CHAPTER 6

INNOVATION IN SCIENCE
TEACHER EDUCATION IN
SOUTH KOREA

Young-Shin Park

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INTRODUCTION
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This chapter describes the two main types of science teacher education in
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South Korea; one is teacher training programs for preservice teachers, and
the other is professional development programs (PDPs) for beginning and
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in-service teachers. First of all, this chapter describes the general situation
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of science teacher education in Korea at present, with special attention to

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the followings:
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(1) the different types of science education institutes in Korea;

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(2) the teacher preparation programs leading to teacher certification, and

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the appointment system based on the National Teacher Evaluation

Test (NTET);
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(3) the professional development of science teachers; and,

(4) the working conditions of science teachers.

With this information, the strengths and weaknesses of science teacher

education in Korea will be explored and its challenges and issues will be
discussed. Also presented in this chapter are a number of suggestions for

Innovations in Science Teacher Education in the Asia Pacific

Advances in Research on Teaching, Volume 20, 81 104
Copyright r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 1479-3687/doi:10.1108/S1479-3687(2013)0000020006
81
82 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

improving the quality of science teacher education, induction programs for

beginning teachers, and the PDPs for in-service teachers.

THE CURRENT STATE OF SCIENCE TEACHER

EDUCATION IN SOUTH KOREA

Science Teacher Training Programs

In South Korea, there are three different types of institutes for training

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teachers: (1) teacher education institutes, (2) general universities, and
(3) graduate schools of education.

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Teacher education institutes offer teacher certification to all their gradu-
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ates, and are of three different types. Universities of education train only
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prospective elementary school teachers. There are 11 national ones and 1
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private one (Ewha Womans University, but this university also produces
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secondary teachers). Colleges of education are divisions of public and private

universities and provide training only for prospective secondary school
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teachers. In a category of its own is the Korean National University

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of Education (KNUE), the only university which trains prospective

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teachers for three different stages of education: kindergarten, primary, and

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secondary. General universities are not institutes for teacher preparation, but
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do produce some teachers. Students at general universities who intend

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to become teachers are required to take courses in pedagogy offered by the

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school’s college of education. However, there are not many students who
become teachers in this way. Graduate schools of education specialize in the
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professional development of in-service teachers. However, some prospective

teachers are also trained at these schools after earning an undergraduate
degree. Such prospective teachers are required to take courses in pedagogy
and receive a teaching certificate when they graduate. The problem is that as
undergraduates they had few courses in pedagogy, so this is what they have
to focus on as graduate students.
However, merely graduating from one of these teacher preparation pro-
grams is no guarantee that one will become a science teacher. Graduation
from one of these three types of institutes only qualifies one to take the
NTET in a particular subject area (physics, chemistry, biology, earth
science, and general science at the secondary level). Based on the results of
the NTET, city or provincial superintendents annually screen candidates
for teaching positions from amongst those who hold teaching certificates.
Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 83

The competition for positions as secondary science teachers is very high,

with around 20 applicants for each vacant position. Next I will present the
national policy on science teacher education.

National Policy on Science Teacher Education

The system for training teachers has two different educational objectives;
one is “literacy as graduates from a college of education,” and the other is
“professionalism” as science teachers (Cho et al., 1986). To become a
science teacher in South Korea, one must first of all graduate from univer-

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sity. Prospective teachers also need a high level of literacy. Finally, they
need to have strong abilities in science and science education. To meet these

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goals, universities offer many different learning courses (Fig. 1).

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Once prospective teachers enter a university, they spend four years tak-
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ing classes before they are qualified to take the NTET. The main course-
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work consists of basic courses in liberal arts and science in the freshman
year; basic courses in education and science in the sophomore year; courses
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in science education and science content in the junior year; and advanced
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science and science education courses as well as fieldwork in the senior

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year. The fieldwork usually runs for eight weeks for prospective elementary
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school teachers, and six weeks for secondary school teachers, which is very
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short when compared to those of Western countries.

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Training of Science Teachers at Universities

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Primary Teachers. Primary teachers are trained at 11 national universities

of education, the KNUE, and the private Ewha Womans University
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(Table 1).
To graduate and earn certification as elementary school teachers,
students must complete 150 credits: 49 credits in general courses, 20 in

Basics in liberal arts and science

Theory

Science teachers’ Science content

professionalism
Basics of education
Practice

Science education

Fig. 1. System for Cultivating Science Teachers’ Professionalism.

84 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

Table 1. The Number of Prospective Primary School Teachers in South

Korea.
School Type No. Number of Prospective Teachers

2007 2006 2005 2004 Total

(freshman) (sophomore) (junior) (senior)

National university National 11 5,529 6,015 6,015 5,615 23,174

of education
KNUE National 1 148 160 160 160 628
Total 12 5,677 6,175 6,175 5,775 23,802
Ewha Womans Private 1 41 49 50 50 190

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University
Total National 12 5,677 6,175 6,175 5,775 23,802

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Private 1 41 49 50 50 190

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Total 13 5,718 6,224 6,225 5,825 23,992
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pedagogy, 48 in a specific subject (science, in this case), 5 in art and physi-

cal education, 4 in liberal arts or social studies, 20 in an advanced subject,
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and 4 in fieldwork. For example, the curriculum for science majors consists
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of courses in pedagogical knowledge (PK), pedagogical content knowledge

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(PCK), liberal arts and physical education, an advanced subject, and field-
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work, the credits for which account for 70% of the total. General courses
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include ethics, language arts, mathematics, social studies, science, and

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foreign languages.
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Secondary Teachers. The institutes providing training for prospective

science teachers at the secondary level are presented in Table 2.
To become secondary science teachers, students usually need to com-
plete at least 140 credits, including general and liberal arts courses (at least
42 credits); general courses in education and pedagogy (at least 20 credits);
science courses in one’s area of specialization (at least 60 credits); and 2
credits of fieldwork in the form of teaching classes, carrying out administra-
tive duties, and counseling students for 4 6 weeks at either a public or a
private school (Fig. 2).
When candidates complete these requirements, they are qualified to be
science teachers at public schools, but not guaranteed a position. To be
appointed as science teachers, they need to first take the NTET, which will
be introduced next.
Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 85

Table 2. The Number of Prospective Secondary School Teachers in South

Korea.
School Type No. Number of Prospective Teachers

2007 2006 2005 2004 Total

(freshman) (sophomore) (junior) (senior)

National 13 3,927 4,006 4,012 4,080 16,025

College of education Private 28 6,817 6,892 6,938 6,938 27,585
Subtotal 41 10,744 10,898 10,950 11,018 43,610
National 6 456 416 430 430 1,732
Graduate school Private 53 3,290 3,290 3,080 2,770 12,430
of education

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Subtotal 59 3,746 3,706 3,510 3,200 14,162
National 19 4,383 4,422 4,442 4,510 17,757

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Total Private 81 10,107 10,182 10,018 9,708 40,015

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Total 100 14,490 14,604
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Courses in teacher education

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(140 credits at minimum)

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General courses General education Science major

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(42 credits at minimum) (20 credits at minimum) (min. 60 credits)

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Pedagogy Science education Field experience

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- introduction to education - theory in SE 4–6weeks at

- philosophy and history of education - methodology in SE public secondary
- curriculum and evaluation of education - other courses in SE school
- Methodology and technology of education
- educational psychology

Fig. 2. The Coursework of Prospective Secondary Science Teachers in South

Korea.

Appointment System
After graduating from university, prospective teachers have to take the
NTET to be eligible to apply for a teaching position at a public elementary
or secondary school. Tables 3 and 4 present the NTET for prospective
elementary and secondary science teachers. I’ll first explain the NTET for
prospective secondary teachers.
 Table 3. Contents of the NTET for Secondary Science Teachers.

86
Phase Subject Types of Questions Number of Questions Period Scores Portion of Science Major

1st phase General education Multiple-choice 40 70 minutes 20 Science education Science contents
Science major Multiple-choice 40 120 minutes 80
2nd phase Science major Essay 2 120 minutes 50 30 35% 70 65%
Science major Essay 2 120 minutes 50 35 55% 65 45%

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3rd phase Teaching performance

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4th phase Lab ability Optional by province

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Table 4. Contents of the NTET for Primary Science Teachers.

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Phase Subject Types of Questions Number of Questions Period Scores Portion of Science

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Major

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1st phase General education Multiple-choice 40 70 minutes 30

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Subject education Multiple-choice 50 100 minutes 70 6 questions on science

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contents
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2nd phase General education Essay 1 100 minutes 20
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YOUNG-SHIN PARK
subject education Essay 2 400 minutes 80 1 question on Science
(8 subjects) education and
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contents
3rd phase Teaching performance and interview
4th phase Optional
Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 87

The NTET, measures the examinee’s abilities in PK, SMK (subject

matter knowledge), and PCK. Since 2009, the NTET has been conducted
in three intensive phases (the most recent NTET was held from October
2012 to February 2013). In the first phase, examinees answer written
multiple-choice questions on general education (pedagogy, 20%), a science
subject (70 65%), and science education (PCK, 30 35%). The number of
examinees in the 1st phase is about twice the number of vacant teaching
positions. In the 2nd phase, examinees write essays on science subjects and
science education in response to four open-ended questions. The number of
examinees in the 2nd phase is about 1.5 times the number of vacant teach-
ing positions. In the 3rd phase examinees are evaluated based on teaching

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ability and oral interviews. Before giving a 15-minute teaching demonstra-
tion (microteaching) the examinees have one hour to develop a lesson plan.

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Then the candidates have an oral interview with the superintendents of the
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provincial office of education. The first two phases are conducted by Korea
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Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation (KICE) and the third one by
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regional and provincial offices of education (the last phase, however, was
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also conducted by KICE in 2012). However, there is also an optional 4th

phase, lab ability, which is required only in certain provinces.
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Table 5 shows the number of NTET examinees who were actually hired
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as secondary science teachers in recent years. For example, of the 1,172

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prospective earth science teachers who took the NTET in 2009, only
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64 were hired. Thus the ratio of earth science examinees to successful

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applicants in 2009 was 18:1.

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Overall, I cannot conclude that the NTET system guarantees that those
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who are hired are highly qualified, but at least it’s certain that the hiring
process is very competitive. In addition, I cannot conclude that preservice
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science teachers in South Korea have more knowledge in subject matter

and PCK compared to those in other countries, but at least it’s clear that
they are very skilled in demonstrating SMK, PK, and PCK through the

Table 5. Total Number of Preservice Secondary Science Teachers Who

are Hired; Who Took NTET; and the Ratio.
Subject 2009 2010 2011

General Science 26/355 14:1

Physics 98/1661 17:1 68/1066 16:1 96/1013 11:1
Chemistry 122/2473 20:1 78/1615 21:1 109/1513 14:1
Biology 120/2974 25:1 84/1952 23:1 120/1878 16:1
Earth Science 64/1172 18:1 64/781 12:1 85/747 9:1
88 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

current NTET system. However, some studies have found that school
teachers do not make much use of the theories which they learned at
university; that is, teachers are not very good at the practical application of
certain teaching strategies or models which they learned as juniors or
seniors, even though they understand them theoretically (Friedrichsen
et al., 2009; Hong, Chen, Chai, & Chan, 2011; Park, Park, Kim, Park, &
Jeong, 2012; Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1981).

Professional Development Programs for Science Teachers

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Once science teachers are appointed at public schools, they are required to
participate in PDPs. Basically, there are three different PDPs for science

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teachers: (1) Advanced-qualification PDPs ( ), required for receiv-
ing a promotion; (2) mandatory lab PDPs (
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), the content of which
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depends on the teacher’s specialization; and (3) school service PDPs
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( ), depending on the teacher’s interests and the school’s needs.

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Working Conditions for Science Teachers

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Each science lesson runs for 40 minutes in elementary school, 45 minutes in

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middle school, and 50 minutes in high school. The weekly teaching hours
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are shown in Table 6. Generally, teachers at the elementary level teach

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more hours than those at the secondary level. Secondary teachers

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appointed to a special position teach fewer hours (14 compared to 18).

Also, in addition to teaching classes, science teachers in South Korea need
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to spend a considerable amount of time on administrative duties, counsel-

ing students, meeting parents, and professional development.
The daily schedule generally begins at 8:30 a.m. and ends at 3:30 p.m.,
but it is very common for teachers at all levels to remain at school in order
to attend to various duties. This is especially true of senior high school
teachers, who spend lots of time helping their students prepare for the
university entrance examination and applying to universities. Teachers who

Table 6. Weekly Teaching Hours for Each Grade.

Grade 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Secondary Levels

Teaching hours 25 29 31 18 (14)

Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 89

are in charge of a class (i.e., providing guidance and counseling) have fewer
regular teaching hours, reduced administrative duties, and additional pay.
Science teachers at elementary schools have different working conditions
than those at secondary schools. Teachers tend to avoid being in charge
of science education at an elementary school, since (a) they are not confi-
dent in the subject matter, (b) teachers in charge of science classes are
responsible for related safety measures, (c) elementary schools don’t have a
sufficient budget for setting up and equipping science labs, and (d) they
don’t have enough time to upgrade their professional abilities in science.
Overall, it can be said that the working conditions at schools very much
depend on the principal and vice principal. For example, if the principal of

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a school majored in science, then he is more likely to encourage science tea-
chers to participate in science workshops, take students to science festivals,

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and allocate more of the school’s budget to buying science equipment.
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Even though teachers spend a lot of time at schools, they do enjoy job
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security, due to their official status as civil servants. Moreover, the salary
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for teachers is pretty good and in Korean society teaching is regarded as a

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respectable profession.
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Challenges and Issues for Science Teachers

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The main challenges in the training of science teachers and their professional
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development are as follows. First, it is essential to articulate more structured

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teaching standards. Like other professionals, teachers need to be offered

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opportunities to enhance their SMK, PK, and PCK through well-envisioned

and structured programs for prospective, novice, and experienced science
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teachers. The teacher training programs at universities for preservice science

teachers and the PDPs for in-service ones need to be restructured to fit
the aim of teacher professionalization. The science education curriculum
needs to be more integrated so as to increase the professionalism of new
science teachers. Also, a more dynamic induction program, including
mentoring, needs to be offered to novice teachers so that they can bridge the
gap between theory and practice more effectively.
Another important issue is the reliability and validity of the NTET for
screening science teachers. The current trends in teacher education and the
NTET imply that strengthening SMK is the best way to improve the quality
of teachers. Since 2005, the portion of PK in the NTET has been reduced
from 30% to 20%, and the science education portion was increased by
10%. Before 2005, the proportion of science education questions was
90 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

20 30%, but after 2005 that was increased to 30 35%. This gradual
increase in the science education portion of the NTET, along with a reduc-
tion of PK questions, is desirable, but it is necessary to examine the quality
of the science education questions in the NTET. Even though the 2009
version of the NTET (the NTET will be revised again in 2014) has a higher
proportion of science education questions, this does not guarantee that it is
a highly reliable and accurate way of evaluating the quality of preservice
science teachers. As mentioned above, just because an examinee is good at
answering the science education questions in the NTET doesn’t necessarily
mean that he will be highly skilled when it comes to classroom teaching. In
the essay section of the NTET, which was added in 2009, it is critical to

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develop PCK related questions which can assess the candidate’s subject-
specific teaching expertise. It is also necessary to develop PCK questions for

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the NTET that can be solved based on the candidate’s experience in metho-
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dology courses and student teaching. That is, the essay section of the NTET
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should assess subject matter knowledge, a combination of deep subject and
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pedagogical knowledge, which in turn facilitates effective teaching. Finally,

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the working conditions of teachers need to be investigated and improved, so

that they have enough time for science research.
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INNOVATION IN SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION

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IN SOUTH KOREA
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In this section, I introduce some recent innovations in science teacher

education based on my own research on the strengths and weakness of the
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current system. The main goal of science teacher education is to equip

science teachers at all levels to be more professional in their teaching. In the
present system this is effected through teacher training programs at universi-
ties, induction programs for beginning teachers, and PDPs for in-service
teachers. Here, I first define what I mean by “teaching expertise” and then
present the kinds of innovations which I believe would be most effective in
enhancing this expertise.
We can say that science teachers have expertise if they are very effective
in their teaching. What, then, is “effective teaching”? Based on previous
research, we can say that effective teaching creates an environment where
students can use existing ideas and concepts, process information in new
ways, synthesize materials from multiple curricular studies, critically think
about problems, and apply the solutions to various real-life situations.
Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 91

To enhance student learning, teachers need to continually encourage

student participation, assess their understanding, and offer regular feed-
back (Abrams, 1998; Cimer, 2007; Kim, Mun, Park, & Lim, 2010; Kwak,
2010; Oh et al., 2008; Porter & Brophy, 1988; Supovitz & Turner, 2000).
When we regard the teaching career as starting from the time when preser-
vice teachers are still studying at university, it is critical for science educa-
tors to explore the current state of teacher training programs at universities
and help preservice teachers to be more qualified to teach science as
envisioned by the Standards (1996, 2000, 2012). The following three exam-
ples of innovation in science teacher education in South Korea are based
on my own research.

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Innovation in Training Preservice Science Teachers
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The quality of the training received by preservice teachers is a major concern
in teacher education (Matkins & McDonnough, 2010; Tang, 2003).
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However, there have been many reports claiming that preservice teachers
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have difficulty in putting their theoretical knowledge into practice in a real

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teaching context (Abell, 2009; Park, 2009, 2011; Yoon, Joung, Kim, Park, &
Kim, 2012). Tang (2003) found that real teaching happens through the
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integration of the teacher’s core-self and teaching-self; that is, when the
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preservice teacher starts to sense himself as a person in the context of

teaching, making it possible to conceptualize teaching by interweaving it
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into his self-value. Field experience is a critical factor in training preservice

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teachers to become highly competent in their teaching, for this is where they
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begin to feel the dissonance between theory and practice and have the
opportunity to reflect on it and start to come to terms with it.
In my own study on preservice teachers, I compared the preservice teach-
ing practicums at national universities and private universities to determine
what factors influenced the practicum. First, on the basis of Tang’s (2003)
framework, I designed a dynamic experiment in which preservice teachers
experienced three facets of the teaching context:
(1) The campus context: I developed and taught a two-month course on
scientific inquiry which met every week for three hours, and taught pre-
service teachers from both national and private universities the extended
definition of scientific inquiry, both theoretically and practically.
(2) The action context: I designed and taught a one-month microteaching
course in which the preservice teachers demonstrated various teaching
92 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

and learning models which they had already learned in pedagogical

classes. Each participating preservice teacher was assigned to a second-
ary school and spent four weeks teaching and interacting with a coop-
erative. In this way they were introduced to the complex nature
of teaching and learning, and given a wide range of responsibilities in
addition to teaching (this is different from what preservice teachers do
in other countries).
(3) The socio-professional context: The preservice teachers were put in a
situation in which they had to interact with various agents, including
teachers, peers, and others contributing to the construction of their
“teaching self” (Tang, 2003). I purposely excluded the “supervisory

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context,” common in Western countries and Singapore, since it’s not a
part of the practicum system for preservice teachers in South Korea.

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All the preservice teachers participating in this study submitted a reflec-
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tive journal, from which I was able to identify the challenges and
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support preservice teachers had in integrating their teaching-self with
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their core-self in the context of the practicum.

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I was interested in comparing the extent to which the preservice teachers

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from the two different types of universities were influenced in each of these
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contexts (campus, action, and socio-professional). For the purposes of this

experiment, the main difference between national and private universities is
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that preservice teachers at private universities are required to do their prac-

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ticum at the secondary school from which they graduated; therefore, they
are unlikely to have peers at the school with whom they could freely inter-
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act whenever they have a problem. On the other hand, preservice teachers
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at public universities are assigned as a group to a lab school which belongs

(C

to their university. For example, ten preservice teachers majoring in earth

science are assigned to the same middle school, making it easy to rely on
each other for support and guidance during the practicum.
The results of the research are as follows:
(1) As for the campus-based context, the scientific inquiry and microteach-
ing courses were very challenging but supportive, in that they helped
the preservice teachers to feel the dissonance between theory and prac-
tice and start to use reflection to bridge the gap between the two. The
preservice teachers formed new perceptions of scientific inquiry and
the nature of science envisioned by the Standards (1996, 2000), and
tried to implement it into the classroom through their microteaching
demonstration. After becoming aware of the tension between the
theory and practice of scientific inquiry, they gradually learned to
Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 93

embed the relevant theory into the lesson plan by reflecting together
with peers and instructors.
(2) As for the action context, once the preservice teachers were assigned to
a secondary school for field experience, they started to hone their teach-
ing skills and gain knowledge about classroom management and the
students themselves. However, the short period (four weeks) was not
enough for them to fully feel the dissonance between theory and prac-
tice, especially since they also had to attend to student counseling and
administrative work.
(3) As for the socio-professional context, feedback from other teachers was
a critical factor in developing their teaching expertise. The preservice

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teachers discussed issues related to teaching and learning science in the
real context of classroom teaching, at the same time making efforts to

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overcome the dissonance between theory and practice; this is the
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process by which preservice teachers learn to interweave their core-self
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and teaching self. However, this process was less pronounced for the
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preservice teachers from private universities, because they had fewer

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opportunities for peer interaction at their assigned secondary schools

(Park, 2009).
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As a member of a group project (Yoon et al., 2012), I helped conduct a

related study on how to improve elementary preservice teachers’ percep-
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tions and practices related to scientific inquiry. We designed a course on

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scientific inquiry in which preservice teachers shared their understanding

of scientific inquiry and as a group developed and demonstrated a related
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lesson. The teaching demonstration was video recorded and sent to three
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expert science educators familiar with scientific inquiry lessons for evalua-
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tion and feedback. The feedback was presented to the preservice teachers to
reflect on, so that they could incorporate it into a modified lesson plan on
the same topic. During the group discussions on the feedback received, the
preservice teachers gained new insights into the nature of scientific inquiry.
The main findings of this study were as follows:
(1) Before receiving the experts’ feedback, the preservice teachers erro-
neously believed that students must be encouraged to make a predic-
tion and then try to confirm it; that while making a scientific inquiry,
students need to explore freely without guidance from the teacher; and
that the students themselves can come to a conclusion as to the accu-
racy of their prediction.
(2) The expert science educators pointed out that learners need to under-
stand what the problem is and how the problem is connected to what
94 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

they are doing; that is, learners need to know what the purpose of
doing the activity is. Scientific inquiry is not “playing” without a pur-
pose, but rather “doing” with a purpose. The experts added that simple
and repeatable prediction and confirmation does not guarantee that the
learners’ thinking process is scientific; therefore, explicit strategies for
making the learners’ thinking process more scientific must be given.
Lastly, the experts pointed out that teachers are not observers, but
rather facilitators of well-developed scientific inquiry (Crawford, 2000;
Park & Flick, 2004).
(3) As a result of the experts’ feedback, the preservice teachers formed new
understandings of scientific inquiry (e.g., “I came to know that scienti-

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fic inquiry includes not only experiments, but also discussion); came to
recognize the differing approaches of preservice teachers and experts

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(e.g., “The preservice teachers believed that kids can make progress
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merely by repetition, but experts pointed out that an activity is not
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“inquiry” without analyzing its success or failure before making
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another repetition”); and broadened their understanding of scientific

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inquiry (e.g., “Open inquiry is compatible with teacher involvement”).

(4) When the preservice teachers revised their lessons on the basis of the
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experts’ feedback, they were better at emphasizing the teachers’ role as

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the facilitator of a guided inquiry lesson (e.g., “The preservice teachers’

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concrete and directed questions can promote the learners’ ability to

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think scientifically”).
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Overall, it is necessary for science teacher training programs to give

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more emphasis to the process of scientific inquiry and guiding preservice

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teachers to experience the gap between theory and practice so that they can
(C

begin the process of finding ways to bridge it within the context of real
teaching (microteaching and field experience). Also, the duration of the
preservice practicum needs to be extended so that preservice teachers can
gain more experience observing other teachers, and developing practical
knowledge about learners and class management, a process which facili-
tates the interweaving of the core-self and the teaching-self in the context
of real teaching. Meeting this goal requires making more use of expert feed-
back and cooperative interaction between teachers in training programs.

Innovation in Induction Programs for Beginning Science Teachers

As mentioned above, beginning science teachers start to develop their

careers right after being appointed to teach at a school on the basis of their
Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 95

results in the NTET. The NTET results come out every February, and
newly appointed teachers begin teaching in March without training for the
first four years, apart from a general orientation program. There are sepa-
rate PDPs for beginning science teachers and they tend to attend most of
these regardless of their educational intentions. In addition to teaching,
beginning teachers at middle and high schools also have administrative and
other miscellaneous duties to attend to after school, and some beginning
teachers have the additional burden of being in charge of a class. Under
these working conditions, beginning teachers have little time to develop
their expertise in science teaching; yet, many studies have indicated that
many beginning teachers struggle to implement the science teaching prac-

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tices they learned as students into the context of a real classroom (Kwak,
2009; Luft et al., 2011; Luft, Bell, & Gess-Newsome, 2008; Park, 2010). In

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South Korea we don’t use the term “induction program” per se, but studies
is
have been done on how beginning teachers become more professional in
bl
their teaching. Many researchers agree that beginning teachers need to be
Pu

specially trained through separate PDPs where they can reflect on theory
up

and practice in the context of real teaching, but at present the government
doesn’t provide any funding for such an induction program. Next I will
ro

introduce a two-year longitudinal study on how beginning teachers in

G

South Korea gain expertise in science teaching.

d

This study is focused on how induction programs can help beginning

al

science teachers connect theory and practice with the help of expert gui-
er

dance. Similarly, I conducted a study in which beginning teachers were

m

offered periodic workshops on scientific inquiry and scientific argumenta-

)E

tion. Ever since the curriculum was revised in 2009, scientific inquiry has
been receiving more emphasis, but implementation remains a great chal-
(C

lenge. According to related research, there are two main reasons for this:
(1) beginning teachers have different conceptions and misunderstandings
about teaching science as inquiry, and (2) during a short practicum (only
four weeks in my study) beginning teachers do not have sufficient opportu-
nities to reflect on how to connect theory and practice. Since beginning
teachers’ beliefs and views tend to be resistant to change, it’s essential for
them to reflect on them under the guidance of mentors or experts (Kwak,
2009, 2010; Luft & Roehrig, 2007; Park, 2010; Park et al., 2012).
I first surveyed the 47 beginning science teachers participating in the
study to profile their initial understanding of scientific inquiry and, if neces-
sary, interviewed them to get more information. The participants took a
three-day workshop on scientific inquiry as envisioned by the Standards
(1996, 2000). To determine the participants’ approaches to teaching scienti-
fic inquiry, I had them give a teaching demonstrations on plate tectonics
96 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

and air pressure, and rated the authenticity of their practices (an “authen-
tic” practice is one which helps students experience all aspects of the nature
of scientific inquiry, such as argumentation, experimentation, and the atti-
tude of science). Out of 47 beginning teachers, seven volunteered to partici-
pate in a further study, an 18-month longitudinal study in which they were
observed, surveyed, and interviewed, if necessary, to determine how they
formed and changed their understanding of scientific inquiry and how it’s
practiced. The participants contacted me if they had any question or
needed help developing an inquiry lesson; as mentor and mentee, we also
shared ideas on how to make an inquiry lesson more authentic so that their
students could experience the nature of scientific inquiry and scientific

ng
knowledge. The purpose of this study was to develop an induction program
which could help beginning teachers gain more expertise in teaching science

hi
as inquiry; the results were as follows.
is
Before the workshops, the participants displayed a naı̈ve understanding
bl
of scientific inquiry, and their practice mainly consisted of teaching proce-
Pu

dural skills through experimentation (hands-on), rather than scientific

up

thinking skills (minds-on) or affective domain (hearts-on). However, during

the workshop, the participants seemed to revise their understanding of
ro

scientific inquiry, as indicated by their responses to related questions (on a

G

5-point Likert scale, the mean for hands-on was 4; for minds-on 4.8; and
d

for hearts-on 3.25). The guided survey consisted of seven items which were
al

designed to measure the participants’ understanding of scientific inquiry in

er

the context of plate tectonics. For example, the item Students will be able to
m

use the theory of plate tectonics to explain continental drift and hot spots is a
)E

minds-on item, in that it cues students to explain how Hawaii could have
been formed through plate tectonics. (Actually, Hawaii was formed through
(C

plum tectonics, an alternative theory for explaining plate drifting). For

another example, the item Students will be able to understand how the conti-
nental drift theory and plate tectonics influenced society at that time is a
hearts-on item, in that it leads students to understand the relationship
between science and society and the tentative nature of scientific knowledge.
At the end of the workshop, I again checked the participants’ under-
standing of scientific inquiry by employing an open survey on air pressure.
The participants were asked to describe how they would implement a lesson
on air pressure to middle school students, including the content, how to
teach it, and how to assess the students’ learning. Most of the participants
responded that they would teach air pressure through hands-on (67.5%,
27 responses out of 40); one quarter indicated minds-on (25%, 10/40); and
a few hearts-on (7.5%, 3/40).
Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 97

For example, I served as a mentor for one beginning teacher, Kim, for
almost two years, and I could see how he was struggling with teaching
science as inquiry. Kim was motivated to learn how to teach science as
inquiry. He developed a lesson plan for teaching it in the 1st year of the
induction program I designed, and also one for scientific argumentation,
mainly in the 2nd year. Kim had difficulty using different types of questions
(such as convergent and divergent questions for encouraging students’
scientific thinking), but he began to learn how to develop questions, espe-
cially those of the minds-on type. Kim also initially lacked skill in encoura-
ging students to develop an argument during class, but began to develop
some skill in this area as well. Kim began to analyze various inquiry activ-

ng
ities from the view of authentic scientific inquiry and he shared this with
other science teachers during social activities and professional clubs. By

hi
sharing his experience with other teachers, Kim seemed to reflect on his
is
understanding and practice of scientific inquiry, and solicited advice on
bl
creating environments where students could experience the nature of
Pu

authentic scientific inquiry (Crawford, 2000; Kwak, 2010; Luft et al., 2011;
up

Park, 2010). I observed and recorded Kim’s practice of scientific inquiry in

the classroom, and then shared with the other participants his strengths
ro

and weakness in planning and implementing teaching science as inquiry.

G

These findings demonstrate improvement in beginning teachers’ under-

d

standing of scientific inquiry and their ability to use argumentation-based

al

approaches in their teaching practice. I cannot claim cause and effect, but it
er

is likely that the participants’ growth and apparent change in their under-
m

standing and practice were associated with their experience in the induction
)E

program, especially their use of the teaching materials and the interaction
between themselves and myself as mentor and mentee (Dixon & Wilke,
(C

2007; Roehrig & Luft, 2006; Seo, Park, & Van Tassel-Baska, 2005). While
there may not be a set formula for effective teacher professional develop-
ment (Loucks-Horsely, Love, Stiles, Mundry, & Hewson, 2003), it is
possible to make some recommendations based on my Research Experience
for Teachers (RET) type of induction program in which I provided
empirical evidence for various factors which may have a positive influence
on the participants’ views and practices relating to teaching science as
inquiry and helping them to bridge the gap between theory and practice.
More than anything else, the essential factor of an effective induction
program is the participants’ passion to become expert science teachers. In
addition, the researchers must develop interventions to be employed as
needed. For example, I selected inquiry activities which were simple and
didn’t have opportunities for argumentation, and then the teachers and I
98 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

collaborated in developing them to have more space for argumentation. The

beginning teachers who participated in this study were very passionate to
improve their teaching strategies, and asked me for suggestions, discussed
issues arising during their teaching of scientific inquiry, and reflected on the
use of theory and practice to create a learning environment where students
could experience the nature of authentic scientific inquiry.

Innovation in Professional Development Programs for In-Service

Science Teachers

ng
So far, I have presented two studies on developing the expertise of preser-
vice science teachers and one on innovations in in-service training for

hi
beginning science teachers. Now I will present a study on developing the
is
expertise of experienced in-service teachers. This study was carried out by a
bl
team of science educators in South Korea and aimed to find ways to revita-
Pu

lize in-service teacher education and make it more dynamic.

up

This study aimed to improve science teaching and learning in a practical

way. In order to enhance the professionalism of science teachers, in recent
ro

years the science curriculum has been reformed, various teaching models
G

and materials have been developed, and in-service training courses have
d

been conducted. However, in spite of these efforts, not all the results have
al

been satisfactory (Larkin, Seyforth, & Lasky, 2009; Supovitz & Turner,
er

2000). Many studies have reported the ineffectiveness of pre and in-service
m

training courses. For instance, Smylie (1989) observed that teachers ranked
)E

in-service training provided by the school district as the least effective

source of learning, and Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, & Tomlinson (2009)
(C

observed that some prospective teachers considered what they learned at

college to have little relevance to their actual classroom teaching or to their
being a teacher in the future. With these findings in mind, if we are to
improve science teaching in the classroom and laboratory in accordance
with the curriculum reforms, in-service training needs to be more effective
in linking the reforms with actual practice; it also needs to take into
account the actual situation of science teachers. Therefore, we need to first
take a look at the actual situation of science teachers in South Korea.
Here, the main issue is the gap between teachers’ expertise and actual
teaching practices. That is, the main reason why science education in South
Korea doesn’t conform very well to the reformed curriculum is not because
of inadequacies in the curriculum or science teachers’ expertise, but rather
because of the missing link between science teachers’ expertise for teaching
Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 99

the reformed curriculum and their actual teaching in the classroom or

laboratory. Therefore, our basic assumption is that if we can trigger and
activate science teachers’ existing PCK and teaching skills in actual
classroom and laboratory teaching, then the goals of the reformed science
curriculum can be achieved (Park et al., 2012). Our approach is the
improvement of everyday science teaching under ordinary conditions, with-
out using any special or predeveloped teaching plans and materials. This
approach is based on the premise that teachers’ professional development
should start from their existing knowledge, beliefs, skills, and attitudes. As
all would agree, PDPs for teachers should be aimed at enhancing their
actual classroom teaching, and reforms that don’t give adequate attention

ng
to the realities of the school and classroom are unlikely to meet with much
success.

hi
The detailed purposes of this study were to:
is
bl
(1) develop a more practical alternative approach for improving science
Pu
teaching, the Practical On-site Cooperation Model (POCoM);
(2) apply the POCoM to improving physics, biology, and earth science
up

teaching in junior high schools;

ro

(3) analyze the effectiveness of the POCoM; and,

G

(4) investigate teachers’ responses to the POCoM.

d

We recruited three science teachers (one teacher each for physics, biol-
al

ogy, and earth science) at three different schools; each teacher was teaching
er

the same science content in four different classes. One researcher observed
m

each class, using the Korean Teaching Observational Protocols (KTOP)

)E

developed by us to note which aspects needed improvement, recording his

observations on a specially designed “improvement sheet.”
(C

After the first class, the researcher and science teacher had a meeting to
discuss ways for making improvements. At first, the science teacher reflected
on his/her own teaching, and then the researcher gave feedback on which
aspects needed to be improved. An important feature of this model is the
cooperative discussion between the researcher and the science teacher,
rather than a vertical relationship between the researcher as provider and
teacher as consumer. During the discussion, the teachers were encouraged
to reflect on how to improve their teaching practices by utilizing the sugges-
tions provided by the researchers. In the second class observation, the
researcher used the KTOP again to determine whether or not there was any
improvement on various items. After the second class, the researcher and
the teacher discussed the areas in which there was improvement, the degree
of improvement, and what still could be improved in the following class. In
100 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

this feedback cycle, the researcher determines any problematic teaching stra-
tegies, shares possible solutions with the teacher, monitors what has and
hasn’t improved, discusses the reasons why, and observes again. After
applying this cycle to all four classes, the researcher interviewed the teacher
to determine the content validity of the results. The results were as follows:

(1) The average improvement of the three participants was 84%, meaning
that there was improvement in 84% of the areas which required it.
(2) In comparison with the teaching in the first class, that of the second
class improved by 47%; and in comparison to the third class, the last
class improved by 45%. This shows that the improvement was gradual
rather than sudden.

ng
(3) The discussions between the researcher and teacher were held anywhere

hi
between a few hours to one day before the next class was to be taught.

is
As a result, the suggestions for the improvement were practical and
bl
immediate.
Pu

(4) The improvements that occurred were brought about not by learning
new teaching theories or teaching skills, but rather by actualizing the
up

teachers’ latent understanding and skills. This means that the gap
ro

between theory and practice in education is not because science teachers

G

lack expertise in teaching science, but rather because they have difficulty
putting their preexisting understanding and skills into practice.
d
al

Additional factors identified in this study as having a bearing on

er

improving teachers’ teaching are as follows:

m

(a) The improvements came about only if the teacher agreed with the
)E

researcher’s recommendations.
(b) Teachers need an opportunity to reflect on the feedback.
(C

(c) Teachers need to be willing to make changes in their teaching style

or basic philosophy about teaching and learning.
(d) Positive responses by students can bring improvement in teaching
in the following class.
(e) More exact conceptual explanations or exact use of terminology
could easily be improved.

Overall, although it is not certain that the improved teaching practices

would continue to be used in the future, at least it is clear that there was a
cause and effect relationship between the feedback and the improvements.
That is, by creating an environment where teachers could identify a pro-
blem, the researchers were able to monitor how the teachers tried to
improve their teaching, and discuss with the teachers what was or wasn’t
Innovation in Science Teacher Education in South Korea 101

improved. The teachers participated in this study not as informants, but

as collaborators, and this cooperation between teachers and researchers is
critical to helping teachers reflect on theory and practice in the classroom.

CONCLUDING REMARKS: IMPLICATIONS FOR

SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH KOREA
In this chapter I reviewed the current situation of science teacher education
in South Korea, emphasized the necessity of innovation, and pointed out

ng
some of the critical factors to be considered. The followings are my con-
clusions on innovation in science education based on the results of my

hi
research introduced in this chapter.
is
First, preservice science teachers need to be exposed to the real context
bl
of teaching and feel the dissonance between theory and practice. Thus
Pu

structured preparation courses (such as microteaching and scientific

up

inquiry) and longer practicums are recommended so that preservice tea-

chers will have more opportunities to integrate their core-self and teaching-
ro

self on the basis of their own competency as well as in collaboration with

G

teachers and peers. More than anything else, preservice teachers need to be
d

trained in scientific literacy and how to teach it. That is, preservice teachers
al

need to form their own views on scientific inquiry from their own practice
er

in a real teaching context. Without any concrete understanding of scientific

m

inquiry, preservice teachers won’t know how to improve their teaching.

)E

Both preservice and beginning teachers need to learn scientific inquiry.

In-service teachers need to enhance their expertise. Teachers themselves are
(C

“learners” in the sense that they need to continually hone their teaching
expertise. Teachers’ prior knowledge and views about science teaching as
inquiry must first be made clear before they can be augmented or changed
as necessary.
Second, in most PDPs in South Korea, teachers are passive listeners.
However, teachers need to become more active in learning how to teach
science as inquiry. As learners, teachers need to make their prior knowledge
clear so that researchers can develop appropriate PDPs for preservice,
beginning, and in-service teachers by considering what they need the most
in order to develop their expertise. In the case of preservice teachers, they
need to gain a new understanding of scientific inquiry by reflecting on their
knowledge and practice on the basis of expert feedback, and then revise
their inquiry lesson on the basis of their new understanding. In the case of
102 YOUNG-SHIN PARK

beginning teachers, they need to learn how to teach science as inquiry as

well as argumentation. For this reason, I designed workshops and seminars
where beginning teachers learned new teaching strategies, collaborated with
me to develop lesson plans, and asked me to monitor and guide them in
becoming more professional in teaching science as inquiry. Therefore,
PDPs for science teachers need to be more dynamic, and also add new and
concrete content on various factors influencing teacher expertise.
Third, is the relationship between the teacher and researcher in PDPs.
Reflection is a critical tool for teachers to use in developing their under-
standing and practice, and such reflection emerges through the alliance
between teachers and researchers. To encourage teachers to reflect on the-

ng
ory and practice, two important dimensions are necessary. One is a real
classroom context; the other is collaboration among peers and experts (tea-

hi
chers and researchers). As researchers, we have a collective commitment to
is
investigating the problems teachers face. Solving these problems requires
bl
collaboration between the actors (teachers) and helpers (researchers).
Pu

Teachers need to be not only participants, but also actors; and researchers
up

need to be not only directors, but also collaborators. Making PDPs more
successful requires the building of alliances between researchers and partici-
ro

pants in the planning, implementation, and dissemination of the research

G

process. Teachers are seeking to understand the teaching world by trying to

d

change teaching practices collaboratively and reflectively; this is called

al

participatory action research (PAR). Within the PAR process, a commu-

er

nity of inquiry and action evolves and addresses questions and issues con-
m

nected to teachers’ expertise. On the basis of this alliance between teachers

)E

and researchers, when a teacher encounters a problem in his teaching, the

researcher observes and evaluates, and then helps the teacher reflect on his
(C

teaching practices; then the teacher takes action in the context of real teach-
ing. I hope that there will be more opportunities for teachers to be involved
as active participants in the upgrading of their expertise on the basis of this
kind of alliance between teachers and researchers. To make this happen,
researchers must design PDPs to fit teachers’ goals of teaching expertise.

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