Energy 229 (2021) 120461

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Review

A state-of-the-art techno-economic review of distributed and

embedded energy storage for energy systems
Neil McIlwaine a, *, Aoife M. Foley b, c, d, D. John Morrow a, Dlzar Al Kez a, Chongyu Zhang e,
Xi Lu e, Robert J. Best a
a
School of Electronics, Electrical Engineering & Computer Science, Ashby Building, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5AH, United Kingdom
b
School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Ashby Building, Queen’s University Belfast, BT9 5AH, United Kingdom
c
Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
d
Bryden Centre, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, David Keir Building, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 5AG, United Kingdom
e
School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Renewable energy is projected to play an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and in
Received 4 December 2019 realising the climate change goals. Large scale development of variable renewable energy, which is
Received in revised form regarded as non-dispatchable, requires additional power system quality services such as voltage regu-
23 February 2021
lation, frequency regulation and inertial response. Energy storage provides an important means to supply
Accepted 20 March 2021
Available online 23 March 2021
these services but there are many uncertainties in terms of technology, market readiness, economics, and
regulatory requirements. The aim of this study is to undertake a global state-of-the-art review of the
techno-economic and regulatory status of energy storage and power quality services at the distribution
Keywords:
Energy storage
level. The review will establish the global trends in electricity markets that have seen high levels of
Grid services renewable energy penetration. The results of the investigation indicate that further research is required
Power quality to qualify, quantify, and value the installation of mass energy storage particularly at the distribution level.
Renewables © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
Smart grid license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Ancillary services

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. State of the art for each selected country regarding embedded generation, embedded storage and smart metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Renewable energy enabling technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1. Energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2. Heating and transport electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3. Smart grid metering and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4. Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1. SWOT analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2. Pugh analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5. Discussion of the results of SWOT and Pugh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6. Unit commitment modelling tools for energy storage considering retail electricity markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nmcilwaine01@qub.ac.uk (N. McIlwaine).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.120461
0360-5442/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al.
Nomenclature
Abbreviations
ADM Advanced domestic meter
BES Battery energy storage
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
CSP Concentrated Solar Power
DSM Demand side management
FES Flywheel Energy Storage
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Greenhouse gas
1. Introduction
One of the key aims of the Paris Agreement is to combat climate
change by enabling countries to develop strategies for reducing
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [1]. Governments globally have
set targets for energy supply by renewable energy sources (RES)
and strict emission limits for fossil fuel usage to achieve this. Prior
to the Paris Agreement there had been varying degrees of growth in
renewables, but this has rapidly accelerated as countries transition
to a low carbon energy system. In many countries the high level of
electricity generated from renewable sources (RES-E) has altered
the shape of the electricity system in an unprecedented way. Pre-
RES-E, generation in general was located close to load centres
with transmission and distribution networks used to deliver energy
to outlying areas. Presently, in many countries RES-E is located
according to the climatic and topographical conditions. If the RES-E
is mostly wind power generation then the system model is often
skewed with the generation location typically some distance from
the load centre. Renewable incentives are often rolled out with no
regard to system planning which leads to a proliferation of in-
stallations resulting in technical challenges such as increased rate
of change of frequency (ROCOF), curtailment of renewables and
power quality issues [2]. Notwithstanding these technical chal-
lenges there are other issues to consider such as a) public accep-
tance of RES and associated technologies like storage and smart
metering, b) integration with existing infrastructure, c) energy cost,
d) government, regulator and system operator support and e)
behavioural changes like increased use of public transport and the
efficient use of energy.
Public acceptance of renewable energy and associated technol-
ogy needs to be carefully managed. To illustrate this, examples of
poor and good practice are described. In the United Kingdom (UK)
the government had a plan to install smart meters in all homes by
2020. This rollout plan has been fraught with problems and has
now been delayed to 2024. The official reason given for the delay
was due to technical problems with the equipment. However, it is
more likely to be associated with the implementation method with
little or poor upfront explanation of the reasons for smart metering
communicated in advance. In Ref. [3] some of the reasons for the
rollout failure were given as removing the ability to switch supplier,
poor quality of wi-fi, difficulty in customer understanding of data
and the security risk posed. In contrast a pilot scheme in the Dingle
area of Ireland has been lauded as a success [4]. Here the network
operator planned and delivered a scheme to install smart devices in
homes and businesses by using local ambassadors to inform and
encourage the concept. In the local schools the benefits of smart
metering and devices were explained to the extent that local farm
businesses requested inclusion to the scheme.
2
Energy 229 (2021) 120461
LCOE Levelized cost of energy
PHS Pumped Hydro Storage
PV Photovoltaic
RES Renewable Energy Sources
RES-E Renewable Energy Sources - Electrical
ROCOF Rate of change of frequency
ROK Republic of Korea
SEUPB Special European Programmes Body
SPIRE2 Storage Platform for the Integration of Renewable
Energy
SWOT Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats
UK United Kingdom
USA United States of America
Electricity system networks are mostly designed around gen-
eration at transmission level with delivery at distribution level.
System control is driven from central hubs and the power flow is
intended to be unidirectional from bulk generation to end user. This
type of design is not compatible for a system with renewable
generation and energy storage at all levels. Therefore, system
infrastructure needs to transition to meet the challenges of
renewable energy. Data will be a key element to this transition. At
distribution level the grid system must be capable of, a) operating
with bidirectional energy flows, b) have sufficient capacity for
electrification of heating and transport, c) deliver power quality
products and d) integrate with smart devices and demand side
management (DSM).
In regions where the cost of renewables competes with fossil
fuel generation and storage is affordable, micro-grids are emerging.
A microgrid is a self-contained system containing generation,
storage, and load and is controlled and managed locally. It can
operate as an independent islanded system or connected to a utility
grid. Interconnected microgrids to share and trade energy are
studied in Ref. [5]. The framework in this study contains fuel cell
vehicles, storage, and combined heat and power to maximise the
use of renewable energy. The large utilities are now seriously
challenged as microgrids erode their customer base and traditional
source of revenue. Extrapolating out the growth in microgrids
would result in utility grid operating companies and large fossil fuel
generators (typically coal plants) becoming financially stranded. At
the very least utility companies need to invest into microgrids,
actively engage with regulators and evolve to meet the challenges
of renewable generation.
Cost of energy from renewables versus the cost from fossil fuels
is a matter of much debate. As the cost of renewables fall, energy
from these sources is now competing with fossil fuels. However, the
total social cost of energy usage must be considered so the adverse
health implications of using fossil fuel and the cost of climate
change can be captured. In Ref. [6] a model to supply 139 countries
exclusively with wind, water and solar energy indicates a lower or
equivalent cost for energy. When health and climate change are
included the cost reduces to 25% of business as usual. This is ach-
ieved by use of wind, hydro (using existing installations) and solar
together with battery energy storage and widescale electrification
of heating and transport.
Government support like renewable incentives has driven
growth. However, challenges often arise when there is policy
inconsistency. Distribution companies can find themselves
conflicted when it comes to renewables as it changes their business
model and source of revenue. In Spain, around 2013, the sitting
government, faced with a huge deficit decided to raise revenue by
taxing solar photo-voltaic (PV) prosumers who wished to remain
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al.
connected to the grid. This slowed the installation of solar PV and at
a time when the price of PV panels was falling. This decision was
reversed in 2018 but is an example of inconsistent government
approach [7]. In India the metering system is operated on a net
basis where the charge or compensation to prosumers is based on
the difference between export of solar PV and import from the grid
at a price determined by the state [8]. This scheme is intended to
encourage growth of solar PV. However, this conflicts with distri-
bution company business models which exist primarily to sell en-
ergy. Therefore, there has been a reluctance by the distribution
companies to roll out the scheme as this change in business model
is seen as eroding profits.
In 2017, approximately 24% of the total final consumption of
global energy was used for electricity generation [9]. The remainder
was used for transport, heating, industry, and other uses. Transport
and heating generally use fossil fuel at efficiencies associated with
the combustion process. If these sectors alone can be electrified
using renewable energy, emissions are eliminated and the use of
energy is more efficient. However, this will require a massive
behavioural change in terms of public transport use, electric vehicle
uptake, heat pump use and insulated buildings. The use of wood as
a fuel for heating and cooking is prevalent in sub-Saharan African
countries [10], China [11] and India [12]. This causes emissions
which impact the atmosphere and the health of local populations.
The emissions cause both indoor and outdoor pollution. In many
areas wood is the only accessible fuel, so behavioural change
initiated by government policies to assist transition to lower or zero
emission fuels, will have both health and environmental benefits.
This illustrates the wide spectrum of behavioural change ranging
from relatively simple changes like swapping vehicle use for
available public transport in developed countries, to the conversion
to different methods for heating and cooking, all requiring intense
government support.
There are subtle differences between the 100% RES and the net
zero CO2 ideologies to tackling climate change. The main difference
between the two approaches is the availability of carbon capture
and storage (CCS) technology. When CCS is used with renewable
biofuel then carbon negative figures can be achieved. A 100% RES
approach cannot achieve zero CO2 emissions due to the industrial
processes which use fossil fuel to make materials for renewable
energy equipment. Globally both options are proposed but there
are but there are significant challenges to achieving these, tech-
nologically, socially, and economically. In this paper this is exam-
ined from the perspective of distributed and embedded energy
storage for a low carbon transition in a smart energy system. The
work focuses on ten of the G20 countries as this captures a repre-
sentative global snapshot of countries with different political, social
and developmental challenges in addition to energy, transport and
heating and cooling issues. This paper contains six sections. Section
1 introduces the needs and challenges and the concepts for such
energy systems. Section 2 examines the current state of the art for
the ten selected G20 countries with emphasis on embedded gen-
eration, embedded storage, and smart metering. Section 3 looks at
the state of the art of the technology enabling renewable energy. In
Section 4 a narrative analysis has been undertaken in the form of a
combined strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats (SWOT)
married to a Pugh chart [13]. In Section 5 the results of the Pugh/
SWOT are discussed. Section 6 provides a concise systematic review
of electricity system modelling tools to inform retail electricity
market modelling and future research lines to integrate energy
storage and retail market modelling concepts. Finally, conclusions
are presented in Section 7.
3
Energy 229 (2021) 120461
2. State of the art for each selected country regarding
embedded generation, embedded storage and smart metering
Ten countries have been selected from the G20 group to frame a
global snapshot of energy policy, electricity system trends and
distributed and embedded energy storage. The G20 is a group of 19
countries plus the European Union block whose primary focus is
the governance of the global economy for which energy policy is a
major factor. In Table 1 the emissions policy, target year, generation
and other details are set out.
Each country has developed policies to suit individual needs
guided by the Paris Agreement. Individual policies differ depending
on the state in each country of the economy, energy demand pro-
file, resource availability and the current energy system. For each
country, the transition phase working towards the target emission
date presents technical and implementational challenges such as
power quality, licensing, grid connection and distribution conges-
tion. Challenges are identified for each country and the status of
embedded generation, embedded storage, and smart metering.
Australia plans to meet an emission reduction of 26e28% on
2005 levels by a combination of hydro, solar and wind. There are
plans to expand the Snowy Mountain hydro scheme but this is
expected to be met with opposition [25]. Large scale hydro devel-
opment is potentially a solution to meet emission reduction policy
and complement renewable generation, but these schemes are
often faced with difficulties such as planning delays, environmental
issues, land redeployment and extremely high capital costs.
Climatically, Australia is well placed to utilise solar PV, and this
makes up most of the embedded generation. This has resulted in
battery storage development, both small and grid scale and also
thermal storage where the energy from centralised solar plants is
concentrated using materials like molten salts and used to generate
electricity using heat engines [26]. In 2018 the findings of a Climate
Council of Australia report [27] noted that energy storage was
developing with falling storage costs particularly in households
coupled with embedded solar PV. The Australian Energy Regulator
has a program to install smart meters for all new developments and
the replacement of existing obsolete devices [28]. This applies to all
states except for Victoria where the scheme is mandatory. The
transition from 84% fossil fuel electricity generation to renewable
will be a massive political challenge particularly as Australia is a net
exporter of coal. A combination of domestic rooftop solar PV
coupled to small battery energy storage is the best opportunity to
take advantage of the climatic conditions.
Brazil is a global leader in installed renewables (mainly hydro-
electric power) which annually contribute over 60% of the gener-
ated electrical energy. Brazil has used its unique topology to
develop electrical generation by hydro-electric power. The hydro
plants are used to balance solar (0.1%) and wind (7%), but gas (11%)
remains baseload and provides the inertia and frequency response
services. However, in recent years there has been a reduction in
annual rainfall, and this coupled with rising demand means the
hydro schemes are less effective as an energy storage resource.
Rooftop solar PV represents the best opportunity for embedded
generation with 7 GW planned by 2024 [29]. Domestic storage
located behind the meter has been growing, especially in the north
east of the country where the sunny climate suits solar PV and also
to take advantage of the substantial difference between peak and
off-peak tariffs [30]. There is no government mandate for the
installation of smart meters however there is a Time of Use tariff for
consumers with a monthly consumption above 250 kWh and this
coupled with domestic solar PV may drive demand for devices [31].
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al. Energy 229 (2021) 120461

Table 1
Country policy

Country Emissions Policy Target year Comments Paris Generation by type (2017) [9]
Agreement
Fossil Renewable Other
ratified

Australia 26e28% reduction on 2005 levels [14] 2030 Abundant fuel resources with coal Yes 84.3% 15.7% 0.0%
providing over 60% of electricity
Brazil 37% reduction on 2005 levels 2025 Low carbon intensity due to high level Yes 18.1% 79.1% 2.7%
43% reduction on 2005 levels [15] 2030 of hydro generation
China 60%e65% reduction in carbon intensity 2030 Abundant coal reserves providing over Yes 70.7% 25.4% 3.9%
per unit of gross domestic product 60% of electricity
CO2 emissions to peak circa 2030 [16] Large solar producer, but only accounts
for circa 2% of electricity
Germany 55% reduction on 1990 levels 2030 Aspiration for electricity to be supplied Yes 51.5% 33.1% 15.4%
Plan to reduce to 80%e95% on 1990 2050 primarily by renewables
levels [17]
India 33e35% reduction in “emissions 2030 Heavily reliant on coal for the rapidly Yes 80.1% 17.2% 2.7%
intensity” compared to 2005 levels 2030 growing market
Plans for 40% of electricity to be Solar, wind and energy efficiency
renewable or nuclear [18] schemes being used to reduce
Creation of carbon sink of 2.5e3 GtCO2e emissions
[19]
Russian Federation Can achieve Paris Agreement targets by 2030 Huge energy reserves of oil, gas and coal Yes 64.0% 17.2% 18.8%
reduction in emissions related to oil Gas providing over 40% of electricity
production RES sector fairly under-developed
No long-term goals set [20]
South Africa Integrated Resource Plan (IRP 2019) to 2050 Coal provides almost 90% of electricity Yes 88.9% 5.5% 5.6%
reduce coal, increase RES and gas [21] Developing electricity with growing
demand
South Korea Plans to reduce coal power and increase 2030 Growing demand with 70% reliance on Yes 69.3% 4.0% 26.7%
RES [22] fossil fuels Focuses on security of supply
Implementation Plan for 2030 to
increase share of RE generation by 20%
by 2030
United Kingdom 51% reduction on 1990 levels 2025 Massive growth in renewables (solar Yes 46.4% 29.3% 24.3%
57% reduction on 1990 levels 2030 and wind) resulting in power system
Long term plan for net zero CO2 [23] 2050 issues
United States America Withdrew from the Paris Agreement in 2050 Large producer of oil and gas with fossil Withdrawn 62.4% 17.2% 20.4%
2019, under Trump, but now rejoining fuels providing just over 60% of
under Biden electricity
Long term plan is 76% below 1990 levels
[24]

The decreasing effectiveness of hydro, rising demand and the
growth in wind and solar will present a technical challenge
considering the hydro is mainly grid scale with solar PV at distri-
bution level. Electrification of heating, cooling and transport will
exacerbate the problem at distribution level with increased load
therefore, distributed generation and storage needs to be
developed.
China with nearly 70% of electricity generation from coal ac-
counts for 28% of global CO2. Their energy policy is a 60%e65%
reduction of carbon intensity per unit of gross domestic product
with CO2 emissions peaking in 2030. China are planning to reduce
carbon intensity by driving policy to increase the use of renewables
and nuclear [32]. To meet the peak CO2 emissions by 2030 target
China plans a combination of hydro, nuclear, wind, solar and
biomass to reach a target of 20% of primary energy by non-fossil
sources [33]. With a growing demand, huge coal reserves and a
regime which exercises a high degree of state control, China will
struggle to limit emissions. In China in 2017 there was 130 GW of
installed solar PV of which 27% was at the distribution level [34].
The Chinese government is encouraging the growth of renewables
but with nearly 70% of electricity generation by fossil fuels this is a
huge task. The government has recognised the need for energy
storage [35] but despite being a major manufacturer of lithium-ion
battery cells which are widely used for battery energy storage
(BES), embedded energy storage development is still in the very
early stages. There has been some rollout of smart metering in
China with government plans to develop a smart grid [36]. This is
mainly led by the distribution companies and in 2018 China was
global leader for installations although this has to be put in
perspective considering the size of their system [37]. The challenge
for China in its transition to a low carbon economy will be moving
from predominately coal fired generation to renewables. However,
the strong state influence will be of benefit if policies to transition
to renewable energy can be successfully implemented.
From the selected G20 countries, Germany has the highest
percentage of renewable generation with 33%. Germany being
strategically situated in Central Europe is an exporter of electricity
via grid connections with neighbouring countries. The Ener-
giewende which is German for “energy transition” is the legislation
for GHG reduction and renewable energy targets. It was introduced
in 2010 and is a plan working towards 2025 to transform the power
system to be supplied by mainly renewables with nuclear being
phased out. Nuclear generation is being replaced by a combination
of fossil and renewables. As a result of this, generation by fossil fuel
is higher than the UK even though Germany leads UK in generation
by renewables. In 2019, 8.2% of electricity generated was from solar
PV. The climatic conditions in Germany suit solar PV and on a sunny
day can contribute up to 50% of consumption [38]. With the high
level of renewables Germany is also a leader in energy storage and
in particular battery energy storage. The German electricity market

4
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al.
encourages a combination of solar and storage and has a consistent
annual growth in terms of storage. It also has a high number of
behind the meter installations. In 2018 there were approximately
125,000 (950 MWh) home storage systems and 59 (550 MWh)
large storage systems [39]. The home storage systems are mainly
deployed for PV self-use and reduction of electricity costs whilst
the larger systems compete in the ancillary services market. In 2016
the German government passed legislation for the roll-out of smart
metering. Consumers with a high consumption were the first to be
provided with smart meters. The scheme commenced in 2017 and
is planned to be completed by 2032 [40].
India is the second most populous country in the world just
behind China and similarly has a rising electricity demand. How-
ever, India has the highest number of people (1.1 billion) globally
who have no access to electricity living mostly in rural areas. For
electrical generation it is heavily reliant on fossil fuel at 80% with
17% renewable made up by 9% hydro, 3% wind, 2% solar PV and 3%
biomass. It is a developing country with a gross domestic product
(GDP) growing rapidly at a rate of 7% over the past 5 years. The
Indian government plan to achieve a 33e35% reduction of the
“emissions intensity” compared to 2005 levels by a growth in re-
newables, construction of nuclear plant and creation of a carbon
sink. The paper in Ref. [19] provides a model for India to meet its
Paris Agreement commitments and in addition to the measures
outlined previously, the model predicts coal plants being stranded
before their normal lifetime and a shift to electrification of heating/
cooling and transport. Embedded generation in the form of solar PV
for rural areas coupled to a mini-grid is an option which the gov-
ernment are considering [41]. This will require storage with the
opportunity expected to be between 70 and 200 GW by 2022 [42].
This energy storage will be required either at large scale level or
domestic level. Considering the size of the population and the
economy, India like China will become a major player in the storage
market. However, given India’s heavy reliance on fossil fuels and
with the plan for increased nuclear, energy storage growth may be
slow. There are plans for smart metering rollout. In a country with
electrification of rural areas still in development phase, this pre-
sents an opportunity. The main challenge for India, like China will
be the transition from fossil fuelled generation (74% in 2017) to a
low carbon scenario.
In the Russian Federation which is the fourth largest power
system in the world, gas, and coal account for 63% of generation
with the remainder made up of hydro (17%), nuclear (19%) and oil
(1%). The Russian Federation plans to meet its commitments to the
Paris Agreement by lowering emissions related to oil production.
There are no long-term goals set. There is very slow development of
renewables in the Russian Federation even though the Levelized
Cost of Energy (LCOE), considering the Russian climatic and eco-
nomic conditions, show that wind and solar is comparable with
conventional generation with wind second cheapest after gas [43].
Renewable energy excluding large grid scale hydro only makes up
less than 1% of electricity generated. Under the Strategy for
Development of Renewable Energy there is a target set for a
renewable level of 2.5% by 2020 [44] but this is not legally binding.
There is a widely held perception in Russia that renewable energy is
too expensive. Ironically, Russia pioneered renewables with small
scale wind turbines in the 1930s and the first use of solar in the
Sputnik space program in the 1950s. From the 1960s Russia mainly
concentrated on fossil, nuclear and large hydro. There is little evi-
dence of either embedded energy storage or smart metering. Russia
as a major exporter of oil and gas is somewhat conflicted in the
growth of renewables therefore growth in the embedded energy
storage and generation area may be slow.
South Africa is almost wholly dependent on coal (89%) for
electrical generation with nuclear (6%) and hydro (2%). Generation
5
Energy 229 (2021) 120461
by other renewables for 2017 was solar PV (1%) and wind (2%).
There is a general plan to increase the use of renewables but
considering this is a developing country and there are still many
residences still to be electrified (28% of homes), the challenge is
huge. In Ref. [45] the major barrier to development of renewables is
identified as cost and risk. In response the government has intro-
duced a renewable energy support incentive scheme, a feed in tariff
called REFIT. However, the REFIT scheme is identified as not being
designed to encourage large scale penetration of renewables
therefore growth of embedded storage will be slow. In South Africa,
the state-run electricity supplier ESKOM and partly state-run fuel
provider SASOL exercise huge power and naturally want to protect
their respective businesses. Climatically South Africa is well suited
for solar (both PV and thermal) however these technologies cannot
compete with the coal fired power stations which utilise the
abundant indigenous reserves. Solar PV may be a solution for
remote areas and this being the case then storage will be required.
Due to the mismatch between capacity and demand there are often
enforced blackouts, and this has led to wealthy consumers
installing home battery systems. Power quality at the distribution
level is poor and this has prompted a study into using smart
metering to monitor parameters [46]. The challenge for South Af-
rica in transitioning to a low carbon economy will be a) the high
reliance on indigenous coal and b) reaching a state where the
system capacity can meet demand. However climatically the
country is well suited to solar and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
at grid level.
In the Republic of Korea (ROK), generation is based on 69% fossil,
(all imported fuel), 26% nuclear and 4% renewables. The latest
government policy is for an increase in the share of renewable
energy generation by 20% by 2030. There are also plans to reduce
the number of coal plants. Coal plants will most likely be replaced
with higher efficient gas plants but to reach the goal of 20% re-
newables, the government has announced the installation of PV
(37 GW) and onshore and offshore wind (3 GW and 13 GW
respectively) [47]. The ROK’s power system is electrically isolated so
as renewables grow, system inertia will reduce, and frequency
response will no longer be available from large fossil fuelled gen-
erators. The paper in Ref. [48] looks at the benefit that pumped
hydro would bring. The paper concludes that 880 MW of newly
installed pumped hydro would reduce the cost of electricity and
cover the volatility of renewable energy. In the capital Seoul a
government scheme to assist low income families involved the
installation of a small solar PV panels (260 W) on residential ve-
randas [49]. The recipients were initially satisfied with the tech-
nology, but this changed when envisaged savings and capacity did
not materialise. Some residents thought their electricity bills would
be zero. This is an example of a scheme which was not thoroughly
enough explained in the implementation phase. The ROK is a major
manufacturer of energy storage equipment with two companies in
the top ten global list of lithium ion batteries (discussed in section
3.1). The plan to develop renewables is in the form of solar and
wind but this will need firmed by either pumped hydro or storage
in the form of batteries, most probably the latter as new large in-
stallations of pumped hydro are often faced with environmental
restrictions. The ROK government has a plan to introduce a Smart
Grid and with that smart metering [50]. Smart metering was
initially installed for high voltage customers only.
In 2017 the UK had a 46% reliance on electrical generation by
fossil fuels with 29% renewables and 25% other. The Climate Change
Act 2008 [23] is the legislation driving the United Kingdom target
for net zero CO2 emissions by 2050. This is to be achieved by a
combination of phasing out coal plants and replacement with
efficient gas and a growth in renewables (mainly wind). There is
interconnection with France and Northern Ireland and the Republic
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al.
of Ireland. In Northern Ireland (a region of the UK) the electricity
market is operated on an all-island basis with the Republic of
Ireland. The grid system in the two jurisdictions developed sepa-
rately but there are plans for a new interconnector [51]. As in the
UK the island of Ireland has a large renewable resource in the form
of wind so a growth in energy storage is expected for these closely
coupled systems. The biggest issue for the UK and Ireland is
curtailment due to reduced inertia caused by the level of wind
generation. In Ref. [52] it is suggested that the curtailment issues
can be resolved by a two-fold approach of reducing the inertial floor
requirement and by the installation of renewable energy generators
with the ability to participate in the balancing market.
Embedded generation in the form of rooftop solar PV is popular
in residential areas as single house ownership is common in the UK.
In 2019 there was 13.1 GW of solar PV with small scale systems
making up 56% of this total [53]. The remaining 44% of solar PV
generation was from large industrial scale systems. A Feed-in-Tariff
for export from residences to the grid ended in 2019 and has been
replaced with a Smart Export Guarantee which pays small scale low
carbon generators for exported energy (Great Britain only) [54].
There are grid scale battery energy storage installations in the UK
which are competing in the ancillary services market. Growth of
embedded storage at domestic level is slow mainly due to the initial
costs and the lack of investment return opportunities. Smart
Metering for both gas and electricity is being rolled out with 2020
set as the target date for completion [55]. Due to technical issues
with the equipment this target has been missed and has been reset
to 2024.
The United States of America (USA) withdrew from the Paris
Agreement in 2019 with the reason given as the agreement being
bad for the economy and putting USA at an economic disadvantage.
However, some states still adopted the principles of the Agreement
despite the withdrawal. In 2021, following a change in political
leadership, the USA rejoined the Paris Agreement. The government
long term plan is for emissions to be 76% below 1990 levels. The
United States is a large producer of oil and gas with fossil fuels
providing 64% of electricity, nuclear at 19% and hydro at 8% and
renewables at 9%. In the state of California, domestically installed
solar PV has led to a high number of behind the meter battery
storage installations. This high level of solar PV has caused network
issues where system demand spikes in the evening after sunset
results in the dispatch of fossil fuel machines operating sub-
optimally thus exposing the need for energy storage.
In [56] the potential for energy storage to provide peak capacity
in USA is explored. The authors state that storage can reduce net
demand and replace peak capacity. The paper concludes that there
is potential for 28 GW of 4-h storage to provide peaking capacity.
Also of note is the observation of a finite limit to the level of battery
storage that can deliver frequency regulation. However, this study
mainly refers to utility scale storage. In Ref. [57] an optimization
model is developed to examine the generation and transmission
system through to 2050 under 4 scenarios a) no policy, b) no new
transmission, c) pessimistic costing i.e., capital cost of PV, wind,
battery does not reduce as much as expected and d) carbon tax
initialising at $20/tonne and rising to $200/tonne. The conclusions
from the study were a) the USA sector can be substantially decar-
bonized at modest cost but very costly to fully decarbonize, b) solar
PV and wind will make up 40% of generation mix, c) opportunity for
long distance transmission investments are limited with in-
vestments in battery storage a more favourable option, d) the use of
gas declines and e) electricity costs change from operating costs to
capital expenditure. For energy storage, conclusions b), c) and e) are
very significant indicating for USA a continued growth in renew-
ables coupled with growth in battery storage and costs moving to a
capital expenditure basis. In 2017 nearly half of USA electricity
6
Energy 229 (2021) 120461
customers have smart meters [58]. There is separate legislation for
each state which accounts for the differing penetration levels. By
rejoining the Paris Agreement the USA, with its system size and
relatively high level of wind penetration (6% in 2017), will be a
growth area for both renewables and energy storage.
3. Renewable energy enabling technologies
Historically in a monopoly power system, the primary energy
storage was the stored or indigenous fuel held by power generators.
Coal fired power stations were required by regulators to hold re-
serves of fuel (up to 20 days’ supply) so they could ride through fuel
supply issues with no effect on output. Electrical power was
delivered on demand so to facilitate this generation and network
over capacity was normal practice. Electrical generation despatch
was centrally controlled and based on weather, day of week and
season. Once the initial system infrastructure was paid for i.e., po-
wer plants and grid, the running costs were dictated mostly by fuel
price. Countries like UK and France with high nuclear capacity and
suitable topology used pumped hydro schemes to flatten the de-
mand curve. Ireland on the other hand with no nuclear generation
used pumped hydro for peak lopping and emergency situations.
With the shift to renewables this pattern changed, and as shown in
section 2, countries with increasing levels of renewable energy
have developed alternative forms of storage as pumped hydro and
other capital-intensive technologies like compressed air energy
storage (CAES) are too capital intensive. This is all driven by the
electricity markets where monopolies would prefer a larger utility,
but now the deregulated distribution companies with shareholders
want to solve the problem quickly and make a profit faster, so
recently at wind and solar parks and in urban areas on congested
grid, storage batteries are appearing. The next move now is for
increased use of smaller batteries coupled with embedded gener-
ation in the distribution system. This non-utility growth has a very
different impact on the power system as now the prosumer has
become a problem as there is no longer a fixed demand, no control,
more variable pricing, and more uncertainty risk for investor. This
means an overall increase in wholesale price and a knock-on impact
on large industrial demands. In this section the technologies
available and behavioural changes to transition to a low carbon
economy are reviewed with an emphasis on embedded generation,
storage, and smart grid.
3.1. Energy storage
Research is extensive in energy storage to firm intermittent
renewable energy sources [59]. The key technologies are sum-
marised technically and economically in Table 2. These are pumped
hydroelectric (PHS) [60], compressed air energy storage (CAES)
[61], flywheel energy storage (FES) [62], battery energy storage
(BES) [63], thermal storage [64] and use of hydrogen [65] and
methane [66]. Other storage technologies are capacitor and su-
perconductor magnetic energy storage but as these are in the
development stage they are not included for discussion in this
study.
Globally PHS is the most mature and well-established storage
technology with the highest installed capacity of 153 GW globally
in 2018 [68]. A PHS installation can provide energy management,
seasonal management, back-up, peak lopping, valley filling and
time shifting. However, it is geographically limited, capital inten-
sive and often delayed due to environmental permits.
CAES is a technology which can deliver flexible power quality
services but like PHS is geographically limited. There are two major
CAES facilities in the world, the 290 MW Huntorf plant (commis-
sioned in 1978) in Germany and the 110 MW McIntosh plant in the
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al. Energy 229 (2021) 120461

Table 2
Energy storage technologies

Technology logoPower Energy Project Cost Efficiency, Grid level Pros Cons Development state
% Utility e
$/kW
generation
$/kWh

Mechanical Pumped hydro 10MW-3GW to 100 GWh 1700-3200 70e85 Transmission Mature technology Geographically ‘000s of
[67] High power density restricted applications
106e200 Long life Capitally globally
intensive
Long lead time
Grid scale only
Compressed air 100MW-1GW to 10 GWh 1050-2544 40e75 Transmission Long life Geologically Only 2 plants
[67] restricted globally, Huntorf
94e229 Capitally Plant in Germany
intensive and Macintosh in
Long lead time USA.
Grid scale only
Flywheel 100kW-20MW 10-100 kWh 1080-2880 70e95 Grid High power density Low energy Not yet mature.
[67] Distribution Fast recharge density Further
4320 Low maintenance Large standby development
e11520 losses required.
High technical
requirements
(vacuum
chamber and
floating
bearings)
Electrochemical Li-Ion 1kW-100MW to 100 MWh 1570-2322 85e98 Grid High power density Lithium Widely used
[67] Distribution/ High energy availability commercially.
393e581 Household density Emerging
High efficiency technology
Costly
Lead Acid Some kW- To 10 MWh 1430-2522 75e90 Grid Mature technology High Mature
100MW [67] Distribution/ Inexpensive maintenance
358e631 Household Environmental
risks
Short cycle life
Flow cell Several 100 kWh to 2742-5226 60e85 Grid High cycle life Acidic leakage Developing
kW
100MW some MWh [67] Distribution Energy and power Costly
686e1307 independently maintenance
scalable Costs for redox
solution high
Chemical Hydrogen 1kW-1GW 10 kWh to n/a 25e45 Grid Can be stored High cost Developing/
several GWh Distribution underground electrolysers demonstration
Energy storage Storage density phase
level high lower than
methane
Operational
cost linked to
electricity price
Methane 1MW-1GW 1 MWh to n/a 25e30 Grid Long term storage Low efficiency Early stage of
several GWH Compatible with High costs development/pilot
existing natural gas projects
technology
Thermal Concentrated kW-MW kWh-MWh n/a Dependent Grid Useful for storing Slow response CSP commercial in
solar power on Distribution solar Australia
District Heating technology District heating District heating
Heat Pump established mature
technology Heat pump
Heat pump emerging
technology technology
established

United States of America (USA) [69]. Both facilities use salt caverns
to store compressed air. A study of the impact of CAES on the
market in Ireland, which has a large renewable generation capacity,
concluded with very favourable results including arbitrage oppor-
tunities and decreased emissions [61]. Crucially however, the
response time for CAES is not rapid enough to provide the ancillary
services now required. The CAES technology has however pro-
gressed to second generation where small and medium sized gas
generators use compressed air stored in an above ground structure
thus ruling out the need for an underground cavern [70]. This form
of storage can then be installed at the point in the network of most
need and if developed will be competition for the battery sector. In
Ref. [71] energy storage is recognised as a solution to the issues
caused by intermittent renewable generation. In this paper a model
is developed which demonstrates that high profits can be gener-
ated by competing in the regulation market using CAES and PHS
technologies and concludes by identifying the additional benefits
which could be potentially gained by providing other grid services.

7
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al.
Flywheel technology rapidly developed during the industrial
revolution as a smoothing mechanism for steam engines [62].
Flywheels in the form of energy storage can provide system inertia
as shown in Ref. [72] where testing proved that a system connected
flywheel when subjected to a system disturbance reduced both the
frequency nadir and the ROCOF. In other literature [73], two fly-
wheels connected in a micro-grid with PV and wind generation
were shown to share a system load addition with no adverse effect
on frequency. There are some examples of flywheels being utilised
for energy storage commercially in the USA [74] and the UK [75].
However large-scale development is still at the very early stages.
Potential sites for grid scale flywheel installations could be power
station sites with available grid capacity due to plant retirement. On
such sites there would be available electrical grid capacity, space,
industrialised zoned areas and engineering expertise. FES can
provide inertia, reserve, frequency regulation and frequency
response. It has had very niche applications to solve similar power
problems in manufacturing and data storage applications, where
frequency and power must remain within strict limits. Recent
development in materials, magnetic bearings and power elec-
tronics have brought flywheel technology to the stage where it
presents a viable option for energy storage. The advantages and
disadvantages of FES are described in Table 3. Really the question
here is, does a flywheel moot for utility or distributed applications
as a power quality device?
Battery energy storage is an electro-chemical storage technol-
ogy capable of providing power quality services and recently has
been used as complementary storage for variable renewables such
as solar PV and wind, partly driven by reducing battery costs. There
are several battery technologies covered in Ref. [42] ranging from
mature lead acid type which are widely used in the automobile and
heavy goods vehicle industry to developing technologies using flow
batteries which could see applications in the energy storage mar-
ket. However, it is the lithium-ion battery technology which has
emerged as the most popular being particularly suitable for both
portable devices and energy storage. The reasons for lithium-ion
batteries becoming the most popular technology are listed as
high energy density; low self-discharge; lightweight and flexible
and their relatively low maintenance compared to other battery
technologies. However, lithium-ion installations do require tem-
perature monitoring and, in some installations, depending on
ambient conditions, cooling systems.
Cost presents the greatest barrier to the large-scale installation
of battery energy storage. In Ref. [76] costing of BES is determined
by firstly establishing the nameplate duration which is the ratio of
the BES energy and power. A BES with a nameplate duration less
than 0.5 h is defined as short duration, between 0.5 h and 2 h as
medium duration and greater than 2 h as long duration. BES with
short durations typically have lower power capacity prices (£/MW
installed) and conversely, BES with long durations have lower en-
ergy prices (£/MWh installed). In many countries, customers
installing household solar PV are being encouraged to co-install
Table 3
Flywheel advantages and disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Fast charge/discharge Auxiliary equipment requirement
High energy density Vacuum enclosure
No capacity degradation Magnetic bearings
Easily measured state of charge Safety consideration
Low maintenance High initial costs
Short recharge time
Scalable/easily located
Low environmental impact
8
Energy 229 (2021) 120461
suitably sized battery storage. The associated cost of this storage
needs to be weighed up against the cost of network build out,
peaking plant operation, renewable displacement and capacity
contracts for marginal plant balanced by the benefits of voltage
support; frequency; regulation; reserve and the reduction of
emissions. The LCOE for lithium-ion batteries, which is the lifetime
cost of delivery of energy from this technology, is falling year on
year. A recent trade organisation [77] reported that the LCOE for
lithium ion had fallen to $187/MWh compared to solar ($57/MWh)
and wind ($50/MWh).
Demand for lithium-ion batteries has been increasing as the
popularity of electric vehicles and portable battery devices grow
with demand tripling between 2015 and 2020 [78]. This has led to
an increase in the demand for lithium raw materials. The raw
material for lithium is either in solid form from a type of granite
called pegmatite or in liquid form from underground saline lakes.
The raw material in both methods undergoes extensive processes
to produce the required lithium metal. Globally, 50% of the lithium
reserves come from Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile. With increased
demand, prices for the raw material have increased but this has not
seriously impacted the cost of batteries where prices are still falling.
However, if lithium-ion batteries become the prominent energy
storage devices this price balance may change. Cobalt is often used
to form the cathode in lithium-ion batteries. Over half of the cobalt
mined globally is sourced from the Democratic Republic of Congo
[79], with concerns raised regarding the mining conditions and
possible links to adverse health issues [80]. So, the issues are a) are
there sufficient reserves of raw material to meet the rising demand,
b) are the extraction and treatment processes being carried with
minimal environmental and health impacts and c) can end of life
batteries be recycled? In the rush for energy storage in the quest for
sustainable economy in the form of lithium-ion batteries these is-
sues need to be seriously considered. In Table 4 the major lithium-
ion battery manufacturers globally have been listed. China is
dominant in this sector and their plans to combat climate change
through increasing generation from renewables should see the
country continue to lead this technology.
World demand for batteries is growing with batteries being
increasingly used in portable devices and for energy storage. Based
on information provided in Ref. [91] there was 1.4 GW of BES
deployed globally in 2017. By 2022, according to this report, the
global energy market will be circa 8.6 GW. In terms of power ca-
pacity, Australia led with 246 MW (mainly made up of a single
battery of 100 MW). Australia is also the leader in residential
behind the meter installations and as a result is the preferred test
bed for new technology. Recent events in Australia (bush fires and
damage to the Great Barrier Reef) have heightened the call for a
national response to climate change and the proposed opening up
of new coal reserves in Queensland has been vigorously opposed by
parties striving to slow climate change. In terms of energy capacity,
the USA leads with 431 MWh available. Specifically, in the USA
there has been steady growth with the states of New York and
Massachusetts setting energy storage targets in law. For the USA,
the state of California, however, is the leader in the area of behind
the meter BES installations. This is in part due to a response to the
proliferation of domestic solar in this state and the requirement to
store energy during the day for release during morning and eve-
ning peaks.
In the UK growth of BES is being held back due to benefits being
scaled back towards 2021. In addition, market rules in the UK offer
no encouragement for network operators to get involved in energy
storage either in ownership or operation. For these two reasons
growth in the UK for storage could be stifled unless change is
affected. In Europe, Germany has the highest capacity of BES in-
stallations. The German electricity market encourages a
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al.
Table 4
Global Lithium-ion battery companies
Company Headquarters Location Established
CATL China 2011
BYD China 1995
GS Yuasa Japan 2004
LG Chem Korea 1947
Lishen China 1997
Optimum Nano China 2002
Panasonic Japan 1918
Samsung SDI Korea 1970
Tesla United States America 2003
Wanxiang China 1969
combination of solar and storage and has a consistent annual
growth in terms of storage [91]. It also has a high number (80,000)
of behind the meter installations. However, this trend does not
extend into the industrial sector.
In the Republic of Korea, the monopoly utility company has been
using vendors to install BES in blocks of between 16 and 48 MW
primarily to provide frequency regulation services. This has resul-
ted in a saving for the utility because of a decrease in energy pay-
ments to constrained generators. The ROK government is planning
to grow BES in tandem with renewable energy development, with a
target of 1.7 GW of energy storage by 2020 [92] and the introduc-
tion of measures incentivising installation of renewables. To take
advantage of these incentives, PV generators are increasingly
combining with BES to maximise their revenue from energy sold
into the grid. The sizing of BES therefore becomes very important as
the optimal size is key to maximising return of investment. In
Japan, a contract is in place for a 240 MW/720 MWh BES facility due
to become operational in 2023 [93]. This will connect wind turbines
totalling 500 MW to provide balancing demand and grid stability.
Global figures from Ref. [94] indicate that BES is concentrated in the
developed economies of North America, East Asia (mainly Japan
and ROK) and Europe. Fig. 1 depicts the globally installed capacity
of BES by region.
The combination of PV and BES has other operational benefits
and cost savings. Operational benefits include the ability to opti-
mise the Time of Use tariffs, provision of frequency regulation,
avoidance of distribution and transmission caused outages and
deferral of network build-out [95]. By co-siting PV and ES equip-
ment, savings of up to 8% are claimed by sharing equipment, site
planning, permitting and interconnection. In Ref. [96] an analysis is
carried out on the effects of placing a battery at a residential loca-
tion (behind the meter) compared to a communal battery in
conjunction with PV. The conclusion reached is that communal
batteries are more favourable from a system perspective, enabling a
higher sharing of electricity between grid and battery, whereas a
battery at residential level leads to higher self-supply and increased
motivation and involvement by the customer. BES is also modular,
portable and can be installed relatively quickly compared to PHS
and CAES. Scalability and sizing of BES are important attributes
which means this technology is increasingly agile when partnered
up with renewable generation, particularly solar. BES is commer-
cially available from single figure kW ratings to utility-scale metrics
(greater than 100 MW). Small scale batteries are particularly suit-
able to be co-installed with domestic and commercial PV in-
stallations. There are however hurdles to such installations in the
form of restrictive tariffs, current network operator practice and
costs. Chemical storage using hydrogen and methane is still in the
early stages of development. Production of hydrogen using surplus
electricity has advantages such as high-power density, under-
ground storage potential and is emission free when burned with
oxygen. The downside is the inherent safety issues and the cost of
9
Energy 229 (2021) 120461
Main focus Reference
Electric vehicle, energy storage [81]
Electric vehicle, Solar PV plus energy storage [82]
Automobile and industrial batteries [83]
Energy storage solutions, chemicals [84]
Consumer & power batteries, ultra-capacitors [85]
Industrial batteries, energy storage, electric vehicle batteries [86]
Multi segments including batteries [87]
Batteries, energy storage, electric vehicle batteries [88]
Electric vehicles, energy storage [89]
Automobile components and batteries [90]
Fig. 1. Globally installed battery energy storage
production. Methane as a fuel is very compatible with existing gas
infrastructure but is also subject to high costs.
3.2. Heating and transport electrification
Electrification of heating, cooling and transportation is a key
element for widescale decarbonisation. Globally the predominant
fuel for heating and transport is fossil based. Northern European
countries Sweden, Finland, Latvia, and Estonia sourced over 50% of
heating and cooling energy from renewables [97]. In contrast
United Kingdom and Ireland sourced only 8% and 6% respectively of
heating and cooling from renewable sources. Table 5 shows how
each selected sample country uses their Total Primary Energy
Supply (TPES) and includes numbers which inform the potential to
electrify transport, heating, and cooling. TPES is the total energy
imported (by ship or pipe) plus internally produced (mining or
drilling) energy minus exports [98]. The TPES units are in tonnes oil
equivalent (toe) which is approximately 42 GJ. In the transport
column figures range from 10% of TPES for transport use (China) to
29% (United States America).
Electrification of transport is a more efficient use of energy
compared to the internal combustion engine and has the added
benefit of reducing air pollution. Electric vehicles are a flexible
demand and when integrated with smart grid systems can be used
in demand side management schemes. In a comparative analysis of
the penetration of electrification of transport and residential sec-
tors in Italy [99], results showed that replacement of fossil fuelled
cars to electric was more effective in reducing CO2 emission than
replacement of gas fired boilers with heat pumps. The high initial
cost of electric vehicles together with “range anxiety” are the main
factors holding back exponential growth. Norway is the world
leader in electric vehicle sales share with 2016 figures at 30% [100].
China leads the world in the number of electric vehicles and
Netherlands has the highest number of charging points per million
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al. Energy 229 (2021) 120461

Table 5
Use of Total Primary Energy Supply with overview of usage opportunity shifts to low carbon/no carbon

2017 TPES ktoe TPES % Wood Average Average Motor Predominant Public transport accessibility
for Temperature Temperature vehicles per RE resource
Electricity % Transport % Residential %
cooking (high) deg C (low) deg C 1,000 (excluding
people [106] hydro) [9]

Australia 127,033 25% 26% 8% N 32 14 730 Wind Rapid transport in main cities
only. Intercity rail
Brazil 290,239 4% 29% 9% Y 23 17 427 Wind Strong regional differences
Poor development of rail
China 3,077,450 14% 10% 11% Y 28
3 181 Wind Mainly inter city railway. City
rapid transport developing
Germany 311,245 16% 19% 18% N 20 0 561 Wind Excellent
India 881,945 23% 11% 20% Y 31 25 22 Wind Regional rail
Buses in cities
Russian 732,160 6% 13% 17% Y 19
7 381 Solar Metro in main cities
Federation Inter city rail
South Africa 132,186 30% 14% 10% Y 19 8 174 Wind Taxi in cities. Intercity rail
South Korea 282,253 24% 13% 8% N 26
2 475 Solar Intercity rail
Bus in urban areas
United 175,883 17% 24% 21% N 15 5 471 Wind Excellent
Kingdom
United States 2,155,230 21% 29% 11% N 25 2 838 Wind Excellent
America

population but less than 10% sales of electric vehicles. Charging
infrastructure assisted by favourable government policy and inte-
gration with renewable energy is the key to growth of electric
vehicle. Compared with vehicles, installed heating systems have a
much longer life expectancy therefore electrification of this sector
will be over a longer time frame compared to transport. Existing
water-based heating systems cannot easily be converted to heat
pump technology. Due to the lower operating temperatures radiant
surfaces need to be larger for equivalent heat output. The seasonal
nature of heating demand reduces the effectiveness of this tech-
nology in reducing CO2 emissions [101]. At the distribution level
electrification of heating and transport on its own would create a
network issue where the network would be overloaded. Therefore,
the importance of embedded energy storage and generation at the
distribution level becomes apparent.
In [102], both heat generation and road transport decarbon-
isation for Germany in 2050 is reviewed. Major findings are that
electrification of heat and car transport of 40e100% will raise
electricity consumption by 400e800 TWh. There are five conclu-
sions a) electricity planners need to consider growth in demand, b)
direct heat electrification is best together with storage, c) for
transport electrification no locking into a single technology, d)
continued innovation on transport electrification and d) scenario
builders to use modelling frameworks and open data.
If electricity can become the dominant energy vector compared
to gas and oil, decarbonisation of the transport, heating and cooling
sectors will happen. Electric vehicles and heat pump technology
present a flexible demand which integrates with storage and is
enabled by smart grid. However public perception will be a barrier
to this as electricity bills may be similar or higher compared to fossil
fuelled energy. Furthermore, the capacity of existing distribution
networks may not be sufficient to deliver the increased energy
demand in the traditional method, that is generation at trans-
mission level flowing to consumers at distribution level. Therefore,
governments must find a way to create financial incentives that
encourage these new technologies so that electrification of heating,
cooling and transport can grow in a planned and sustainable
manner.
Certain countries will have advantages as they transition to a
low carbon economy. Continental European countries, especially
10
former Soviet countries have used district heating for many years
albeit fossil fuel fired. However, the infrastructure is in place plus
the practice of living in apartments is more suitable for district
heating than say the type of housing that exists in UK and Irish
cities where housing is on a semi-detached or detached basis. Here,
a heat pump arrangement is more suitable for the electrification of
heat. Climatic conditions also can create challenges. In the
temperate countries like UK and Ireland the temperature differ-
ential between summer and winter is low so there are no extremes
requiring excessive heating and cooling. Alternatively, in central
USA and Europe, summer and winter ambient temperatures are
more extreme and require both cooling and heating respectively
which does create a more steady load which is favourable, but as
systems get electrified this creates greater demand on the distri-
bution network. Schemes like heat pump, district heating and
residential storage are potential solutions to these issues.
Similarly, public transport where cities have retained their
public transport network and infrastructure are at an advantage. As
an example, Belfast and Dublin are two cities in close proximity that
scrapped their electric tram system towards the end of the 20th
century in favour of combustion engine buses. In 2004 an electric
tram system called the LUAS [103] was installed in Dublin. It utilises
the routes of the original trams and the LUAS has the potential to
use RES. Belfast on the other hand has not reinstated its tram sys-
tem. It has opted for a ’Glider’ bus system, which can carry up to 105
passengers [104]. There are plans to convert the Glider buses to run
on hydrogen which would be part of a renewable power to gas
scheme [105]. Electrification of freight transport is an area where
there is massive potential for carbon reduction. Policy setting is key
in electrification schemes together with government backing as
potential investors will only get involved if there are sufficient
returns. For European Union countries, each Member State will
decide on how to achieve their carbon reduction targets but as
explained, geographical, economic, and legacy infrastructure will
determine the pace of transition.
3.3. Smart grid metering and control
A smart grid is an electricity network fitted with hardware that
allows data associated with the delivery and usage of electricity to
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al.
be monitored and temporally metered. The measuring hardware is
typically in the form of a meter known as a smart meter or
Advanced Domestic Meter (ADM). The data acquired is used to
exercise actions to deliver sustainable and economic bi-directional
power flow. For example, a system operator can use customer data
at peak load times to send signals to customer’s smart devices to
reduce usage or switch off. This can defer or eliminate network
build out and avoid the requirement for new fossil fuelled gener-
ation. Traditional grid systems were metered at the transmission
end primarily to determine generator output for audit and heat rate
measurement and at consumer level for billing purposes. However,
the metering was at a basic level with no means to determine
consumer peak time or usage rates. A smart meter can record
consumer usage per time period (typically 15e30 min). Compo-
nents of a smart grid include smart meters, smart sensors and
switching devices. At the heart of the system there is software
which will integrate energy storage, renewable generation and
demand management. Smart grid as a concept has been challenged
as being too intrusive in that it could be wrongfully used to furtively
monitor individual customer behaviour [107]. Smart meters are
increasingly being deployed in electricity systems throughout the
world. In China there is over 75% deployment of smart meters. In
the USA, 70% deployment is expected by 2025 [108]. In Europe,
each European Union member state arranges their own roll out
strategy. In the United Kingdom there was a deadline for comple-
tion by 2020 but this has been delayed until 2024. A smart grid
incorporating smart metering will be key to the growth of energy
storage at the distribution level. The challenges and issues associ-
ated with the development of Smart Grid are highlighted in
Ref. [109]. These have been presented as a) the interaction between
the hardware and software systems that make up a smart grid, b)
integration of demand response to residential level to realise sav-
ings, market performance and system security, c) energy storage:
ensuring economical and efficient use of energy storage and d)
distribution grid management: automated distribution system
planning, fault-finding, power quality, restoration and monitoring
and control purposes. Smart grid will be a facilitator to intermittent
renewable generation on a power grid and the dilemma for many
countries will be the financing. In USA tax incentives have been
used to develop renewable generation, smart grid, and electric
vehicles [110]. Smart grid will be a facilitator to the transformation
of electrical systems as they evolve to adapt to the challenges of
climate change.
4. Analysis
In this section an analysis has been undertaken in the form of a
combined strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats (SWOT)
appraisal informed by the data and information from the ten
countries’ response to embedded and distributed renewable gen-
eration and storage coupled to a Pugh chart to indicate optimal
concept choice. The SWOT analysis is shown in Table 6 and the Pugh
chart is shown in Table 7. Ref. [126] describes the design of a SWOT
analysis. Ref. [13] explains the process used to develop a Pugh
matrix (or chart). In the SWOT chart the subsections of the concepts
to facilitate renewable energy are listed on the y axis. On the x axis
the columns are strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
In the Pugh chart the criteria used to judge concept selection order
is on the y axis. The concepts to be used to facilitate renewable
energy informed by the SWOT analysis are listed on the x axis. If the
concept in relation to the criteria is better than the baseline, it is
given a þ1, if it is the same as the baseline it is given a 0 and if it is
worse than the baseline it is given a
1. The results of the SWOT/
Pugh are discussed in the next section.
11
Energy 229 (2021) 120461
4.1. SWOT analysis
The grid network for most countries has been unchanged for up
to 50 years or more. Grid design and construction was usually
carried out simultaneously with large power plant construction
and sized to meet power plant capacity and peak load demand. In
the last 20 years renewable generation has been interposed onto
grids. Renewable generation in the form of wind can be installed
rapidly and often with little regard to the transmission system
which is the delivery route to the end user. Therefore, grid bottle-
necks or constraints occur at times of high wind and consequently
renewable generation often must be curtailed. Network build out is
one solution to solving the renewable generation issue, but it is
expensive, subject to delay and only secures the network for a
limited period. However, network build out is required where
renewable generation is remote from the load centres. For example,
in Ireland due to the prevailing westerly winds most of the wind
farms are found on the western side of the island. The load centres
and densely populated areas are on the eastern side, so some
network build out is required to maximise use of the resource.
As the level of intermittent renewable generation onto an
existing grid increases, power quality in the form of frequency
support, system inertia and voltage support diminishes. These
services were traditionally provided by large generators but as
these are replaced by renewable options, power quality becomes an
issue. To find alternative providers of power quality services, sys-
tem regulators have created markets in a quest to attract suppliers
of ancillary services. An investment in a large MW scale battery can
provide a return in the form of ancillary services payments for
frequency support by injecting or absorbing energy as frequency
levels fluctuate. However, a grid scale solution requires a suitable
site, connection and a substantial investment paid back over many
years. Delivery of grid scale energy is also subject to transmission
losses and can create congestion issues. Distributed energy storage
on the other hand can deliver energy at or very near to the point of
usage therefore transmission losses are eliminated, and network
build out is avoided.
Smart metering is a component of the smart grid. It is a device
which is located at the electricity user end and can receive and send
data and signals to the network operator. Data from a smart meter
can be used to smooth load profile, provide price signals to cus-
tomers for arbitrage and Time of Use tariffs, control energy flow and
facilitate an automatic billing process. In many countries, intro-
duction of these devices has been dogged with problems. There
have been technical problems, disputes over payment and privacy
issues almost universally. Customers, it seems are content with a
dumb meter which solely measures incoming energy. Benefits of a
smart metering system and the concept of using associated smart
devices needs to be clearly explained prior to implementation.
Successful rollout of a smart meter scheme means renewable
generation usage can be maximised and fossil fuel use minimised
and thus less emissions.
Demand side management is closely associated with smart
metering. A strength of DSM is that the operational control of load
flow is retained by the system operator. DSM is in effect the exact
reverse of the traditional dispatch of large power plants in response
to load changes. However, control of DSM is complex for instance,
when a reduction in load is required there may not be enough DSM
devices connected, similarly when there is a surplus of connected
DSM devices, customers may be unhappy if not selected and thus
less revenue. A form of DSM has been used historically in the form
of favourable tariffs for appliance use at times of low load. There-
fore, customers who have already availed of these tariffs should be
more amenable to the DSM concept and this should be used as a
lever to encourage smart meter and DSM. Smart devices are the
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al. Energy 229 (2021) 120461

Table 6
SWOT analysis of concepts to facilitate renewable generation

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

Network build-out Network Adds network resilience and
capacity to deal with high loads Slow to build and subject to
Ancillary services Distributes the provision of
services away from the
traditional system operator
providers
Smart metering Smart Grid Provides data for control,
advanced tariff payments and
analysis
Demand side Counter against network build Requires participants to have
management out.
System operator retains control
Smart devices Integrates with smart metering Reliance on communications
and demand side management, network
gets prosumers on board with
concept of a transition to low
carbon economy
Incentives Initially gets participants on
board with scheme
Compressed air Storage Proven technology. Grid and
distribution scale storage
Pumped hydro Proven technology, grid scale
storage
Flywheel Fast response, grid and
distribution scale storage
Battery Portable, grid and distribution Developing technology in terms
scale storage, battery prices
falling
Power to gas Long term grid scale storage,
use of existing gas
infrastructure
Thermal (all types) Useful for storage of solar,
district heating schemes are
proven technology
Transport Electrification Huge potential for removal of
electrification internal combustion engine
vehicles and associated
emissions
Heating/ Huge potential for removal of
electrification fossil fuel domestic boilers and
associated emissions and
infrastructure
Cooking Carbon removal by the
electrification elimination of wood, coal and
gas cooking devices
Costly, intrusive
delays
Loss of total control due to the
number of providers
Reliance on communications
network
suitable back up
Payment/other incentives not
always sustainable
Grid scale storage
geographically restricted,
response not fast enough for
frequency services, costly
Geographically restricted,
costly, long lead time
Not yet mature technology, low
energy density
of provision of ancillary servicestechnology for storage at
at distribution level
Low efficiency, high costs
Slow response if thermal
storage used in electrical
generation
Massive infrastructure (vehicles Low hanging fruit in terms of
and charging) required
Heat pump installation
intrusive
Careful system planning if
widescale replacement to
electric devices
Initially secures network but for Failure to build out may result
a limited period only in system saturation
Gets prosumers on board with Collective failure to deliver
concept of a transition to low services may result in system
carbon economy failure
Arbitrage, demand side Non consent for installation due
management to privacy issues, technology
failure/obsolescence
Gets prosumers on board with Requires suitable infrastructure
concept of a transition to low and market structure to be
carbon economy competitive
Job creation as new appliances Sabotage, technology failure/
required obsolescence
Incentives are an established Participants leave after initial
method for launching a scheme incentives expire
2nd generation technology Fossil fuel use but could be run
using above ground tanks on fuel from a Power to Fuel
suitable for distribution storage system
Refurbishment of existing plant Delays to build for new plant
due to environmental concerns
Suitable for installation at High technical requirements,
obsolete power plants standby losses
Quickest and cheapest Raw material supply and
possible price escalations
distribution level,
counterbalance for solar and
wind microgeneration
Carbon free combustion for H2 Early stage of development
but CO2 produced in methane with pilot projects only
reforming process therefore
needs captured
Use of established district District heating schemes need
heating schemes, suitable for to run at a profit therefore may
distribution scale schemes need subsidy
Incumbent fossil fuel industry
carbon removal demise and loss of jobs
Low hanging fruit in terms of May create a spiky demand
carbon removal for those
countries where fossil fuel
boilers are the norm
Health benefits by removal of Requires a reliable electricity
wood burning equipment supply otherwise there could
be social issues if no cooking
facilities

other vital piece of hardware in a smart grid. Increasingly electrical
appliances are being sold in standard form with connectivity so
conversion for use in a DSM scheme is relatively simple. A threat
with smart devices is sabotage by hackers with potentially serious
consequences. Hence the importance of stringent cybersecurity
standards. Incentives are often used to encourage the uptake of
new schemes like smart metering and smart grid. Incentive
schemes are usually time bound so there is always the possibility of
participants leaving a scheme when the incentive falls away.
However, it is a well proven method for the launch of new concepts.
In the storage section of the SWOT, the energy storage tech-
nologies that countries are using to complement renewable gen-
eration are examined. Geography of an area will determine if hydro
power is suitable and likewise geology for first generation CAES.
Hydro power is an established and installed technology for many
areas, but new hydro is now problematic in terms of planning
approval, capital cost and the emissions generated by construction.
Likewise, first generation CAES, however the use of over-ground
tanks presents an opportunity for distributed storage. Thermal
storage can be subdivided into a number of technologies. Concen-
trated solar power is only suitable for areas with high irradiance
and not particularly relevant for distributed systems. However
electrified district heating schemes replacing existing fossil fuelled
schemes are an opportunity. Battery prices have been in steady
decline and this type of storage is the most suitable for distributed
systems. However raw material supply and price will always be a
threat together with battery life cycle. Finally, in the developing
power to gas technology, hydrogen is regarded as both a vector and
an energy storage method. The technology is not at this stage ready
for the distribution level but offers huge potential as an alternative

12
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al. Energy 229 (2021) 120461

Table 7
Pugh analysis to determine renewable generation concept choice against selected criteria

Baseline Network Smart Grid Storage Electrification

(existing
Grid Ancillary Smart DSM/ Incent-ives Grid Distribut-ion Power Thermal Transport Heating Cooking
system with
build Services Meter devices Scale storage to gas (district
developing RE)
out (pumped heating)
hydro ES)

Criteria Inertia 0 þ1 þ1 0 0 0 0 þ1 0 0 0 0 0
Frequency 0 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1 0 þ1 þ1 0 0 0 0 0
regulation
Power quality 0 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1 0 þ1 þ1 0 0 0 0 0
services
Public 0
1 0
1 0 þ1
1 0 0 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1
acceptance
Ease of 0
1 0 þ1 þ1 þ1
1 þ1
1 0 0 0 0
integration
Energy cost 0
1 0 þ1 þ1 0 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1
Carbon 0 0 0 þ1 þ1 0 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1 þ1
reduction
Cost to install 0
1
1
1 0
1
1 0
1 0
1 0 0
Disruption 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 0 ¡2 2 3 5 1 0 6 0 3 2 3 3

means of storage and energy delivery. 4.2. Pugh analysis

Microgrids are emerging where embedded renewable genera-
tion, storage, demand side management, and load incorporating Completion of the Pugh analysis chart was informed by the
smart metering and devices are meshed in a grid which is either SWOT analysis of the concepts to enable renewable energy gener-
separate (islanded) or connected to the utility scale grid. Microgrids ation. The criteria chosen were both quantitative and qualitative to
have developed due to the distributed nature of embedded gen- get a broad view of acceptance. The scores were informed by the
eration. There are advantages and disadvantages for microgrids. A research on the responses to renewable energy generation in the
microgrid in some regions offers resilience and independence form ten chosen countries. The ranking of the concepts is shown in
the grid. For example, on a large traditionally operated grid system Table 8.
a large generator breakdown can result in multiple customer loss of
supply. The microgrid in this instance can use storage and back up
5. Discussion of the results of SWOT and Pugh
generation to maintain supply. A microgrid avoids network build
out and avoids transmission losses which are prevalent in tradi-
In Table 8 the concept choices to enable renewable energy onto
tional systems.
existing grid systems from the Pugh analysis are listed in
Electrification of transport is pivotal to a low carbon economy. In
descending order. The highest-ranking concept of distribution
Table 5 it is shown that motor vehicle ownership per one thousand
storage is not to be regarded as a single solution to the issues
people ranges from 22 (India) to 838 (USA). This correlates with
caused by intermittent renewable generation. All solutions need to
TPES use of fuel for transport at 11% for India and 29% for USA. Using
be tailored to meet individual country needs. This will be deter-
USA as an example, electrification of transport would remove the
mined by geography, economic state, grid system development,
need for fuel production, storage and distribution. If the electricity
level of renewable energy, installation costs, government policy
was sourced from renewable devices, then carbon emissions from
and willingness to change. Broadly speaking for developed western
fuel usage are eliminated. However, charging infrastructure is
countries like Germany, UK and USA with access to abundant levels
required and an electricity network capable of supplying the
of renewable energy the approach should be distributed storage,
required load. This load would be predictable (mostly night-time
smart grid, DSM and smart devices in tandem with the organic
charging) and vehicle to grid supply should be feasible. Such a
growth in electrification of transport, heating and cooking.
transition would need careful planning and phased introduction.
Distributed energy storage rather than grid scale is more favourable
The benefits of the electrification of heating and cooling are
because it avoids grid build out and is the fundamental building
country specific. In Table 5 it is shown that residential use of TPES
block of distributed micro grids. Less developed countries like India
ranges from 8% in Australia and South Korea to 21% in the UK. For
and South Africa firstly need to decarbonize their power generation
the UK, this residential fuel use will have a large heating compo-
mix. Generation by coal is over 70% in both countries. The associ-
nent caused by using gas and kerosene in home boilers. If electri-
ated industry that goes with coal mining, coal fired generation and
fied using renewable energy by use of heat pump and district
ash disposal creates employment, vital to the economies of these
heating schemes, this sector, like transport is an opportunity to a)
countries but a way must be found to phase out this mode of
reduce carbon emissions, b) smooth the load, c) facilitate increased
electrical generation. Developed countries like Australia and China
use of renewables. In countries like Brazil, China, India, South Africa
rely heavily on indigenous coal reserves for fossil fuel generation.
and Russia where wood is used for cooking, replacement with
These countries also have access to renewable generation but will
renewable electricity has a two-fold benefit. Firstly, the health
need strong government policies and a strategic plan for transition
benefit to those in close proximity to the particulate laden fumes
to a low carbon economy. However due to their strong economies
that wood cooking produces. Secondly the benefit to the environ-
the phasing out of coal plants should not have as much impact on
ment by removal of the carbon emissions.
jobs as say in India and South Africa. In Brazil, legacy hydro-electric

13
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al. Energy 229 (2021) 120461

Table 8 adequate storage will support renewable generation, avoid

Concept ranking from Pugh analysis network build out, and reduce transmission losses. Utility com-
Concept Pugh Score panies need to actively engage and work with regulators to develop
Distribution storage 6
financial models which support this new grid development as this
Demand side management/smart devices 5 link between the big network operators and the consumer will be
Smart meter 3 key to microgrid growth.
Thermal (district heating) 3 Thermal storage in the form of district heating is an obvious
Electrification of heating 3
partner to distributed energy storage. In parts of the UK like Scot-
Electrification of cooking 3
Electrification of transport 2 land and Northern Ireland where gas networks are not accessible,
Ancillary services 2 domestic heating is achieved using residential boilers which have
Incentives 1 an associated fuel storage tank. Replacement of these boilers by
Grid scale PHES 0
electric district heating not only eliminates the combustion process
Power to gas 0
Grid build out
2
but also the fuel oil transport and storage infrastructure. Use of heat
pumps like storage is a locational issue. Rural areas are more suit-
able for heat pump with urban areas better suited to district
heating.
power plants have kept carbon intensity low with only 18% of fossil
Electrification of cooking already exists in most developed
fuel use in 2017. However, from Table 5 it is shown that 29% of TPES
countries. However, for countries that use wood for cooking, elec-
is used for transport. This is a clear signal for transport electrifica-
trification has clear environmental and health benefits already
tion in Brazil making use of renewable energy. A transition of this
explained. However, a reliable electricity supply is paramount as
scale would require legislation to incentivize electric vehicle
those countries that use wood for cooking tend to be less well
manufacture, investment in charging infrastructure and affordable
developed. Transport electrification is the one area where there are
vehicles. The economy of Russia is heavily dependent on the fuel
huge gains to be made but it will take something of a revolution to
supply industry and is a major exporter of gas to Western Europe.
complete the change from internal combustion engine vehicles to
This may explain the very slow growth in renewables despite the
electric. However, vehicles do have a finite lifetime and if charging
resources available.
infrastructure can be put in place as the Netherlands has done then
Distribution storage ranks first in the Pugh analysis for the
incentive schemes can be used to encourage electric vehicle pur-
following reasons a) provider of power quality services, b) ease of
chase. Improved public transport (using renewable energy) should
integration and c) energy cost and carbon reduction. The question
lessen single occupant journeys and go some way to removing the
is, should the storage be located residentially or co-located with say
range anxiety which is seen as preventing a greater uptake of
district heating. Where conurbations and housing clusters exist,
electric vehicles. Electric vehicles which although now affordable
storage should be distributed. In more rural areas storage should be
require infrastructure, charging stations, storage, and software. The
located residentially however this may be more costly although if
main hindrance for users is charging availability which will be key
coupled with say solar PV there will an opportunity for self-use.
to growth. Ancillary services are used as a tool to facilitate re-
Likewise, for industry and agriculture, on site storage creates op-
newables. These services can be supplied by the incumbent fossil
portunities for DSM, arbitrage, and ancillary services provision.
fuel generators which is a non-sustainable course of action.
DSM using smart devices is closely aligned with smart metering
Therefore, ancillary services must be supplied by either renewable
and this group of concepts rank second in the analysis. These
generators or associated energy storage plant. The revenue from
technologies are probably the easiest to implement. After the
the provision of ancillary services is a form of incentive but it is
hardware has been installed the utilisation of the equipment can
important that the level of revenue is both sufficient to reward
organically grow. For example, smart meter and smart devices
providers based on the benefits accrued and to cover the initial
when first installed can operate with no DSM or control functions
investment.
invoked. However, when customer realisation of the benefits of
DSM, Time of Use billing and a clear understanding of metered data
6. Unit commitment modelling tools for energy storage
occurs, the scheme should organically grow. Bi-directional data
considering retail electricity markets
exchange between grid level connection and demand side will
complete the loop in terms of balancing and in effect create a virtual
Electricity system modelling tools are used for generation,
power plant using the DSM technology. To maintain effective
transmission and distribution system planning and for predicting
cybersecurity all smart metering and smart devices need to be
market trends and revenues. As the electricity industry evolved
compliant to the requisite operating codes.
from a utility-based structure into a more diverse organisation, so
Microgrids incorporating embedded renewable generation,
too the models and modelling technology. In Ref. [111] 75 of the
smart devices and smart metering are a challenge to large scale
latest modelling tools are reviewed, where four different purposes
utility operators and generators. If microgrid development pro-
of modelling are described, (i) power system analysis, (ii) operation
ceeds unchecked, network operators may be forced out of business
decision support, (iii) investment decision support and (iv) scenario
due to dwindling revenues. This must not happen as networks
analysis. Although this paper is relatively recent (2018) it recog-
remain crucial to electricity grid operation but not in the traditional
nizes that energy storage in the form of batteries will become
way systems have been run. This is all due to the change in grid
increasingly more important. It also observes that only a few
structure from the generation-transmission-distribution pattern to
models consider the uncertainty of variable renewable energy
distributed generation and storage. Ultimately the new grid system
sources. Unit commitment models (UCM) are a model type used by
will need to be financed and this is the crux of the issue if there is to
electricity system operators to economically dispatch generating
be widespread adoption of distributed generation and storage.
units. The main cost components of a unit commitment problem
Regulation and control must be in place to prevent unrestricted
are fuel costs, and start-up and shutdown costs [112]. Generator
microgrid development. The development process needs to be
ramping performance and minimum off and on times are used as
carefully planned in a way that favours microgrid growth but
constraints in UCMs, with the demand for each time period
maintains a linkage with a suitably sized grid. Microgrids built with
matched by the generation. Traditionally, UCMs were used for large
14
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al.
Fig. 2. Embedded energy storage models
fossil fuel-based generation only, but the development of
embedded renewable generation and energy storage at retail level
has added an additional layer of complexity to the problem. Thus,
the importance of developing these models for use at both gener-
ation and retail levels where embedded energy storage may be
deployed. This is recognised in Ref. [113], where energy storage and
the value it can provide to the grid in the form of ancillary services
to support the integration of renewables is identified. The gap in
literature regarding the integration of distributed generation
(including energy storage) is recognised in Ref. [114] where energy
and electricity sector tools are examined separately. The challenge
of modelling distributed generation is highlighted, concluding that
for this growing trend there is no one tool that can capture all the
interactions that occur with the wider electricity system. However,
soft-linking of individual models is suggested as a technique to
integrate the various facets and attributes of the diverse range of
tools used therein.
A systematic literature review was carried out to further explore
the models used for embedded energy storage simulation and
scenario exploration. The following steps were used to identify the
most recent literature: 1) Key term identification and time period
setting; 2) Query execution using a suitable database to collate
papers and reports; 3) Screening process to eliminate non-relevant
literature. The key terms used for this search were “embedded
energy storage” and “models”. The time period was set to
2015e2020 to capture the latest developments in this fast-moving
area of research where models and modelling techniques are
rapidly evolving. The subject area was limited to “engineering” and
“energy”. The query was set up and executed using the database
Scopus®. The query results returned 416 articles complete with
document title, author, year, abstract and citation information. This
list was then manually screened to eliminate non-relevant papers.
This final screening process resulted in 202 papers and reports.
Having assembled a corpus of literature on embedded energy
storage and models, the next stage was to carry out analysis on the
associativity of the key phrases occurring in the corpus abstracts.
This was carried out using a tool called CorText Manager®. A “terms
extraction” facility was used to automatically identify frequently
15
Energy 229 (2021) 120461
used phrases from the abstracts within the corpus.
The initial literature search and subsequent screening identified
202 papers. The analysis identified the associativity and frequency
of phrasing from the literature abstracts. This analysis was used to
further refine the literature and identify 10 modelling papers which
discuss embedded energy storage simulation and scenario explo-
ration. These papers were examined in detail as depicted in Fig. 2
and described in Table 9. In this table the application and model
solutions are presented. The modelling tool used for the proposed
solution method was only apparent for Ref. [115], where MATLAB
was used. Finally, the objective function is described together with
the results and any issues or limitations are outlined.
The results of the literature review as shown in Table 9, revealed
the use of various modelling techniques which included bi-level
stochastic, mixed integer linear and non-linear programming,
Monte Carlo simulation, genetic algorithm, enhanced bee colony
optimization and the use of Benders decomposition. The common
thread of model application is the objective of improved integration
of renewables into distribution grids using energy storage to bal-
ance the stochastic and diurnal nature of this generation. The
objective function was mainly associated with the maximization of
profit or revenue with most models examined returning positive
results. However, there was little or no comment regarding the
maximization of renewable generation. This was raised in Ref. [125]
who identified paradoxical behaviour related to the topological
distance of the overloaded line from the shortest path connecting
the wind nodes. This is relevant to this analysis as it also highlights
the disjoint between system dynamics, the transmission grid and
wholesale electricity analyses and the distribution grid and retail
electricity markets. Market operators often introduce an ancillary
service market to incentivize providers with a view to increasing
renewables and stabilising the grid at the transmission level, but
very few appear to have looked at the low hanging fruit in the
distribution level.
7. Conclusions
This paper is a study of the technological response of ten
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al. Energy 229 (2021) 120461

Table 9
Embedded energy storage models

Ref. Application Model Objective function Results Potential issues

[115] Exploitation of EV battery Bi-directional smart charging Maximise profit, minimize cost, Improved revenue. Requires owner
storage for ancillary services. considering user preferences whilst managing ancillary Increase in energy transactions. cooperation.
implemented in MATLAB. services, energy transactions Increase in ancillary services Volume of EV ownership to
and battery levels. provision. be above a critical mass for
maximum effect.
[116] Optimal day ahead integrated Bi-level stochastic model to Maximise social welfare using Positive results dependant on Requires a suitable
heat, energy and reserve simultaneously schedule active energy storage and demand type of program invoked, microgrid equipped with
scheduling in a microgrid. power, heat and reserve in an response programmes. namely Time-of-Use, Real- generation, storage,
active way. Time-Pricing or Price-Based- combined heat and power
Demand-Response. and access to suitable
tariffs.
[117] Scheduling a home energy A mixed integer linear program Minimize the average total A house with HEMS compared Some discomfort due to the
management system (HEMS) to which uses sets for scenarios, costs of possible scenarios. to one without has a lower scheduling outcome e
implement a demand response time periods, appliances, energy cost. future work proposed to
program. storage and usages. include this as a criterion.
[118] A strategy to optimally place A bi-layer strategy with Minimize feeder power loss, Improvements in all objectives No consideration given to
solar generation and energy placement of solar and storage voltage deviation, reverse plus the elimination of reverse the capital cost of solar and
storage in a 33-bus test in the outer layer and power flow and load deviation. power flow. battery placement.
distribution system. operational control in the inner
layer.
[119] Dynamic dispatch of battery A stochastic dispatch model Maximise the profits of battery The proposed method Some dispatch rules were
storage integrated with variable using reinforced learning andenergy storage whilst outperforms a baseline introduced to reduce
generation with consideration dispatch rules. minimizing degradation costs reinforced learning method for infeasible actions and
to charge and discharge cycle. due to charge/discharge and both revenue and power improve quality of solution.
penalties for power tracking fluctuations at the microgrid Could more rules further
errors. point of common coupling. improve the method?
[120] Optimally size an energy Monte Carlo simulation used to The simulation is used to A 150 MWh storage system Both systems cannot
storage system whilst replicate the dynamic and suggest storage type. Economic selected for reliable system financially compete with
minimizing overall system cost stochastic operation of wind analysis is used to suggest operation at 60% wind conventional sources
for a system with 60% wind generation, energy storage and storage technology. Sensitivity penetration. A 16 MWh storage currently participating in
penetration. load. analysis used to assess impact system selected to minimize the test case market.
on costs and value of lost load. overall cost based on value of
lost load.
[121] A smart grid architecture to Uses a 3-level architecture with The model was used to analyse Proposed model can reduce Battery energy storage
address solar penetration, back main, micro and nano grid a virtual system via the “key energy cost and power losses. degradation and electric
feeding and variable supply. together with a “micro-grid key element” approach for various vehicle integration not
element” model to reduce solar penetrations. considered.
complexity and increase
flexibility.
[122] A comparison of two methods Two models are compared, Minimize the cost of electricity The MILP method provided an The MILP solution delivers
to optimise the integration of mixed integer linear to include a monetary value on optimal solution but only after the best result but
distributed energy resources for programming (MILP) and customer dissatisfaction with 15 min of computation. The GA computing time too long.
dynamic tariffs in a home metaheuristic or genetic possible changes in load method provided a solution Therefore, the GA solution
energy management system. algorithm (GA). operation. very close to the MILP after is the preferred method.
1 min of computation.
[123] A framework to optimise the The electric vehicle, battery Maximise the profit of the SDC Use of the model shows that by The proposed system will
bidding strategy of a smart storage and dispatchable and by bidding into the day ahead integrating the demand require the cooperation of
distribution company (SDC) for non-dispatchable generation market with the master level response (electric vehicle load) the electric vehicle owners
a system with wind, electric are modelled as a mixed integer solving the hourly price and the and the battery storage, the to change consumption
vehicles and battery storage. non-linear program using a sub level checking for SDC’s profit can be increased. based on hourly price
Benders decomposition constraints. signals.
technique to partition the
problem into two levels (master
and sub).
[124] Solving the economic dispatch The component parts of the Minimize the total operating Two scenarios were The individual
of a microgrid consisting of microgrid are individually cost whilst satisfying the investigated, grid connected, characteristics of the
renewable generation, micro modelled. An enhanced bee system constraints. and non-grid connected. The microgrid components are
turbine generation and energy colony optimization (EBCO) is results were compared to other not described.
storage. used to determine the energy problem-solving techniques
management strategy. which include generic
algorithm. For both scenarios
the EBCO returned the best
results.

selected countries from the G20 group to the growth of intermit- an analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
tent renewable generation from the perspective of distributed and of the enabling technologies married to a Pugh analysis to inform
embedded energy storage. The purpose of the study is to carry out technology choice. The study is part of wider research into a market

16
N. McIlwaine, A.M. Foley, D.J. Morrow et al.
analysis of customer connected mass energy storage. The key
findings of the study are that solutions will vary regionally
depending on geography, economy, grid, renewable generation
level, government policy and willingness to change. Broadly
speaking, solutions will embody distributed storage, smart grid,
smart metering, and electrification. Distributed storage in the form
of batteries at the retail level will be a key solution due to falling
battery prices and the ease of installation. However, this needs to be
carefully planned with consideration given to the supply chain and
the total life cycle costs including recycling of materials and
disposal. In addition, the ancillary services that batteries at retail
level can deliver needs to be properly recognised and rewarded by
system operators. Smart grid and smart metering will be a key
enabler in developing the growth of smart devices, energy storage
at the retail level and demand side management. This will require a
change in network design at both transmission and distribution
levels. Domestic and industrial design will also need to allow for
smart loads and storage. Electrification of heating and transport are
highly significant in terms of carbon reduction and use of renew-
able energy with storage as the key enabler. However, in some
regions this change will require careful planning depending on the
level of economic reliance on the fossil fuel industry. A modelling
approach based on increasing renewable penetration and the
integration/enhancement of the connectivity of existing modelling
techniques for an optimised smart grid architecture with mass
energy storage will provide the basis for future work using some
aspects of the work presented in Ref. [125]. Finally, a future
research direction has been identified in the form of a "techno-
enviroeconomic" analysis into the connection of mass energy
storage to qualify, quantify and value the installation of mass en-
ergy storage, particularly at the distribution level sitting within a
retail market context.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The lead author is supported by the European Union’s INTERREG
VA Programme, managed by the Special EU Programmes Body
(SEUPB) called SPIRE 2 project (grant number IVA5038). The views
and opinions expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect
those of the European Commission or the Special EU Programmes
Body (SEUPB). The co-authors are funded by the following:
Collaborative REsearch of Decentralization, ElectrificatioN, Com-
munications and Economics (CREDENCE) project, which is funded
by a US-Ireland Department for the Economy (DfE), Science Foun-
dation Ireland (SFI) and a US National Science Foundation (NSF)
award under the Research and Development Partnership Program
(Centre to Centre) award (grant number USI 110), and the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 72025401 and 71974108)
and Tsinghua University-INDITEX Sustainable Development Fund.
In addition, we thank Harrison Hampton for taking time to proof-
read this paper and support some use of using database analytics
for subsection 6. Furthermore, we gratefully acknowledge the pa-
tient reviewers who provided very valuable advice to significantly
enhance this review paper.
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