Middle Kingdom of Egypt

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For other uses, see Middle Kingdom.

Middle Kingdom of Egypt

c. 2055 BC–c.1650 BC

Capital Thebes, Itjtawy

Common languages Ancient Egyptian

Religion Ancient Egyptian religion

Government Divine, absolute monarchy

Pharaoh  

• c.2061 – 2010 BC Mentuhotep II (first)

• c.1650 BC Merneferre Ay or last king of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt

History  

• Began c. 2055 BC

• Ended c.1650 BC

Preceded by Succeeded by
 First Intermediate Period of Second Intermediate Period of
Egypt Egypt

Egypt
Today part of
Sudan

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Periods and dynasties of ancient Egypt

All years are BC

Early

Old Kingdom

First Intermediate

Middle Kingdom

Second Intermediate

New Kingdom
Third Intermediate

Late Period

Hellenistic Egypt

Roman Egypt

See also: List of pharaohs by period and dynasty

Periodization of ancient Egypt

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The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (also known as The Period of Reunification) is the
period in the history of ancient Egypt following a period of political division known
as the First Intermediate Period. The Middle Kingdom lasted from approximately
2040 to 1782 BC, stretching from the reunification of Egypt under the reign of
Mentuhotep II in the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Twelfth Dynasty. The kings
of the Eleventh Dynasty ruled from Thebes and the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty
ruled from el-Lisht.

The concept of the Middle Kingdom as one of three golden ages was coined in 1845
by German Egyptologist Baron von Bunsen, and its definition evolved significantly
throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.[1] Some scholars also include the Thirteenth
Dynasty of Egypt wholly into this period, in which case the Middle Kingdom would
end around 1650 BC, while others only include it until Merneferre Ay around 1700
BC, last king of this dynasty to be attested in both Upper and Lower Egypt. During
the Middle Kingdom period, Osiris became the most important deity in popular
religion.[2] The Middle Kingdom was followed by the Second Intermediate Period of
Egypt, another period of division that involved foreign rule of Lower Egypt by the
Hyksos of West Asia.

Contents
 1 Political history
o 1.1 Periods of ancient Egypt
o 1.2 Reunification under the Eleventh Dynasty
o 1.3 Twelfth Dynasty
 1.3.1 Early Twelfth Dynasty
 1.3.2 Height of the Middle Kingdom
o 1.4 Decline into the Second Intermediate Period
 2 Administration
o 2.1 Provincial government
 3 Agriculture and climate
 4 Art
 o 4.1 Statuary
 5 Literature
 6 References
 7 Bibliography
 8 Further reading

Political history
Periods of ancient Egypt

Reunification under the Eleventh Dynasty

Further information: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt

A painted relief depicting pharaoh Mentuhotep II, from his mortuary temple at Deir el-
Bahari
An Osiride statue of the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom, Mentuhotep II

After the collapse of the Old Kingdom, Egypt entered a period of weak pharaonic
power and decentralization called the First Intermediate Period.[3] Towards the end of
this period, two rival dynasties, known in Egyptology as the Tenth and Eleventh,
fought for control of the entire country. The Theban Eleventh Dynasty only ruled
southern Egypt from the First Cataract to the Tenth Nome of Upper Egypt. To the
north, Lower Egypt was ruled by the rival Tenth Dynasty from Herakleopolis.[4] The
struggle was to be concluded by Mentuhotep II, who ascended the Theban throne in
2055 BC.[5] During Mentuhotep II's fourteenth regnal year, he took advantage of a
revolt in the Thinite Nome to launch an attack on Herakleopolis, which met little
resistance.[4] After toppling the last rulers of the Tenth Dynasty, Mentuhotep began
consolidating his power over all of Egypt, a process which he finished by his 39th
regnal year.[3] For this reason, Mentuhotep II is regarded as the founder of the Middle
Kingdom.[6]

Mentuhotep II commanded petty campaigns south as far as the Second Cataract in

Nubia, which had gained its independence during the First Intermediate Period. He
also restored Egyptian hegemony over the Sinai region, which had been lost to Egypt
since the end of the Old Kingdom.[7] To consolidate his authority, he restored the cult
of the ruler, depicting himself as a god in his own lifetime, wearing the headdresses of
Amun and Min.[8] He died after a reign of 51 years and passed the throne to his son,
Mentuhotep III.[7]

Mentuhotep III reigned for only twelve years, during which he continued
consolidating Theban rule over the whole of Egypt, building a series of forts in the
eastern Delta region to secure Egypt against threats from Asia.[7] He also sent the first
expedition to Punt during the Middle Kingdom, using ships constructed at the end of
Wadi Hammamat, on the Red Sea.[9] Mentuhotep III was succeeded by Mentuhotep
IV, whose name, significantly, is omitted from all ancient Egyptian king lists.[10] The
Turin Papyrus claims that after Mentuhotep III came "seven kingless years".[11]
Despite this absence, his reign is attested from a few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat
that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal
monuments.[10] The leader of this expedition was his vizier Amenemhat, who is
widely assumed to be the future pharaoh Amenemhet I, the first king of the Twelfth
Dynasty.[12][13]
Mentuhotep IV's absence from the king lists has prompted the theory that Amenemhet
I usurped his throne.[13] While there are no contemporary accounts of this struggle,
certain circumstantial evidence may point to the existence of a civil war at the end of
the 11th Dynasty.[10] Inscriptions left by one Nehry, the Haty-a of Hermopolis, suggest
that he was attacked at a place called Shedyet-sha by the forces of the reigning king,
but his forces prevailed. Khnumhotep I, an official under Amenemhet I, claims to
have participated in a flotilla of twenty ships sent to pacify Upper Egypt. Donald
Redford has suggested these events should be interpreted as evidence of open war
between two dynastic claimants.[14] What is certain is that, however he came to power,
Amenemhet I was not of royal birth.[13]

Twelfth Dynasty

Main article: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt

Early Twelfth Dynasty

The head of a statue of Senusret I.

A guardian statue which reflects the facial features of the reigning king, probably
Amenemhat II or Senwosret II, and which functioned as a divine guardian for the imiut.
Made of cedar wood and plaster c. 1919–1885 BC [15]

From the Twelfth Dynasty onwards, pharaohs often kept well-trained standing armies,
which included Nubian contingents. These formed the basis of larger forces that were
raised for defense against invasion, or expeditions up the Nile or across the Sinai.
However, the Middle Kingdom was basically defensive in its military strategy, with
fortifications built at the First Cataract of the Nile, in the Delta and across the Sinai
Isthmus.[16]

Early in his reign, Amenemhet I was compelled to campaign in the Delta region,
which had not received as much attention as Upper Egypt during the 11th Dynasty.[17]
Also, he strengthened defenses between Egypt and Asia, building the Walls of the
Ruler in the East Delta region.[18] Perhaps in response to this perpetual unrest,
Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt in the north, known as Amenemhet It
Tawy, or Amenemhet, Seizer of the Two Lands.[19] The location of this capital is
unknown, but is presumably near the city's necropolis, the present-day el-Lisht.[20]
Like Mentuhotep II, Amenemhet bolstered his claim to authority with propaganda.[21]
In particular, the Prophecy of Neferty dates to about this time, which purports to be an
oracle of an Old Kingdom priest, who predicts a king, Amenemhet I, arising from the
far south of Egypt to restore the kingdom after centuries of chaos.[20]

Propaganda notwithstanding, Amenemhet never held the absolute power commanded

in theory by the Old Kingdom pharaohs. During the First Intermediate Period, the
governors of the nomes of Egypt, nomarchs, gained considerable power. Their posts
had become hereditary, and some nomarchs entered into marriage alliances with the
nomarchs of neighboring nomes.[22] To strengthen his position, Amenemhet required
registration of land, modified nome borders, and appointed nomarchs directly when
offices became vacant, but acquiesced to the nomarch system, probably to placate the
nomarchs who supported his rule.[23] This gave the Middle Kingdom a more feudal
organization than Egypt had before or would have afterward.[24]

In his twentieth regnal year, Amenemhat established his son Senusret I as his
coregent,[24] beginning a practice which would be used repeatedly throughout the rest
of the Middle Kingdom and again during the New Kingdom. In Amenemhet's thirtieth
regnal year, he was presumably murdered in a palace conspiracy. Senusret,
campaigning against Libyan invaders, rushed home to Itjtawy to prevent a takeover of
the government.[25] During his reign, Senusret continued the practice of directly
appointing nomarchs,[26] and undercut the autonomy of local priesthoods by building
at cult centers throughout Egypt.[27] Under his rule, Egyptian armies pushed south into
Nubia as far as the Second Cataract, building a border fort at Buhen and incorporating
all of Lower Nubia as an Egyptian colony.[28] Senusret I also exercised control over
the land of Kush, from the Second to the Third Cataract, including the island of Sai.
The southernmost inscription containing Sesostris I’s name has been found on the
island of Argo, north of modern Dongola.[29] To the west, he consolidated his power
over the Oases, and extended commercial contacts into Syria-Palestine as far as
Ugarit.[30] In his 43rd regnal year, Senusret appointed Amenemhet II as junior
coregent, before dying in his 46th.[31]
A group of West Asiatic peoples (possibly Canaanites and precursors of the future Hyksos)
depicted entering Egypt circa 1900 BC. From the tomb of a 12th dynasty official Khnumhotep
II under pharaohs Amenemhat II and Senusret II, at Beni Hasan.[32][33][34][35]

The reign of Amenemhat II has been often characterized as largely peaceful,[30] but
records of his genut, or daybooks, have cast doubt on that assessment.[36] Among these
records, preserved on temple walls at Tod and Memphis, are descriptions of peace
treaties with certain Syrio-Palestinian cities, and military conflict with others.[36] To
the south, Amenemhet sent a campaign through lower Nubia to inspect Wawat.[30] It
does not appear that Amenemhet continued his predecessors' policy of appointing
nomarchs, but let it become hereditary again.[26] Another expedition to Punt dates to
his reign.[36] In his 33rd regnal year, he appointed his son Senusret II coregent.[37]

Evidence for the military activity of any kind during the reign of Senusret II is non-
existent. Senusret instead appears to have focused on domestic issues, particularly the
irrigation of the Faiyum. This multi-generational project aimed to convert the Faiyum
oasis into a productive swath of farmland.[38] Senusret eventually placed his pyramid
at the site of el-Lahun, near the junction of the Nile and the Fayuum's major irrigation
canal, the Bahr Yussef.[39] He reigned only fifteen years,[40] which explains the
incomplete nature of many of his constructions.[38] His son Senusret III succeeded
him.

Height of the Middle Kingdom

Statue head of Senusret III

Senusret III was a warrior-king, often taking to the field himself. In his sixth year, he
re-dredged an Old Kingdom canal around the First Cataract to facilitate travel to
Upper Nubia. He used this to launch a series of brutal campaigns in Nubia in his sixth,
eighth, tenth, and sixteenth years. After his victories, Senusret built a series of
massive forts throughout the country to establish the formal boundary between
Egyptian conquests and unconquered Nubia at Semna.[41] The personnel of these forts
were charged to send frequent reports to the capital on the movements and activities
of the local Medjay natives, some of which survive, revealing how tightly the
Egyptians intended to control the southern border.[42] Medjay were not allowed north
of the border by ship, nor could they enter by land with their flocks, but they were
permitted to travel to local forts to trade.[43] After this, Senusret sent one more
campaign in his 19th year, but turned back due to abnormally low Nile levels, which
endangered his ships.[41] To the north, One of Senusret's soldiers records a campaign
into Palestine, perhaps against Shechem, the only reference to a military campaign
against a certain location in Palestine from Middle Kingdom literature,[44] although
there are other references to action against Asiatics.[45] It is not known whether Egypt
wished to control Canaan like Northern Nubia, but numerous administrative seals of
the period have been found there, as well as other indications of increased activity
Northward in this period.[46][47] As in the old kingdom, the contact was particularly
strong with Byblos, known for its valuable wood.[48]

A rare etched carnelian bead excavated in Egypt, and thought to have been imported from
the Indus Valley civilization through Mesopotamia, in an example of Egypt-Mesopotamia
relations. Abydos tomb 197, Late Middle Kingdom. Now in Petrie Museum ref. UC30334,
London.[49][50]

Domestically, Senusret has been given credit for an administrative reform which put
more power in the hands of appointees of the central government, instead of regional
authorities.[41] Egypt was divided into three water, or administrative divisions: North,
South, and Head of the South (perhaps Lower Egypt, most of Upper Egypt, and the
nomes of the original Theban kingdom during the war with Herakleopolis,
respectively). Each region was administrated by a Reporter, Second Reporter, some
kind of council (the Djadjat), and staff of minor officials and scribes.[51] The power of
the nomarchs seems to drop off permanently during his reign, which has been taken to
indicate that the central government had finally suppressed them, though there is no
record that Senusret ever took direct action against them.[41]

Senusret III left a lasting legacy as a warrior pharaoh. His name was Hellenized by
later Greek historians as Sesostris, a name which was then given to a conflation of
Senusret and several New Kingdom warrior pharaohs.[52] In Nubia, Senusret was
worshiped as a patron God by Egyptian settlers.[53] The duration of his reign remains
something of an open question. His son Amenemhet III began reigning after
Senusret's 19th regnal year, which has been widely considered Senusret's highest
attested date.[54] However, a reference to a year 39 on a fragment found in the
construction debris of Senusret's mortuary temple has suggested the possibility of a
long coregency with his son.[55]

The reign of Amenemhat III was the height of the Middle Kingdom's economic
prosperity. His reign is remarkable for the degree to which Egypt exploited its
resources. Mining camps in the Sinai, which had previously been used only by
intermittent expeditions, were operated on a semi-permanent basis, as evidenced by
the construction of houses, walls, and even local cemeteries.[56] There are 25 separate
references to mining expeditions in the Sinai, and four to expeditions in Wadi
Hammamat, one of which had over two thousand workers.[57] Amenemhet reinforced
his father's defenses in Nubia[58] and continued the Faiyum land reclamation project.[59]
After a reign of 45 years, Amenemhet III was succeeded by Amenemhet IV,[56] whose
nine-year reign is poorly attested.[60] Clearly by this time, dynastic power had begun to
weaken, for which several explanations have been proposed. Contemporary records of
the Nile flood levels indicate that the end of the reign of Amenemhet III was dry, and
crop failures may have helped to destabilize the dynasty.[59] Further, Amenemhet III
had an inordinately long reign, which tends to create succession problems.[61] The
latter argument perhaps explains why Amenemhet IV was succeeded by Sobekneferu,
the first historically attested female king of Egypt.[61] Sobekneferu ruled no more than
four years,[62] and as she apparently had no heirs, when she died the Twelfth Dynasty
came to a sudden end as did the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom.

Decline into the Second Intermediate Period

A kneeling statue of Sobekhotep V, one of the pharaohs from the declining years of the
Middle Kingdom.

After the death of Sobeknefru, the throne may have passed to Sekhemre Khutawy
Sobekhotep,[63][64] though in older studies Wegaf, who had previously been the Great
Overseer of Troops,[65] was thought to have reigned next.[66] Beginning with this reign,
Egypt was ruled by a series of ephemeral kings for about ten to fifteen years.[67]
Ancient Egyptian sources regard these as the first kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty,
though the term dynasty is misleading, as most kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty were
not related.[68] The names of these short-lived kings are attested on a few monuments
and graffiti, and their succession order is only known from the Turin Canon, although
even this is not fully trusted.[67]

After the initial dynastic chaos, a series of longer reigning, better-attested kings ruled
for about fifty to eighty years.[67] The strongest king of this period, Neferhotep I, ruled
for eleven years and maintained effective control of Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the
Delta,[69] with the possible exceptions of Xois and Avaris.[70] Neferhotep I was even
recognized as the suzerain of the ruler of Byblos, indicating that the Thirteenth
Dynasty was able to retain much of the power of the Twelfth Dynasty, at least up to
his reign.[70] At some point during the 13th Dynasty, Xois and Avaris began governing
themselves,[70] the rulers of Xois being the Fourteenth Dynasty, and the Asiatic rulers
of Avaris being the Hyksos of the Fifteenth Dynasty. According to Manetho, this
latter revolt occurred during the reign of Neferhotep's successor, Sobekhotep IV,
though there is no archaeological evidence.[71] Sobekhotep IV was succeeded by the
short reign of Sobekhotep V, who was followed by Wahibre Ibiau, then Merneferre
Ai. Wahibre Ibiau ruled ten years, and Merneferre Ai ruled for twenty-three years, the
longest of any Thirteenth Dynasty king, but neither of these two kings left as many
attestations as either Neferhotep of Sobekhotep IV. Despite this, they both seem to
have held at least parts of Lower Egypt. After Merneferre Ai, however, no king left
his name on any object found outside the south.[72] This begins the final portion of the
Thirteenth Dynasty when southern kings continue to reign over Upper Egypt. But
when the unity of Egypt fully disintegrated, the Middle Kingdom gave way to the
Second Intermediate Period.[73]

Administration
When the Eleventh Dynasty reunified Egypt it had to create a centralized
administration such as had not existed in Egypt since the downfall of the Old
Kingdom government. To do this, it appointed people to positions which had fallen
out of use in the decentralized First Intermediate Period. Highest among these was the
vizier.[74] The vizier was the chief minister for the king, handling all the day-to-day
business of government in the king's place.[74] This was a monumental task, therefore
it would often be split into two positions, a vizier of the north, and a vizier of the
south. It is uncertain how often this occurred during the Middle Kingdom, but
Senusret I clearly had two simultaneously functioning viziers.[74] Other positions were
inherited from the provincial form of government at Thebes used by the Eleventh
Dynasty before the reunification of Egypt.[75] The Overseer of Sealed Goods became
the country's treasurer, and the Overseer of the Estate became the King's chief
steward.[75] These three positions and the Scribe of the Royal Document, probably the
king's personal scribe, appear to be the most important posts of the central
government, judging by the monument count of those in these positions.[75]

Beside this, many Old Kingdom posts which had lost their original meaning and
become mere honorifics were brought back into the central government.[74] Only high-
ranking officials could claim the title Member of the Elite, which had been applied
liberally during the First Intermediate Period.[75]

This basic form of administration continued throughout the Middle Kingdom, though
there is some evidence for a major reform of the central government under Senusret
III. Records from his reign indicate that Upper and Lower Egypt were divided into
separate waret and governed by separate administrators.[26] Administrative documents
and private stele indicate a proliferation of new bureaucratic titles around this time,
which have been taken as evidence of a larger central government.[76] Governance of
the royal residence was moved into a separate division of government.[26] The military
was placed under the control of a chief general.[26] However, it is possible that these
titles and positions were much older, and simply were not recorded on funerary stele
due to religious conventions.[76]

Provincial government

Clay model of a Middle Kingdom house. Musée du Louvre.

Decentralization during the First Intermediate Period left the individual Egyptian
provinces, or Nomes, under the control of powerful families who held the hereditary
title of Great Chief of the Nome, or Nomarch.[77] This position developed during the
Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, when the various powers of Old Kingdom provincial
officials began to be exercised by a single individual.[77] At roughly this time, the
provincial aristocracy began building elaborate tombs for themselves, which have
been taken as evidence of the wealth and power which these rulers had acquired as
nomarchs.[77] By the end of the First Intermediate Period, some nomarchs ruled their
nomes as minor potentates, such as the nomarch Nehry of Hermopolis, who dated
inscriptions by his own regnal year.[74]

When the Eleventh Dynasty came to power, it was necessary to subdue the power of
the nomarchs if Egypt was to be reunified under a central government. The first major
steps towards that end took place under Amenemhet I. Amenemhet made the city, not
the nome, the center of administration, and only the haty-a, or mayor, of the larger
cities would be permitted to carry the title of nomarch.[26] The title of nomarch
continued to be used until the reign of Senusret III,[26] as did the elaborate tombs
indicative of their power, after which they suddenly disappeared.[78] This has been
interpreted several ways. Traditionally, it has been believed that Senusret III took
some action to suppress the nomarch families during his reign.[79] Recently, other
interpretations have been proposed. Detlef Franke has argued that Senusret II adopted
a policy of educating the sons of nomarchs in the capital and appointing them to
government posts. In this way, many provincial families may have been bled dry of
scions.[26] Also, while the title of Great Overlord of the Nome disappeared, other
distinctive titles of the nomarchs remained. During the First Intermediate Period,
individuals holding the title of Great Overlord also often held the title of Overseer of
Priests.[80] In the late Middle Kingdom, there existed families holding the titles of
mayor and overseer of priests as hereditary possessions.[78] Therefore, it has been
argued that the great nomarch families were never subdued, but were simply absorbed
into the pharaonic administration of the country.[78] While it is true that the large
tombs indicative of nomarchs disappear at the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, grand
royal tombs also disappear soon thereafter due to general instability surrounding the
decline of the Middle Kingdom.[78]

Agriculture and climate

It was I who brought forth grain, the grain god loved me,
the Nile adored me from his every source;
One did not hunger during my years, did not thirst;
they sat content with all my deeds, remembering me fondly;
and I set each thing firmly in its place.[81]

extract from the Instructions of Amenemhat

Throughout the history of ancient Egypt, the annual inundation of the Nile River was
relied upon to fertilize the land surrounding it. This was essential for agriculture and
food production. There is evidence that the collapse of the previous Old Kingdom
may have been due in part to low flood levels, resulting in famine.[82] This trend
appears to have been reversed during the early years of the Middle Kingdom, with
relatively high water levels recorded for much of this era, with an average inundation
of 19 meters above its non-flood levels.[83] The years of repeated high inundation
levels correspond to the most prosperous period of the Middle Kingdom, which
occurred during the reign of Amenemhat III.[84] This seems to be confirmed in some of
the literature of the period, such as in the Instructions of Amenemhat, where the king
tells his son how agriculture prospered under his reign.[81]

Art
Seated Statue of Amenemhat III, around 19th century BC. The State Hermitage Museum

After the reunification of Egypt in the Middle Kingdom, the kings of the Eleventh and
Twelfth Dynasties were able to turn their focus back to art. In the Eleventh Dynasty,
the kings had their monuments made in a style influenced by the Memphite models of
the Fifth and early Sixth Dynasty. During this time, the pre-unification Theban relief
style all but disappeared. These changes had an ideological purpose, as the Eleventh
Dynasty kings were establishing a centralized state after the First Intermediate Period,
and returning to the political ideals of the Old Kingdom.[85] In the early Twelfth
Dynasty, the artwork had a uniformity of style due to the influence of the royal
workshops. It was at this point that the quality of artistic production for the elite
members of society reached a high point that was never surpassed, although it was
equaled in other periods.[86] Egypt prospered in the late Twelfth Dynasty, and this was
reflected in the quality of the materials used for royal and private monuments.

The kings of the Twelfth Dynasty were buried in pyramid complexes based on those
of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties.[87] In the Old Kingdom, these were made of stone
bricks, but the Middle Kingdom kings chose to have theirs made of mud bricks and
finished with a casing of Tura limestone.[88] Private tombs, such as those found in
Thebes, usually consisted of a long passage cut into rock, with a small chamber at the
end. These tended to have little or no decoration.[89] Stone box sarcophagi with both
flat and vaulted lids were manufactured in the Middle Kingdom, as a continuation of
the Old Kingdom tradition. The motifs on these were more varied and of higher
artistic quality than that of any sarcophagi produced before and after the Middle
Kingdom.[90] Additionally, funerary stelae developed in regard to images and
iconography. They continued to show the deceased seated in front of a table of
offerings, and began to include the deceased's wife and other family members.[91]

Towards the end of the Middle Kingdom, there was a change to the art pieces placed
in non-royal tombs. The amount of wooden tomb models decreased drastically, and
they were replaced by small faience models of food. Magic wands and rods, models
of protective animals, and fertility figures began to be buried with the dead.[92]
Additionally, the number of statues and funerary stelae increased, but their quality
decreased. In the late Twelfth Dynasty, coffins with interior decorations became rare,
and the decorations on the outside became more elaborate. The rishi-coffin made its
first appearance during this time. Made of wood or cartonnage, the coffin was in the
shape of a body wrapped in linen, wearing a beaded collar and a funerary mask.[93]

There were also changes to the art form of stelae in the Middle Kingdom. During this
time, round-topped stelae developed out of the rectangular form of previous periods.
Many examples of both of these types come from this period;[94] excavation at Abydos
yielded over 2000 private stelae, ranging from excellent works to crude objects,
although very few belonged to the elite.[95] Additionally, classic royal commemorative
stelae were first found in this period. These took the form of a round-topped stelae,
and they were used to mark boundaries. For example, Senusret III used them to mark
the boundary between Egypt and Nubia.[94] Because of the prosperity of this period,
the lower elite were able to commission statues and stelae for themselves, although
these were of poorer artistic quality.[96] Those who commissioned non-royal stelae had
the ultimate goal of eternal existence. This goal was communicated with the specific
placement of information on the stone slabs similar to royal stelae (the owner's image,
offering formula, inscriptions of names, lineage and titles).[97]

Statuary

Head and Torso of a Noblewoman, around 1844–1837 BC. 59.1. Brooklyn Museum
In the first half of the Twelfth Dynasty, proportions of the human figure returned to
the traditional Memphite style of the Fifth and early Sixth Dynasties.[98] Male figures
had broad shoulders, a low small of the back, and thick muscular limbs. Females had
slender figures, a higher small of the back and no musculature.[98] In this period,
sketches for the production of statues and reliefs were laid out on a squared grid, a
new guide system. Since this system contained a greater number of lines, it allowed
more body parts to be marked. Standing figures were composed of eighteen squares
from the feet to the hairline. Seated figures were made of fourteen squares between
their feet and hairline, accounting for the horizontal thigh and knee.[99] The black
granite seated statue of king Amenemhat III to the right, above is a perfect example of
male proportions and the squared grid system at this period.[100] Most royal statues,
such as this one, would serve as representations of the king's power.[101]

The quality of Egyptian statuary reached its peak in the Middle Kingdom.[102] Royal
statues combined both elegance and strength in a manner that was seldom seen after
this period.[103] A popular form of statuary during this time was that of the sphinx.
During this period, sphinxes appeared in pairs, and were recumbent, with human
faces, and a lion's mane and ears. An example would be the diorite sphinx of Senusret
III.[102]

One of the innovations in sculpture that occurred during the Middle Kingdom was the
block statue, which would continue to be popular through to the Ptolemaic Kingdom
almost 2,000 years later.[104] Block statues consist of a man squatting with his knees
drawn up to his chest and his arms folded on top his knees. Often, these men are
wearing a "wide cloak" that reduces the body of the figure to a simple block-like
shape.[105] The surface of the garment or "wide cloak" allowed space for inscriptions.
[86]
Most of the detail is reserved for the head of the individual being depicted. In some
instances the modeling of the limbs has been retained by the sculptor.[106] There are
two basic types of block statues: ones with the feet completely covered by the cloak
and ones with the feet uncovered.[107]

This statue to the right represents a woman from the top echelon of society and
demonstrates characteristics of Middle Kingdom art. The heavy tripartite wig frames
the broad face and passes behind the ears, thus giving the impression of forcing them
forward. They are large in keeping with the ancient Egyptian ideal of beauty; the
same ideal required small breasts, and also in this respect the sculpture is no
exception. Whereas the natural curve of the eyebrows dips towards the root of the
nose, the artificial eyebrows in low relief are absolutely straight above the inner
corners of the eyes, a feature which places the bust early in the Twelfth Dynasty.
Around 1900 BC these artificial eyebrows began to follow the natural curve and dip
toward the nose.[108]

In the later Twelfth Dynasty, proportions of the human figure changed. These changes
survived through the Thirteenth to Seventeenth Dynasties. Male figures had smaller
heads in proportion the rest of the body, narrow shoulders and waists, a high small of
the back, and no muscled limbs. Female figures had these proportions more to an
extreme with narrower shoulders and waists, slender limbs and a higher small of the
back in order to keep a distinction between male and female measurements.[109]

Literature
Main article: Ancient Egyptian literature

Richard B. Parkinson and Ludwig D. Morenz write that ancient Egyptian literature—
narrowly defined as belles-lettres ("beautiful writing")—were not recorded in written
form until the early Twelfth Dynasty.[110] Old Kingdom texts served mainly to
maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the afterlife, and document accounts for
practical uses in daily life. It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written
for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity.[111] Parkinson and Morenz
also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the
oral literature of the Old Kingdom.[112] It is known that some oral poetry was
preserved in later writing; for example, litter-bearers' songs were preserved as written
verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom.[111]

It is also thought that the growth of the middle class and a growth in the number of
scribes needed for the expanded bureaucracy under Senusret II helped spur the
development of Middle Kingdom literature.[62] Later ancient Egyptians considered the
literature from this time as "classic".[62] Stories such as the Tale of the Shipwrecked
Sailor and the Story of Sinuhe were composed during this period, and were popular
enough to be widely copied afterwards.[62] Many philosophical works were also
created at this time, including the Dispute between a man and his Ba where an
unhappy man converses with his soul, The Satire of the Trades in which the role of
the scribe is praised above all other jobs, and the magic tales supposedly told to the
Old Kingdom pharaoh Khufu in the Westcar Papyrus.[62]

Pharaohs of the Twelfth through Eighteenth Dynasty are credited with preserving
some of the most interesting of Egyptian papyri:

 1950 BC: Akhmim Wooden Tablet

 1950 BC: Heqanakht papyri
 1800 BC: Berlin papyrus 6619
 1800 BC: Moscow Mathematical Papyrus
 1650 BC: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
 1600 BC: Edwin Smith papyrus
 1550 BC: Ebers papyrus

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  Morenz 2003, p. 102.

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Further reading
 Allen, James P. Middle Egyptian Literature: Eight Literary Works of the Middle
Kingdom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
 Bourriau, Janine. Pharaohs and Mortals: Egyptian Art in the Middle Kingdom.
Cambridge, UK: Fitzwilliam Museum, 1988.
 Grajetzki, Wolfgang. The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and
Society. Bristol, UK: Golden House, 2006.
 Kemp, Barry J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. 2d ed. London: Routledge,
2006.
 Oppenheim, Adela, Dieter Arnold, and Kei Yamamoto. Ancient Egypt Transformed:
The Middle Kingdom. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2015.
 Parkinson, Richard B. Voices From Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Middle Kingdom
Writings. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
  --. Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection. London:
Continuum, 2002.
 Szpakowska, Kasia. Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008.
 Wendrich, Willeke, ed. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Succeeded by
Preceded by Time Periods of Egypt
2055–1650 BC Second Intermediate
First Intermediate Period
Period