CO QAH + MELC LW

Course Outline & Quality Assured HANDOUT No.

Handouts paired with MELC- Based in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Learner’s Worksheet

MELC:
3. Describe general features of the history of life on life on Earth, including generally accepted date and
sequence of the geologic time scale and characteristics of major groups organism present these time
periods (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-g-8)

4. Explain mechanisms that produce change in populations from generation to generation (e.g.,
artificial selection, natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, recombination) (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-9)

Semester: 1 Week No. 2 Day: 1-4

LESSON: HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH

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The science of biology is filled with a lot of interesting areas that would led us to appreciate life. The history of
life o Earth is filled with many fascinating events. These events present important pieces of information that will
help us understand how life on Earth came. Learning the history of life deepens our understanding and
appreciation for all living things, including our fellow humans and how life originated on Earth can help
you understand how complex life-forms have become.

The first widely accepted idea of how life on Earth formed was proposed by Russian Chemist
Alexander Ivanovich Oparin (1894-1980) in the 1920’s. he proposed that the atmosphere of early Earth
was very reactive, with numerous incidents of lightning and high levels of ultraviolet radiation. Because
of this highly reactive atmosphere, Oparin thought that the early oceans contained a solution of many
essential elements and compounds. He referred to it as a “primordial soup,” wherein the earliest forms
of life arose through a series of reactions that made simple compounds become complex. Figure. 2.1
shows an interesting graphical representation of the different inorganic molecules found on primitive
Earth.

Since then, scientist have developed various intellectual procedures in

identifying life’s history by examining ancient rocks, petrified sap of
ancient trees, tarpits, and even polar glaciers. With the information
obtained from rock layers and fossils worldwide, scientists have
estimated the relative age of Earth and identified the major groups or
organisms that have survived on Earth during a specific time frame.
Figure 2.1 Chemical compounds that
were present in the primordial soup
included hydrogen sulfide, methane, BIG IDEA: The efforts of different scientists have enables us to learn the
ammonia, carbon dioxide, and history of life on Earth. We can use this knowledge to learn how life has
phosphate. Oxygen was not present on
Earth during that time. Source: Bracher, P. evolved from the simplest forms to the most complex.
J. (2015). Primordial soup that cooks
itself. Nature Chemistry, 7(4), 273–
274.https://doi.org/10.1038/nchem.2219

THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

Geologic pieces of evidence show that Earth was not formed from a single event. Our planet was
formed by different pieces of cosmic debris that were probably attracted to one another over a course
of about 100 million years. As it was forming, it was struck by one or more meteor like objects, possibly
one as large as Mars. The collision most probably produced enough heat to melt the entire globe. When
Earth melted, the different elements contained in it rearranged themselves according to density. The
densest elements formed the core of Earth. From there, radioactive decay generated enough heat to
convert the interior of Earth into molten rock. Moderate dense elements floated to the surface, forming
Earth’s solid crust. The least dense elements, which include hydrogen and nitrogen, formed the
atmosphere. The infant planet was so different from modern Earth because the sky was most probably
pinkish orange, and its early atmosphere, contained hydrogen cyanide, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and water. No life-form would have been able to survive that kind
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of harsh environment. The graphical representation of the early life on Earth, which shows the
atmosphere forming mainly from gases spewed from volcanoes, is shown in figure 2.2.

FIRST ORGANIC MOLECULES

Earth in its early from has very harsh conditions. To
find out if organic molecules could evolve involved from
inorganic molecules accompanied with the harsh condition of
early Earth, American chemists Stanley Miller and Harold
Urey conducted an experiment in the 1950’s, which involved
simulating the early conditions of Earth inside the laboratory.
In their experiment, they filled a flask with hydrogen,
methane, ammonia, and water to present the early
atmosphere of Earth. They also made sure that no Figure 2.2 The early atmosphere of Earth was formed
microorganisms would contaminate it. Then, they passed from volcanic gases.The Early Atmosphere - Outgassing.
electric sparks through the mixture to simulate lightning. (2020). Retrieved August 12, 2020, from Vsc.edu website:
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes
/met130/notes/chapter1/early.html

After a few days, they noted very spectacular

results. They discovered that several amino acids-the
building blocks of proteins- began to accumulate in their
setup. This result was surprising because amino acids
are not simple compounds at all. Even though
scientists now know that Miller and Urey’s original
simulation of the early atmosphere of Earth was not
accurate, this experiment was still significant because it
suggested that organic compounds necessary for life
might have arisen from simple inorganic materials
present on primitive Earth. This experiment has not only
encouraged many other experiments to find out the origin
of life, it also helped in contributing knowledge to science. Figure 2.3 Setup of the Miller-Urey Experiment
Wikipedia Contributors. (2020, July 22). Miller–Urey
experiment. Retrieved August 12, 2020, from
Wikipedia website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment

HOW LIFE BEGAN

Scientists believe that microscopic cell-like structures
similar to modern bacteria appeared 200-300 million years
after Earth cooled enough to carry water. These cell-like
structures were actually large organic molecules known as
proteinoid microspheres. Like cells, they had a selectively
permeable membrane that allowed certain molecules to
pass through them. They also had a simple means of
Figure 2.4 A micrograph of proteinoid microspheres
storing and releasing Biochemical Evolution. (2020). Retrieved August 12,
energy in out of their systems. Several hypotheses suggest 2020, from Uoregon.edu website:
http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/
that structures similar to proteinoid microspheres might biochemical_evolution.html
have acquired more cellular characteristics. A micrograph
of proteinoid microspheres is shown in figure 2.4

EVOLUTION OF RNA AND DNA

You have learned in the previous unit that DNA and RNA are essential molecules that control
activities in the cell. One of the biggest questions regarding the history of Earth is how these
biomolecules have evolved. There is no clear explanation at the moment as to how they were initially
formed, but some scientists have made surprising discoveries regarding this area. One of the
hypotheses about the origin of life, as illustrated in Figure 2.5 suggest that RNA could have evolved

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before DNA due to three conditions. First, protein synthesis may occur in RNA but not in DNA. Second,
RNA can catalyze certain reactions in the form of ribozymes. Last, the enzymatic reduction of RNA
nucleotides enables the synthesis of DNA nucleotides. Figure 2.5 shows how inorganic matter turns
into simple organic molecules that eventually form into RNA nucleotides. These RNA nucleotides were
able to replicate, synthesize protein, and store information.

Figure 2.5 The evolution of

genetic materials start with
the formation of RNA
nucleotides from inorganic
matter.
Unit 8: Evolution. (2020).
Retrieved August
12, 2020, from My
Site website:
https://mrrittner.w
eebly.com/unit-8-
evolution.html

Where Did Life Evolve?

With the many speculations about the origin of life scientists have found different habitats where
life may have begun. Some of these locations include soil surfaces, interstellar space, and even the
atmosphere. However, soil surfaces would be available in water, whereas stellar space and the
atmosphere are too dry for life to exist. Some scientists also suggest that life might have originated from
the oceans, but complex organic molecules are vulnerable to damage due to the high sodium and
chlorine concentration in seawater. Lakes and seashore lagoons can also be places where life might
have originated because they have warm temperature (about 25 degree Celsius) that can promote
chemical reactions. However, RNA bases become increasingly unstable as temperature rise above 0
degree Celsius. So perhaps, cold volcanic vents were the best environments for organic reactions to
occur during early Earth. Laboratory experiments have implied that amino acids and other important
molecules can form in such conditions.

ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Complex life began from simple prokaryotic organisms, which are said to be the ancestors or
precursors of eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are so successful in an incredible range of habitats that they
can even live in swamps, hindguts of termites, hot springs, and even in deep sea and underground
rocks. Compared with other groups of living things, prokaryotes are numerous; there are 500 million
prokaryotic organisms per liter of ocean water, 1 billion of them per liter of freshwater, and about 300
million bacteria on the skin of a person. The different kinds of prokaryotes make it difficult to search for
the possible ancestry of eukaryotes among them.

Recall the prokaryotes cells do not possess true nuclei. About two billion year ago, they began
forming internal cell membranes. Then, something radical seemed to have happened because primitive
prokaryotes entered the ancestral eukaryote. They did not infect their host; instead, they formed an
endosymbiotic relationship with it. Endosymbiosis is a type of relationship wherein an organism lives
inside its partner. According to endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic cell created a symbiotic relationship
with prokaryotic organisms-one group can produce ATP, and the other group can do photosynthesis.
These organisms became mitochondria and chloroplasts, respectively. Due to modern technology and
the subsequent study of the endosymbiotic theory, scientists are able to support the theory’s claim. By
studying DNA structure and ribosome, scientists have found out that mitochondria and chloroplasts
have many features similar to some forms of free-living bacteria present today. These similarities
provide strong evidence of common ancestry between free-living bacteria and the organelles inside
eukaryotic cells. A summary of the endosymbiotic theory is presented in figure 2.6.

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Figure 2.6 An explanation of the endosymbiotic theory. The double membrane present in mitochondria and chloroplasts serve as proof of their bacterial
ancestry.Eukaryotic Origins | OpenStax Biology 2e. (2018, March 7). Retrieved August 12, 2020, from Lumenlearning.com website:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/eukaryotic-origins/

MULTICELLULARITY AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Most prokaryotes reproduce asexually, after eukaryotic cells arose, they began to reproduce
sexually. This event caused the rapid evolution of more complex life-forms. The reason behind this far
greater speed of evolution is the shuffling and reshuffling of genes from one generation to the next.
Unlike asexual reproduction that only produces offspring that are genetically identical to their parents,
sexual reproduction produces organisms that never exactly resemble their parents. These changes in
genetic information result in increased chances of evolutionary changes in a species. After the
emergence of sexual reproduction, there came the development of multicellular organisms from single-
celled species. Figure 2.7 shows ancient jellyfish from the Precambrian time and its present-day
counterpart.

Figure 2.7 A fossil of an ancient jellyfish (left) and a present-day jellyfish (right)

We have now learned about how life originated. But the previous discussions show only how it
happened at the microscope scale. Now, we must learn about the history of life on Earth at the
macroscopic level. There are two fields involved in providing us with facts on the timetable of the
evolution of life on Earth: paleontology and geology.

PALEONTOLOGY

Paleontology is the scientific study of the existence of

life, including the origin and eventual destruction or extinction
of different groups or organisms. It is a science that
incorporates different disciplines such as biology, geology,
ecology, archeology, and even computer science to study the
evolution or organisms and how they interact with the
environment.
Paleontologists specialize in studying the ecologies of
the past and the evolution of organisms that thrived in these Figure 2.8 Fossils Archaeopteryx prove the
dinosaur ancestry of birds. These pieces of
ecologies through careful observation and documentation of evidence include sharp teeth, tiny forelimbs that
fossils. They work to identify the forms of life that existed have three claws, a long bont tail, and a head
covered with scales.Archaeopteryx | Size, Fossils, &
millions of years ago. They figure out how things were in Facts | Britannica. (2020). In Encyclopædia
ancient times using fossil records. An example of a fossil Britannica. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/animal/Archaeopteryx
record is shown in figure 2.8. It is a fossil of Archaeopteryx

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lithographica from the late Jurrasic period. The Archaeopteryx is said to have had many features of
dinosaurs, which provide a strong evidence of the dinosaur ancestry of birds.

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

The geologic timescale shown significant events in the history of earth and of the evolution of
living things. Scientist were able to develop the geologic timescale by studying rock layers and index
fossils worldwide. The information obtained from these pieces of evidence made it possible for them to
identify the relative age of Earth. They were also able to identify the different groups of organisms that
have lived during specific time periods. These pieces of evidence were used to mark the start and the
end of a segment of geologic time. Other techniques such as radioactive and relative dating were also
used to confirm the specific ages of rock layers I recent years. Not surprisingly, scientist found out that
these division did not turn out to be of standard lengths, such as 100 million years. Instead, geologic
divisions vary in duration by several millions of years.
The geologic timescale has several levels of division. Each row in the geologic timescale will be
discussed thoroughly from the oldest to the latest geologic timeline.

EONS
Eons are the largest divisions in the geologic timeline. They are composed of hundreds of millions
of years in duration. The recent one is the Phanerozoic eon, which began more than 500 million years
ago. This eon is characterized by the existence of organisms that had skeletons or hard shells. Other
eons are the Proterozoic eon (From 2.5 billion years ago to 540 million years ago), where the first
multicellular organisms arose and where mass extinction occurred; the Archaeozoic eon (from 3.9 to
2.5 billion years ago) where the first life-forms represented by single-celled organisms appeared; and
the Hadean eon (from 4.6 to 3.9 billion years ago), which is characterized by Earth’s formation from
dust and gases. The Proterozoic, Archaeozoic, and the hadean eons are sometimes collectively known
as the Precambrian time, which accounts for almost 90% of Earth’s history.

ERAS
As mentioned previously, an eon can be divided into smaller time intervals known as eras. The
phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras, namely, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. The
boundaries of the era have been determined based on the different organisms that were present during
a certain period of time in the geologic timescale.

PERIODS
Periods are further subdivisions of eras. The Proterozoic eon is composed of the
Vendian/Ediacaran period. Prokaryotic organisms began to appear during this period, first with
anaerobic life-forms, and then followed by the photosynthetic organisms, which added oxygen to the
atmosphere. However, life in this period only thrived underwater, and only a few fossils existed because
the animals were all soft-bodied.

EPOCHS
Epochs are finer subdivisions shown in the Cenozoic era and parts of the Mesozoic era. They
are only done for the most recent portion of the geologic timescale because old rocks in the late portions
of the timescale have been buried deeply, causing them to be intensely deformed and severely modified
by long-term Earth processes.
Our geologic timescale is an important tool that visually shows Earth’s history. With the help of
this timescale, we can look at the past and identify the organisms that have existed a long time ago.

EON ERA PERIOD EPOCH

MAJOR
EVENTS
APHANEROZOIC QUATERNARY HOLOCENE Historical time
PLEIOSTOCENE Ice ages,
origin of
Homo
NEOGENE PLIOCENE Bidepal
human
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CENOZOIC ancestors
appear
MIOCENE Mammals and
angiosperms
continue to
diversity
PALEOGENE OLIGOCENE Origins of
primates
Figure 2.11 A mural of the EOCENE Angiosperms
animals that lived during the
Cenozoic era dominate,
GeoI Earth History. (2020). mammals
Retrieved August 12,
2020, from Rpi.edu diversify
website:
http://ees2.geo.rpi.ed
PALEOCENE Mammals,
u/Geo1/lectures/ birds, insects
lecture10/ehist_05.html diversify
MESOZOIC CRETACEOUS Angiosperms
diversify,
dinosaurs
extinct at end
of period
JURASSIC Dinosuars
abundant, first
birds appear,
gymnosperms
Figure 2.10 A fossil of Karaurus dominate
sharovi, one of the earliest known TRIASSIC Dinosaurs
salamanders from the Mesozoic
eraDe 56 beste afbeeldingen van evolve, origin
fossielen & evolutie:salamanders | of mammals,
Fossielen, Evolutie, Salamanders.
(2014, December 2). Retrieved gymnosperms
August 12, 2020, from Pinterest dominate
website:
https://www.pinterest.ph/tsjok/fos
sielen-evolutiesalamanders/

PALEOZOIC PERMIAN Reptiles

diversify,
major
extinction of
many marine
organisms
CARBONIFEROUS First seed
plants
appear, origin
of reptiles,
amphibians
dominate
Figure 2.9 During the Paleozoic
era, mollusks developed the DEVONIAN Bony fishes
ability to be buoyant (to float). diversify,
Echinoderms began to multiply,
and coral reefs began to flourish. insects and
Wikipedia Contributors. (2020, first
August 1). Coral reef.
Retrieved August 12, amphibians
2020, from Wikipedia appear
website:
https://en.wikipedia.org/w SILURIAN First vascular
iki/Coral_reef plants appear
ORDOVICIAN Fungi, plants
and animals,
colonize land
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 CAMBRIAN First fish,
many animal
phyla diversify
(Cambrian
explosion)
PROTOZOIC EDIACARAN Appearance
of algae and
invertebrates
Oldest fossils
of eukaryotic
cells
Carbonate
rocks
abundant
ARCHAEAN Atmospheric
oxygen
concentration
increases
Oldest fossil
of cells
(cynobacteria)
Oldest known
rocks(Acasta
Gneiss)
HADEAN Earth worms

Nature presents scientist with interesting facts and mysteries. As we study and discover things
about life, we realize that there are still more to learn about it. We live in a world where we are not the
only organisms that flourish. There are millions of other organisms by which we directly and indirectly
interact with. The number and the kinds of organisms living on Earth at a particular time is called
biological diversity. How organisms arose and how they are all related are some of the interesting
questions relating to life’s diversity.

The evolutionary theory is the scientific explanation of the diversity of life. Evolution, or change
overtime, is the process of how present-day organisms have descended from ancient ones. A theory is
a well-supported, testable explanation of a natural phenomenon.

NATURAL SELECTION

A key factor for an organism to thrive and reproduce depends on how well suited the organism
is to the environment. The ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in a specific environment is
called its fitness. For an individual to be fit in an environment, it has to successfully adapt to it. The
concept of fitness is the central process of evolution by natural selection. Individuals with characteristics
that are not suited to the environment either die or live with offspring, whereas individuals with
characteristics that are very much suited to the changes in the inherited characteristics of a population.
These changes in characteristics increase a species’ fitness in its environment.

One example of an organism that has become extinct is

Raphus cucullatus or the dodo bird. Dodos were found on the small
island of Mauritius in the India Ocean, eat Madagascar.

“Dodo | Bird, History, & Facts | Britannica,” in Encyclopædia

Britannica, 2021, https://www.britannica.com/animal/dodo-
extinct-bird.

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 They were nonflying, overweight, pigeonlike birds that were allegedly unfit to the environment
because they could not fly. This made them easy prey. Their obesity, slowness, and lack of intelligence
are the common reasons cited by scientist for their extinction over long periods of time, natural selection
produces organisms which improved body structures and habitats. As a result, present-day organisms
are different from their ancestors. This can be explained by the principle of descent with modification,
wherein species descend through generations with several changes overtime. This principle also
implies that organisms are related to one another.

Another principle relating to evolution is the principle of common descent, which means that all
organisms share common ancestry. Using these principles, we can think of a single tree of life that links
in all organisms on Earth. The origin of life indicated in the leftmost part the diagram is the common
ancestor for all the archeans, bacteria, and eukaryotes.

The phylogenetic tree represents the evolutionary relationship among sets or groups of
organisms, called taxa (singular: taxon). The tips of the tree represent the groups of descendant taxa
(which are often species) and the nodes on the tree represent common ancestors of those descendants.
Two descendants that split from the same node are called sister groups.

TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION

There are three types of natural selection that can affect populations. These are directional, Stabilizing,
and diversifying or disruptive selection.

Figure 19.3B.119.3B.1: Types of natural selection: Different types of natural selection can impact the distribution of phenotypes within a
population.In (a) stabilizing selection, an average phenotype is favored.In (b) directional selection, a change in the environment shifts the spectrum of
phenotypes observed.In (c) diversifying selection, two or more extreme phenotypes are selected for, while the average phenotype is selected against.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

In Artificial Selection, nature provides the variation among different organisms so that humans
can select the variations that are used to them. This can be done through a technique called selective
breeding. This type of mechanism is done by farmers and breeders. In this process, individuals with
desirable traits or characteristics are bred to increase the chances of having offspring with the same

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desirable traits. With the help of artificial selection, breeders are able to produce a wide range of plants
and animals that look very different from their ancestors.

NONRANDOM MATING

Non-random mating also contributes to the population change from one generation to the
next. This described as the selected probability of mating with another individual in the population.
Non-random mating may take two forms, namely, inbreeding and outbreeding.

Figure 19.2D.119.2D.1: Assortative mating in the

American Robin: The American Robin may practice
assortative mating on plumage color, a melanin based
trait, and mate with other robins who have the most
similar shade of color. However, there may also be
some sexual selection for more vibrant plumage which
indicates health and reproductive performance.

Inbreeding is when individuals are more likely to mate with their mate with their close relative
that with distant relatives.

a. Close breeding : This is most intensive breeding where animals are very closely related and
can be traced back to more than one common ancestor. Examples: Sire to daughter Son to
dam Brother to sister.
b. Line breeding : Mating animals that are more distantly related which can be traced back to
one common ancestor. Examples: Cousins Grandparents to grand offspring, Half-brother to
half-sister. Line breeding increases genetic purity amongst the animals of progeny generations.

Outbreeding or assertive mating, happens when individuals select distant relatives than close
relatives as their partners.

1. Crossbreeding: Crossbreeding is the mating of two animals of different breeds. Superior traits
that results in the crossbred progeny from crossbreeding are called hybrid vigor or heterosis.
2. Grading up:
o Grading up is the breeding of animals of two different breeds where the animals of an
indigenous breed/genetic group is mated by an improved pure breed for several
generations towards attaining the superior traits of the improved breed.
o Grading up is continuous use of purebred sires of the same breed in a grade herd. By
fifth generation, the graded animals may reach almost purebred levels.

By following out breeding system i.e., crossbreeding, selective breeding and grading up according to
the need, results in improvement in production performance of the crossbred/graded along with
improvement in growth rate, reproduction and production.
General Considerations Regarding Crossbreeding Systems

a. Good record keeping of the animals is required for selection good quality of male and females
for breeding. Records on milk production and age at first calving are two important characters
besides others.
b. Calving difficulties may increase when crossing large breed sires with small breed dams and
hence selection of animals/breeds should be done carefully.
c. Fewer calving problems if large breed dams are used. However, large breed dams have higher
maintenance costs.
d. Artificial insemination allows access to better bulls which may be practiced.

GENETIC DRIFT
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 Natural and artificial selection are not the only sources of evolutionary change. Another
mechanism of population change is called genetic drift. Genetic Drift is caused by unpredictable
changes in allele frequencies due to small population sizes.

MUTATION

Mutation is the change in the structure of a gene by alterations in the DNA sequence of an
organism. There are different types of mutations according to the mechanism done to the DNA
molecule.

1. Substitution – which occurs when genetic codon has one altered nitrogenous base.
2. Insertion- which characterized by the addition of an extra set of base pairs of genetic material.
3. Deletion- occurs when a set of base pairs in the genetic material is omitted.
4. Frameshift- Insertions and deletions in the genetic material cause another type of mutation called
frameshift. This happens when the information is no longer parsed correctly, resulting in the production
of useless proteins.

RECOMBINATION

Recombination is simply a rearrangement of genes. This process naturally occurs during the
crossing over stage in meiosis, where is an exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes.
The result of recombination is greater diversity on the population’s gene pool. Recombination
itself is not the major cause of evolution, but it can be a contributing factor in transferring favourable
genes from one generation to another.

GENE FLOW (Migration)

Gene Flow is also known as migration. This happens when there is transfer of genes from the gene
pool of one population to another. There are two types of migration – emigration and immigration.
Emigration happens when organism leave their habitat, and immigration happens when organism
enter another habitat and live in.

REFERENCES

“19.2D: Nonrandom Mating and Environmental Variance,” Biology LibreTexts, July 13, 2018,.

General Biology 2 Textbook for Senior High School. Department of Education-Bureau of Learning Resources
(DepEd-BLR), Vibal Group Inc. 2016

Mark Archei O. Javier. General Biology 2. Diwa Learning System Inc, 2017

“Vikaspedia Domains,” Vikaspedia.in, 2019, https://vikaspedia.in/agriculture/livestock/general-management-

practices-of-livestock/animal-breeding.

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 Prepared by: MARISH LOU G. FERNANDEZ
CCNHS

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