 0.22 − 0.46 0.40
Use of emotion 0.40* 0.20 0.03 0.81*
Regulation of emotion 0.21 0.16 − 0.08 0.56
N = 191. BC CI = Bias-corrected confidence interval

*
p < 0.05
Building
Understanding of Self-
Emotions
Building
Understanding of
Others’ Emotions
Gratitude Life Satisfaction

c = .36, 2.06*** (.38) c’ = .23, 1.33*** (.38)
Broadening Use of
Emotion
Broadening Regulation
of Emotion
Fig. 1 Emotional Intelligence Dimensions as Mediators of the Association Between Gratitude and Life Sat-
isfaction in Older Adults, Controlling for Age. Notes. N = 191. Unbolded numbers represent standardized
coefficients. Bolded numbers represent non-standardized coefficients and their standard errors. *p < 0.05.
***p < 0.001
that gratitude was positively related to broadening use of emotions (β = 0.34, p < 0.001),
which was in turn positively related to life satisfaction (β = 0.21, p < 0.05). After con-
trolling for age, the broaden-and-build model was found to account for an additional
medium (f 2 = 0.14) and significant 12% of variance in life satisfaction F(4, 184) = 7.78,
p < 0.001 (see Table 3 Step 3).
5.2 Gratitude as an Amplifier: Does Gratitude Interact with Facets of Emotional

Intelligence to Enhance Life Satisfaction in Older Adults?
To examine if dispositional gratitude amplifies the positive association between all, or

just some, facets of emotional intelligence and life satisfaction in older adults, we con-
ducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses (see Table 3). As shown, beyond age
and the broaden-and-build model, the amplification model was found to account for an
additional small to medium (f 2 = 0.06) and significant 6% of variance in life satisfaction
F(4, 180) = 4.24, p < 0.01 (see Table 3 Step 4). Interestingly, only the Others-Emotions
Appraisal × Gratitude interaction effect was found to significantly add to the amplification
model (p < 0.001). To visually inspect how understanding others’ emotions and gratitude
13
Table 3 Regression Results for the Moderating Effect of Gratitude and Emotional Intelligence on Life Sat-
isfaction in Older Adults
Life satisfaction B β R2 ΔR2 F p
Step 1: 0.05 - 10.74 0.001

Age 0.24*** 0.23***
Step 2: 0.18 0.13 29.72 < 0.001
Gratitude 0.52*** 0.36***
Step 3: 0.30 0.12 7.78 < 0.001
Self-emotions appraisal 0.11 0.08
Others-emotions appraisal − 0.01 − 0.01
Use of emotion 0.25* 0.21*
Regulation of emotion 0.16 0.13
Step 4: 0.36 0.06 4.24 0.003
Self-Emotions Appraisal x Gratitude − 0.04 − 0.11
Others-Emotions Appraisal x Gratitude 0.10*** 0.31***
Use of Emotion x Gratitude − 0.03 − 0.12
Regulation of Emotion x Gratitude − 0.01 − 0.03
N = 191. Main and interaction effects are centered at the mean

*
p < 0.050. ***p ≤ 0.001
Fig. 2 Others-Emotions
Appraisal x Gratitude Interaction
Effect in Predicting Life Satisfac-
tion in Older Adults. *p < 0.05.
***p < 0.001
interacted with each other in explaining life satisfaction, we plotted each interaction term.
Figure 2 shows the interaction of life satisfaction on gratitude at low and high levels (split 1
SD below and above the mean, respectively) of understanding others’ emotions (split 0.25
SD below and above the mean, respectively). As shown, consistent with the amplification
model, older adults with high understanding of others’ emotions and high gratitude showed
significantly greater life satisfaction (M = 30.38) than older adults with high understanding
of others’ emotions and low gratitude (M = 24.80), t(27) = − 2.37, p < 0.05.
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6 Discussion
The present study was concerned with how gratitude and facets of emotional intelligence
(i.e., self-emotions appraisal, others-emotions appraisal, use of emotions, & regulation of
emotions) are related to life satisfaction in Spanish older adults. We examined a broaden-
and-build model, in which dispositional gratitude might be associated with greater life sat-
isfaction by broadening and building facets of emotional intelligence, as well as an ampli-
fication model, in which gratitude might interact with facets of emotional intelligence to
amplify life satisfaction in older adults.
6.1 Older Adults’ Life Satisfaction Influenced by Gratitude via the Broadening

of Use of Emotion as a Source of Motivation
In testing how gratitude might broaden and build emotional intelligence associated with
heightened life satisfaction in Spanish older adults, we found some supporting evidence.
Although the association between gratitude and life satisfaction in older adults was not
mediated by building understanding of one’s emotions or others’ emotions, nor broaden-
ing the regulation of one’s emotions, we did find support for the unique role of broaden-
ing one’s emotion use in accounting for the positive relation between gratitude and life
satisfaction in older adults. Specifically, the present findings indicate that the disposition
to be grateful appears to broaden and expand one’s use of emotion to motivate oneself,
thereby enhancing life satisfaction in Spanish older adults. This suggests that the ability to
use one’s emotions to motivate oneself represents one efficient way to maximize productiv-
ity and achieve one’s personal goals, especially as it relates to one’s satisfaction with life.
This may also explain why use of emotions emerged as the unique mechanism by which
gratitude positively influences life satisfaction. Use of emotions is the only agentic facet of
emotional intelligence that appears to motivate people into action, perhaps allowing them
to achieve personal goals and pursue interests that they value, thereby facilitating greater
life satisfaction (e.g., Diener et al., 2003).
Our findings may be compared to other studies that have examined the link between
positive psychological traits and subjective well-being based on the broaden-and-build
model. For example, on the one hand, in contrast to our partial support found for the broad-
ening hypothesis, Xiang and Yuan (2020) found evidence for both the broadening and
building hypotheses in examining the link between gratitude and life satisfaction via facets
of envy in Chinese young adults. On the other hand, our unique finding for the broadening
hypothesis contrasts with past research utilizing the broaden-and-build model to study the
link between other positive psychological dispositions (e.g., positive mood) and subjective
well-being (e.g., life satisfaction) across various cultural groups (e.g., Asian Indians, Euro-
pean Americans; Chang et al., 2019). Thus, it remains unclear and important for future
research to build off the present findings and clarify the unique significance of broadening
and/or building processes underlying positive emotions via the broadening and building
of facets of emotional intelligence when considering different cultural and developmental
groups.
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6.2 Older Adults’ Life Satisfaction Amplified by Understanding the Emotions

of Others and Gratitude
In testing an amplification model of gratitude on the positive association between emo-

tional intelligence and life satisfaction in older adults, we found evidence of a significant
Others-Emotions Appraisal × Gratitude interaction effect. That is, older adults who are
good at understanding others’ emotions report greater life satisfaction, when experiencing
high, as compared to low, levels of gratitude. These findings are consistent with the notion
that being grateful reciprocates an upward spiral of enhanced interpersonal relationships
with others and life satisfaction (Gruszecka, 2015). It might be that gratitude and appraisal
of others’ emotions act in a synergistic fashion to facilitate elevated social competencies
that contribute to the development of meaningful and supportive social connections (Algoe
et al., 2013; Hansson et al., 1984; Williams & Bartlett, 2015) that enhance one’s satisfac-
tion with life. On the other hand, our findings indicate that self-emotions appraisal, use of
emotions, and emotion regulation do not interact with gratitude to enhance life satisfac-
tion among older adults. This may indicate that gratitude is uniquely enhanced when older
adults are able to practice gratitude with others (e.g., Pinquart & Sörenson, 2000). Others’
emotions appraisal is distinct in this regard, as it is the only emotional intelligence facet
that directly implicates interpersonal experiences.
Consistent with past research, the present findings indicate that it would be valuable for
future research to examine the utility of life satisfaction interventions that focus on foster-
ing gratitude generally to promote well-being in older adults. Moreover, the present find-
ings suggest the value of adapting such interventions to include a specific focus on fos-
tering facets of emotional intelligence. For example, existing gratitude interventions (e.g.,
Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Martínez-Martí et al., 2010) might be further enhanced by
including opportunities to practice using one’s emotions adaptively as a source of motiva-
tion, as well as appraising and acknowledging the emotions of others.
Thus, these findings point to at least three important implications for promoting subjec-
tive well-being in older adults. First, in hopes of fostering greater life satisfaction in older
adults, the present findings clarify the importance of using emotion adaptively to motivate
oneself towards goals and productivity. Second, the positive association between others’
emotions appraisal and life satisfaction among older adults may be further strengthened by
recognizing and responding to experiences with greater gratitude. Finally, taken together,
the present findings underscore the added value and importance of examining emotional
intelligence as a multidimensional construct, especially when seeking to better understand
and ultimately provide better care for older adults. These findings suggest that practitioners
and therapists may prioritize the development of specific aspects of emotional intelligence,
namely, use of emotions and others’ emotions appraisal, in efforts to promote older adults’
life satisfaction.
7 Limitations
Overall, the present findings clarify the explanatory roles of specific facets of emotional
intelligence, as well as the amplifying effects of gratitude, in understanding life satisfaction
in older adults. That said, despite the value of the present findings, some limitations should
be noted. First, this study focused on a European older adult population. Future research
13
should explore whether emotional intelligence accounts for the link between gratitude and
life satisfaction in older adults from alternative cultural groups (e.g., East Asians; Robus-
telli & Whisman, 2018). Second, the present study focused on subjective psychological
well-being among older adults; however, it would seem important to consider or control
for the potential influence of perceived physical well-being in contributing to older adults’
life satisfaction (Steptoe et al., 2015). Third, while the present study used life satisfaction
as an indicator of subjective well-being in older adults, life satisfaction represents only
one aspect of subjective well-being. Future research should determine whether the present
findings are generalizable to other domains of subjective well-being (e.g., positive affect,
negative affect; Diener, 2000). Finally, the present study utilized a cross-sectional design.
Thus, direct causal inferences cannot be made. Additional research is needed to clarify the
longitudinal relationships among gratitude, emotional intelligence, and life satisfaction in
older adults.
8 Conclusion
Building on Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) broaden-and-build model, the present study was
conducted to examine facets of emotional intelligence as mediators of the positive asso-
ciation between gratitude and life satisfaction in Spanish older adults. Importantly, grati-
tude was found to broaden the use of emotions in predicting life satisfaction in Spanish
older adults. However, no evidence was found to suggest that gratitude is related to life
satisfaction by building a greater understanding of one’s own or others’ emotions. Addi-
tionally, in testing for an interaction model (Emmons & Mishra, 2011; Gruszecka, 2015),
gratitude was found to amplify life satisfaction for Spanish older adults with high (versus
low) understanding of others’ emotions. Thus, our findings provide some support for both
the broadening and amplifying effects of gratitude in Spanish older adults, and suggest that
these models may not be mutually exclusive.
Acknowledgment The present study was in part supported by PAIDI Group CTS-1048 (Junta de Andalu-
cía) and the University of Málaga and Junta de Andalucía/FEDER (UMA18-FEDERJA-147).
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Gratitude, Emotional Intelligence, and Life Satisfaction Among Older Adults: Evidence For A Broaden and Build Model or An Amplification Model?

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Journal of Happiness Studies (2022) 23:2597–2611