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    Tema 2. Chapter 12 Gender and Sexuality

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    alejandra

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    are some major ways in which and females difer in thir sexuality? 2, When men report more different sexual partners than women do, i that accurate? How can it be 3. How do surgeons create a penis fo femaleso-male transgender persons, or a vagina for male-to-female trans pe Read this chapter to find out Yoo Yongoiang/VCG Gey Images Gender Roles and Stereotypes Cultural Factors Gender Roles and Ethnicity Other Factors Socialization Beyond the Young Adults Psychological Gender Differences Transgender Issues and Experience Gender Differences in Sexuality Masturbation The Experiences of Trans People Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination ainst Trans People Attitudes about Casual Use of Pornography Aronia Fivtica Transgender Development ‘Ths Cigna Gap Sexual Orientation and Transgender Identity Sex Drive Trans Health and Mental Health Social, Medical, and Surgical Transition Processes Why the Differences? Are the Differences Bogus? Biological Factors What ¢ tive Psychotherapy with Transgender ses Gender Variatior he majority of women (happily for them) are not very much troubled with sexual feelings of any kind. What men are habitually, women are only exceptionally.” The root of all men’s desire is to have sex. When you brush your teeth, it’s to have sex. When you eat, it’s, well, I gotta have energy to have sex. When you get dressed, you think, oh, maybe if | wear these jeans Ill be more likely to have sex.’ Dr William Acton, (87). The fancton and dsonders ofthe epadvrne "Seth Rogen. (2008, July 20). Quoted inthe New York Times Sunday Mae: ‘When a baby is bor, what isthe fist statement made about it? “Its a boy" or “tsa gir,” of course. Sociologists tell us that gender is one of the most basic of status characteris: tics. That is, in terms of both our individual interactions ‘with people and the positon we hold in society, gender is ‘exceptionally important, People experience consternation when they are uncertain of a person's gender. They do not know how to interact with such a person, and they feel flustered, not to mention curious, until they can ferret out some clue as to whether the person is « man or a woman. In this chapter we explore gender roles and the impact they ‘may have on sexuality, as well a the phenomenon of trans- znder, which includes several variations on typical gender, ‘The consternation that people experience when they are uncertain of another person’s gender is rooted in the gender binary, which isthe classification of people into one of two categories: male or female. Today we know that there are more possibilities. For example, some people see them- selves as genderqueer and outside the gender binary. The psychological research on gender stereotypes and gender dlflerences has all been based on the assumption of a gender binary. Inthe last section of this chapter, we consider trans gender individuals, who go beyond the gender binary. Gender Roles and Stereotypes 7a, 1991; DeArmond et al, 2006). Yet gender stereotypes, vary by ethnic group in the United States (Ghavami & Peplau, 2013). For example, Asian American women are stereotyped as quiet, whereas African American women are stereotyped as loud. Heterosexuaity is an important part of gender roles (Hyde & Jaffee, 2000). The “feminine” woman is expected 10 be sexualy attractive to men and in turn tobe attracted to them, Women who violate any part of this role—for eximple, lesbians-are viewed as violators of gender roles and are considered masculine. Heterosexualty is even ‘more important in the male role (Pascoe, 2011). Gender Roles and Ethnicity [AS we consider variations in gender roles across vari cous ethnie groups, its crucial to understand how these ender roles are a product of culture. In the sections that follow, we consider some aspects ofthe cultures of four edhe groups and thei relevance to gender role and sex. First though we consider ake concept, intersection, which ean be defined as an approach that simultaneously considers the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of identi, diferenee, and disadvantage (Cole, 2009), Tati, according to this approach, we should not consider the effects of gender in isolation. Insead, we should consider the effects of gender, race, soca lass, and sexual orientation simttaneously. When we talk about the category “women,” for example, we ‘Gender binary: Conceptualzing gen der as having ony two categories, male and female, Gonder role: A set of noms, oF One of the basic ways in which societies codify this ‘emphasis on gender is through gender roles.’ A gender role is a set of norms, or culturally defined expectations, that define how people of one gender ought to behave. ‘A closely related phenomenon is a stereotype, which is 4 generalization about a group of people (e.., men) that distinguishes those people from others (e.. women). Research shows that in modern US. society, and among college students, there isa belief that males and females do differ psychologically in many ways, and these stereotypes hhave not changed much since 1972 (Bergen & Williams, are talking about a complex group that difers by ethnicity, social clas, sexual orientation, and many ‘other identities, such as religion Within this framework, it becomes clear that some groups ‘experience multiple disadvan. tages such as poor Black women or lesbian women of olor. thers may be part of a disadvantaged group but also part of a privileged ‘group, such as middle-class Blacks. In the sections that follow, we look at the intersection of gender and culturally defined expectations, that define how people of one gender ‘ought to behave. Stereotype: A generalization about a group of people eg, men) that stinguishes them from others (0. women), Intereectionalty: An approach that ‘quences of mutple group member- ships, @9, the intersection of gender “he disinction betwen sex sr genders matin inthis chap and ethnicity. let Male-femal oes-and thus gender rles-are discased her ‘Acculturation: The process of incor porating the beliefs and customs of ethnicity Inthe chapter “Sexual Orientation: Gay, Straight, ‘or Bi?” we also examine the intersection of gender, ethnic. ity, and sexual orientation, African Americans ‘Two factors are especially significant in the cultural eri tage of African Americans: the heritage of African culture and the experience in America of slavery and subsequent racial oppression (Staples, 2006). African American culture today tke that of some other ethnic groups, emphasizes the collective over the individual (Fairchild etal, 2003), in com trast tothe “me generation” of contemporary Whit culture. Mother-child bonds continue to be extremely important in the structure of African American society, and status and honor are accorded to motherhood (Reid & Bing, 2000. Stereotyped images of Black women’s sexuality bound. Traditional images include the Jezebel, who is promiscuous and immoral: and the Mammy, who is fat and asexual (Stephens & Few, 2007). Contemporary hip- hop culture has added numerous stereotyped images: the Gold Digger. who uses sex to gain economic rewards from men; Gangster Bitches, who live in poverty-stricken, vio- lent environments, focus on survival, and use sex to feel 2004 forthe moment; and the Sister Savior. whois strongly tied to African American religious traditions, is virtuous and avoids sex (Stephens & Fev, 2007), Stereotypes about Black women are thus complex and contradictory Black men’s sexuality, too, has been stereotyped (Fasula et ab, 2014), Black men are believed to be hyper: sexual and to have great sexual prowess, Some experts argue that Black men experience even ‘ion than Black women do, according to several indica tors including education and eriminal justice (Pieterse de Carter, 2007). There is great concern that few young Black ‘men go to college. Half ofall prison inmates are Black, when Blacks are just 13 percent of the U.S. population. Stereotypes about Black men tend to be negative, includ ing a belie? that all Black men are dangerous, These stereotypes and the discrimination that results from them can be a source of severe stress for Black men, ‘The unemployment rate for Black men is double that for White men. The high unemployment rate for Black men creates a gendersole problem because the role of breadwin- ner of good provider is such an important part of the male role in the United States. In turn, many Black men are less wiling to commit to marriage or other longterm romantic relationships, which affects the structure of the Black fui fre diserimina Latinx Hispanic Americans are now the nation’s largest minority, constituting 16 percent of the population (Humes et a, 2011). When we speak of the eul- furl heritage of Latins, we must first understand the concept of acculturation, which is the process fii Pe Figure 1 Fathers and sons at the Millions More Movement March in Washington, D.C in 2005. Leaders of the march wanted to encourage African American men to take more responsibilty for their families and community, and some 1 million men seemed to agree. oon Nunes /Gety Images of incomporating the belie and customs of a new culture ‘The culture of Mexican Americans (Americans of Mexican heritage) is diferent from both the culture of Mexico and the dominant Anglo culture of the United States. Mexican American culture is based on the Mexican heritage, modified through acculturation to incorporate Anglo components. The family isthe central focus of Hispanic life. Trad tional Latinx place a high value on family loyalty and on ‘warm, mutually supportive relationships, and family and community are highly valued. ‘As noted in the chapter “Sexuality in Perspective," in traditional Latin American cultures, gender roles are sharply defined (Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004). Such roles are tmphasized early inthe socialization process for children (Raffaelli & Ontsi, 2004), Boys ae given greater freedom, are encouraged in sexual exploits, and are not expected to share in household work. Girl are expected tobe passive, ‘obedient, vrginal, and to stay in the home. One woman described how she and her brother, who was one year ‘older than she, were treated by their mother: He had a very much later eurew thas Idd, He got a car, got to drive a car and then he also got his own cae and ever did... could only goto schookrelated activities And he could do about anything. he could go any place he ‘wanted. (Raffel & Onta, 2004, p. 290) ‘These roles are epitomized in the concepts of machismo and marianismo, discussed in the chapter "Sexuality in Perspective.” Young Latinas may fect that they have to choose between being a “good gil” and being 2 “fit gir” (Faulkner, 2003). Figure 2 Asian American sex toys. In the film The World of alluring prostitute Asian Americans Chinese—almost all of them men—were recruited fist in the 1840s «0 come to the United States a laborers in the ‘West and later in the 18606 to work on the transcontinental raiload (for © summaries of the cultural heritage of Asian Americans, see Root, 1995, and Chan, 2003), Rac ist sentiment against the Chinese grew, however, and the ws first Japanese and Koreans and then Filipinos. Then in the late 1960s and the 1970s, there was a ‘mass exodus to the United States of refugees from wartorn Southeast Asia, Today, Asian Am jeans make up neatly 5 percent of the U.S. population (Humes etal, 2011 The cultural values of Asian Americans are in some ways consistent with White middle-class American val: but in other ways contradict them. Asian Americans share with the White middle class an emphasis on aca demic achie ment and the importance of educatio For example, Asian American women have a higher level education, on average, than White American women US. Census Bureau, 2010), On the other hand, Asian Americans place fat more value on family and group inter Jependence (Kim etal, 2005), compated with the White American emphasis on individualism and selfsufMicieney For Asian Americans, the family isa great source of eme- tional nurturance, One has an obligation to the farily and the needs of the family must take precedence over the needs ofthe individual. For Asian American women, omen have often been stereotyped as exotic ie Wong, Nancy Kwan portrayed an traditional gender roles of Asian culture and those of moxlern Anglo culture, which inereasingly prizes indepen: dence and assertiveness in women, Just as the sexuality of Ariean Americans has been ste reotyped, so too has that of Asian Americans. The Asian American man has been stereotyped as asexual (lacking in sexuality), whereas the Asian American woman has been stereotyped as an exotic sex tay (Koo eta, 2015 ‘Compared with European Americans, Asian Americans tend to hold more conservative sexual attitudes and to experience more anxiety about sex (Brotto et al, 2008). The more acculturated that Asian American women arc, the closer their sexual atitudes are to those of European American women (Brotto eta, 2005), American Indians At least some Indian tribes, including the Cherokee Navajo, Iroquois. Hopi, and Zufi, traditionally had rela les (LaFromboise et al, 1990). ian than those of White culture ofthe same period. The process of accultura That is, their roles were more evalit tion and adaptation o Anglo society seems to have resulted in increased male dominance among American Indians. ‘Among the more than 200 Native languages spoken North America, at least two-thirds havea term tha refers to a third (or more) gender beyond male and female (Tafoya & Wirth, 1996), Anglo anthropologists labeled this addi ry hendache, a term rejected by Native peoples, 289 290 courrenst 2 Figure 3. Some American Indian tribes have three gender categories, the third being known as ‘9 two-spiit, "manly hearted womar woman” Chirlcahua Tah-des-te was a messenger ‘and watrior in Geronimo’s band. She participated in negotiations with several U.S, military leaders and surrendered with Geronimo in 1886. A. Rinchr for BA.E/Smtonan Iie who prefer the term awo-pintt (Jacobs eta, 1997). These same anthropologists concluded that these people were homosexuals, transsexuals, or transvestites, none of which are accurate from a Native point of view. A man might be married toa twospirit male, but the marriage would not be considered homosexual because the two were of different senders (Tafoya & Wirth, 1996), There was also a roe of the “manly hearted woman,” a role that a woman who was exceptionally indepen- dent and aggressive could take on. There was a “warrior woman” role among the Apache, Crow, Cheyenne, Black foot, Pawnee, and Navajo tribes (eg, Buchanan, 1986; House, 1997). In both cases, women could express mas- culine teats oF participate in malestereatyped activities While continuing to live and dress as women (Figure 3) In summary, research indicates that gender roles in the United States are not uniform. Different ethnic groups define gender roles different, Let us turn now to some of, the processes that create gender stereotypes. Socialization: The ways in which society conveys tothe indivi lis norms or expectations for thei Socialization Many adult women and men often bbchave as gender roles say they should. Why does this happen? Psychologists and sociologists believe that itis a result of sgenderrole socialization, Socialization refers to the ways in which society conveys to the individual its norms or ‘expectations for their behavior. Socialization aceurs espe: cially in childhood, as children are taught to behave as they will be expected to in adulthood. Socialization continues in adulthood, as society conveys its norms of appropriate behavior for adult women and men, These norms extend from appropriate jobs to who initiates sexual activity. Gender socialization comes from multiple sources, including parents, peers, and the media (Leaper & Friedman, 2007; Ward & Aubrey, 2017). Certainly par 3 influence, At least in sock: cents have an ary, import ties that value gender equality, gendered parenting is not found in broad parenting styles such as warmth toward the child (Mesman & Groeneveld, 2018). In these ways parents treat boys and girls similarly. Explicit messages from parents-such as "Nice young ladies don't do that” have pretty much disappeared in such societies too. The place witere gendered parenting occurs today iin implicit gendered messages (Mesman & Groeneveld, 2018). These implicit messages covertly convey different expectations for girls and boys without stating them explicitly, For parents select their children’s books and toys. They may choose dolls for sirls and action figures for boys. Content analyses of dolls ‘and action figures show that they are highly stereotyped, showing hyperfemininity for gsis and hypermasculinity for boys (Murnen et al, 2016), Parents may convey indi rect stereotyped messages when they read picture books to preschoolers and comment more positively about chil ren engaged in stereotyped activites than about children engaged in counterstereotypical behavior (Mesman & Groeneveld, 2018). And parents may themselves serve as models of genderstereotyped behavior (Figure 4) Parents are not the only socializing agents, though, ‘The peer group can have a big impact in socializing for ‘gender roles, particulary in adolescence, Other teenagers ‘can be extremely effective in enforcing genderole stan ‘dards; for example, they may ridicule or shun a boy whose behavior is effeminate, Thus peers can exert great pres sure for gendersole conformity (Maccoby, 2002), ‘The media are also important socializing agents, Many people assume that things have changed a lot in the last 30 years and that gender stereotypes ate @ thing of the past. On the contrary, various media~from television to teen magazines-continue to show females and males in stereotyped roles. An analysis of Grated films, for exam ple, showed that male characters outoumbered female characters by 2.5 to 1, a pattern that had not changed in 15 years (Smith et al. 2010). Both males and females were shown mainly in genderstereotyped occupations. And music videos show females as subordinate and males as aggressive (Walls. 2011). {As children enter adolescence, TV and the movies teach them what to do in romantic and sexual situations example, especially in early childhood, Figure 4 Children are very interested in achieving adult gender roles. (4) ©Geurge Simian/ Gey mages (0) Rely Redinge/Desin Px (Ward & Aubrey, 2017), The messages are strongly gn: dered, portraying men as active pursuers, who avoid emo- tional commitment, and women as sexually passive and the enforcers of sexual limits, Dozens of studies show that gender stereotypes shown ‘on television affect children’s stereotyped ideas (Ward & Harrison, 2005). For example. in one study irst- and second graders were exposed to television commercials in which all boys were playing with a gendermeutral ty (traditional con-

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