Lecture 3

Flight Dynamics : Static
1
Equilibrium and Trim
Note that all the content of this lecture is taken from: Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second
Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
2 Outline
1. Trim Equilibrium
1. Preliminary considerations
2. Conditions for stability
3. Degree of stability
4. Variation in stability
2. Pitching moment equation
3. Elevator angle to trim
4. Test for longitudinal static stability
5. Test for lateral static stability
6. Directional static stability
7. Calculation of aircraft trim condition
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad
control, 2007
3 Preliminary considerations
• In normal flight conditions, the pilot is the one who manœuvres the flight conditions/ control functions.
• Trim conditions are adjusted in a lot of aircrafts for the primary control surfaces: ailerons, elevator, and rudder;
that are fitted with the trim tabs ( inside of the cockpit)
• Objective of trim conditions, is to bring the set of forces and moments into equilbrium (the axial, normal and
side forces should sum up to zero. The roll, pitch and yaw should sum up to zero)
• The aircraft is set to be stable if it remains in equilibrium after trimming.
• There exist two types of stability:
1. Static stability about the three axes determine the trimmability of an aircraft and is a main function of the
control actions
2. Dynamic stability determines the characteristics of the transient motion, following a disturbance about a trimmed flight
condition
• The maintenance of trimmed equilibrium requires the correct adjustment of:
1. Main flight variables in all degrees of freedom
2. Depends on the airspeed, Mach number, flight path angle, airframe configuration, weight and center of gravity (cg)
position
Michael V. COOK , Flight Dynamics Principles, Second Edition, A linear systems approach to aircraft stability ad control, 2007
4 Preliminary considerations-cont
• The symmetry of a typical airframe confers symmetric aerodynamic properties on the
airframe that usualy reduces the task to that of the longitudinal trim. Lateral-directional
trim adjustments are only likely to be required when the aerodynamic symmetry is lost.
• Lateral-directional stability is a function of the design and is designed in to most aircarft
and ensures that in roll the aircraft remains at wings level and that in yaw it tends to
weathercock into the wind when the ailerons (seek lateral-directional equilibrium, under
normal conditions without the interference of the pilot) and rudder are at their 0 or datum
positions.
• Longitudinal trim involves the adjustment of the elevator angle and the thrust, at the
required airspeed and flight path angle for a given reference frame.
• Equilibrium is achieved if the aircraft is longitudinally stable and the control actions to trim
depend on the degree of longitudinal static stability.
5 Conditions for stability
• Static stability is used to describe the aircraft tendency to converge on
initial equilibrium conditions following a small disturbance for trim
• Dynamic stability describes the transient motion involved in the process
of recovering equations following the disturbance.
• Dynamic stability is assumed, and a small pitch displacement
disturbance takes place at t=0.
• Damping of the dynamic oscillatory component of the responses shown
was choosen to be low.
• A trim equilibrium, is assured by the pilot adjustment of the elevator
angle and thrust to obtain a lift force sufficient to support the weight and
thrust sufficient to balance the drag; at a given angle incidence and
aircraft speed.
• Note that when the airfarme is symmetric the equilibrium side force is
equal to 0.
• Given that the aircraft is above minimum drag speed, therefore the force
balance will remain stable with speed➔ Static Stability of the aircraft
reduces to a consideration of the effects of angular disturbances about
the 3 axes.
6 Conditions for stability-cont
• Aerodynamic forces and moments are different from zero (not in
equilibrium) and in statically stable the sum of moments is different
zero; which causes the aircraft to converge on its Ics.
• Now consider a positive pitch (nose up), or incidence, disturbance from
equilibrium, which causes an increase in the angle of incidence and the
lift coefficient, while it decreases the pitching moment coefficient.
Converse must be true for a nose down disturbance.
• In a stable aircraft the resulting pitching moment must be restoring.
• Note that the aircraft is table when the slope of the plot is negative (-).
• Condition for stable trim at 𝛼𝑒 ;
𝑑𝐶
𝐶𝑚 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 (1)
𝑑𝛼
Equation (1) is satisfied when:
• The aerodynamic force and pitching moment coefficient are both
function of the angle incidence.
• The acceptable approximation for subsonic aircraft
• The argument becomes higher inappropriate with an increasing Mach
number.
7 Conditions for stability-cont
• Longitudinal static stability requirement is given as

𝑑𝐶𝑚
<0
𝑑𝐶𝐿
• Lateral static stability requirement is given as the
following;
𝑑𝐶𝑙
<0
𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝐶𝑛
>0
𝑑𝛽
Such that
𝐶𝑙 , the rolling moment coefficient
𝐶𝑛 , the yawing moment coefficient
𝜙, the roll angle
𝛽, the sideslip angle
8 Degree of stability
• Static stability is satisfied when:
1. Gradients of 𝐶𝑚 − α
2. Gradients of 𝐶𝑙 − 𝜙
3. Gradients of 𝐶𝑛 − 𝛽
• Degree of stability also called stability margin that
quantifies how much stability aircraft has over and
above zero or neutral stability.
• For a given disturbance in α, the restoring pitching
moment Cm is high for a very stable aircraft.
• The magnitude of a restoring moment decreases as the
degree of stability is smalland becomes zero at neutral
stability.
• The higher is the degree of stability the higher is the
restoring moment and thus more control actions are
required to trim the aircraft.
9 Variation in stability
• Aerodynamic operating conditions of an aircraft, are that the pitching moment changes lead to a variation in longitudinal static
stability.
• For subsonic stability, the change in the degree of stability effect is small.
• For supersonic stability, the change in the degree of stability effect leads to dramatic static stability. This change is mainly due
to a wide range of effects such as power effects, wing sweep back, aircraft geometry (tailplane, fuselage,..) and a lot of others .
10 Variation in stability
• Power effects:
1. High thrust line results in a nose down pitching
moment (vice versa)
2. In normal trimmed flight the thrust moment and the
aerodynamic moment result in the total pitching
moment would be trimmed to zero.
3. Any aerodynamic perturbation about trim results in
a thrust perturbation is potentially capable of giving
rise to non-linear stability charchterestics.
4. Indirect power effects are caused by induced flow
associated with: the propeller, wake and intake,
exhaust of gas turbine engine.
11 Pitching moment equations
• Pitching moment equations are important in the
determination of longitudinal static stability.
• Pitching moment equations depends on the
aircraft geometry.
• First, we define a model showing normal forces
and pitching moments acting on the aircraft,
based on two parts: wing and fuselage
combination, and tail plane.
• Assumption to be made:
1. Steady level flight the thrust and drag are in
equilibrium acting on the center of gravity
(cg)
2. For small disturbances in 𝛼𝑒 , changes
inequilibrium are insignificant but do
change lift forces and pitching moments.
12 Pitching moment equations-cont
• The first part which is the wing and fuselage combination
are both assumed to behave like a wing, which is true as
long as the aircraft is subsonic with a high aspect ratio
wing. In this case the wing-fuselage lift and the residual
pitching moment both act on the aerodynamic center (ac)
of the combination which is assumed to be coincident
with the ac of the wing.
• The second part which is the tailplane is treated separately
since it provides the principal aerodynamic mechanism
for controlling longitudinal static stability and trim. The
tail lift and tail mment act at the tail’s aerodynamic center
(ac). The longitudinal geometry of the model is entirely
▪ The total pitching moment M about the cg is; related to the mean aerodynamic chorc (mac).
𝑀 = 𝑀0 + 𝐿𝑊 ℎ − ℎ0 𝑐 Ӗ − 𝐿 𝑇 𝑙 𝑇 + 𝑀𝑇 Such that
𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , and 𝑎3 are all constant
aerodynamic coefficients
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝐿𝑊 ℎ − ℎ0 − 𝐶𝐿𝑇 𝑉ത𝑇
The tail lift coefficient is expressed in more accessible tailplane 𝛼 𝑇 , is the local incidence angle
parameters as follows; 𝜂, elevator angle
𝐶𝐿𝑇 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝛼 𝑇 + 𝑎2 𝜂 + 𝑎3 𝛽𝜂 𝛽𝜂 , elevator trim tab angle
13 Pitching moment equations-cont
• The tail angle of incidence

𝛼𝑇 = 𝛼 − 𝜀 − 𝜂𝑇
𝜀 is the downwash angle at the tailplane
• Using the small disturbances approximation

𝑑𝜀 𝐶𝑙𝑊 𝑑𝜀
𝛼−𝜀 = 𝛼 1− = (1 − )
𝑑𝛼 𝑎 𝑑𝛼
𝐶𝑙𝑊 𝑑𝜀
𝛼𝑇 = 1− + 𝜂𝑇
𝑎 𝑑𝛼
• We result in the following
𝑎1 𝑑𝜀
ത
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝐿𝑊 ℎ − ℎ0 − 𝑉𝑇 (𝐶𝐿𝑊 1− + 𝑎1 𝜂 𝑇 + 𝑎2 𝜂 + 𝑎3 𝛽𝜂
𝑎 𝑑𝛼
14 Elevator angle to trim
• At trim condition, the total pitching moment is equal to zero, and the pitching moment coefficient is equal to
zero, the elevator angle to trim is given as the following,
1 𝐶𝐿𝑊 𝑎1 𝑑𝜀 𝑎3 𝑎1
𝜂= 𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿𝑊 ℎ − ℎ0 − 1− − 𝛽𝜂 − 𝜂 𝑇
𝑉𝑇 𝑎2 𝑚0 𝑎0 𝑎2 𝑑𝛼 𝑎2 𝑎2
Test for longitudinal static stability

• The condition for the aircraft to be stable is given as
𝑑𝐶𝑚
<0
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑊
where
𝑑𝐶𝑚 𝑎 𝑑𝜀 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝛽
ത𝑇 1
= ℎ − ℎ0 − 𝑉 1− + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑊 𝑎0 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑊 𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑊
15 Longitudinal static stability- controls fixed stability
• The controls fixed stability is a condition when the elevator and the elevator tab are held at constant
settings corresponding to the prevailing trim condition.
• Controls fixed stability margin and is also the slope of the 𝐶𝑚 − 𝐶𝐿 plot
• Location of the controls fixed neutral point on the mac
16 Longitudinal static stability- controls fixed stability-
cont
• Controls fixed stability is interpreted by considering the pilot actions required to trim an
aircraft in a controls fixed sense.
• Aircraft is in a trimmed initial equilibrium state, implies the nullness of the pitching
moment, therefore;
• The pilot is holding the controls at the required elevator angle, the power is set to give a
steady level flight and the elevator tab is set at its datum, 𝛽𝜂 = 0.
• To return the aircraft at a new flight condition in a controls fixed sense it is necessary for
the pilot to the controls.
17 Longitudinal stability-Controls free stability
• The condition described as controls free is taken to mean the

condition when the elevator is free to float at an angle corresponding
to the prevailing trim condition. In practice this means that the pilot
can fly the aircraft with his hands off the controls whilst the aircraft
remains in its trimmed flight condition.
• When the controls are free, the elevator hinge moment 𝐶𝐻 is zero and
the elevator floats at an indeterminate angle η.
• The elevator hinge moment coefficient is given as,
• The inderterminate angle is therefore given as,
• In an attempt to eliminate the elevator angle from the pitching

moment equation, we get the following,
• In an attempt to eliminate the elevator angle from the pitching

moment equation, we get the following,
• Given that the controls free condition (𝐶𝐻 = 0), we get the following,
• The elevator control force is therefore given as ,
20
Lateral stability
21 Lateral stability
• Lateral stability deals with the ability of the aircraft to maintain its
wings at level equilibrium in the roll sense.
• One of the main parameter that confers (destabilise) lateral static
stability on an aircraft is wing dihedral.
• Wing diheral is the easiest parameter to adjust in the design process
in order to adjust the stability degree to an acceptable level.
• Note that an excess in the lateral static stability might result in an
aircraft that is reluctant to maneouvre laterally. Therefore it is
important to obtain the correct degree of stability.
22 Lateral stability-Wing dihedral
• For a small lateral disturbance in roll, the aircraft
will start sliding « downhill » sideways with a
sideslip velocity v.
• The leading wing has a dihedral angle Γ, and a
small component v’ that is resolved perpendicular
to the plane of the wing panel where,
𝑣 ′ = 𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛Γ
• 𝑣 ′ ≪ 𝑈𝑒 the change in angle of attack is too small
therefore U ≅ 𝑈𝑒 .
• Therefore 𝑣 ′ combines with the axial velocity 𝑈𝑒 ,
to increase the angle of attack of the leading wing
𝛼 ′.
• The increase in the angle of attack on the leading
wing gives rise to an increase in the lift which in
turn gives rise to a restoring rolling moment L.
23 Lateral stability-Wing dihedral
• The corresponding aerodynamic change on the

wing trailing into the sideslip results in a small
decrease in L.
• The net effect is therefore is to create a negative
rolling moment, which is a restoring rolling
moment.
• The restoring moment permits the aircraft to
recover its zero sideslip wings level equilibrium.
• The condition for an aircraft to be laterally stable is
that the rolling moment resulting from a +
disturbance in roll altitude must be negative,
𝑑𝐶𝑙
<0
𝑑𝜑
24 Directional Static Stability
• Directional static stability is the ability of the aircarft to yaw

(maintain directional equilibrium) (weathercock) into wind.
• Remember that all aircrafts are required to fly with zero sideslip in
the yaw sense, therefore the positive directional stability is designed
in from the outset.
• Consider an aircraft subjected to a + sideslip disturbance, and that
the combination of a sideslip velocity v and axial velocity
component U, gives a (+) sideslip angle (β) and a (-) yaw angle
since that the aircraft has swung to the left of the resultant V.
• The disturbance of the fin is at a non-zero angle of attack equivalent
to the sideslip angle (β). The fin generates lift, creating a positive
yawing moment N, that is stabilizing.
• The aircraft condition for directional stability
𝑑𝐶𝑛 𝑑𝐶𝑛
< 0 or >0
𝑑Ψ 𝑑β
25 Directional Static Stability
• Wind tunnel test on an aircraft, shows that for small

disturbances in yaw the plot is linear (because of
dominating lift properties of the fin.
• Note that:
• Close to stalling conditions the lifting properties
deteriorate and other influences begin to dominate
resulting in the loss of directional stability.
• The main destabilising contribution is mainly due to the
fuselage.
• The fin effectivness deteriorates with an increasing angle
of attack because of the high immersion in the fuselage
wake causing a decrease of the effective working area of
the fin.
26 Aircraft trim condition
Trim equations,
After some mathematical manipulations, we get the

following,
27 Aircraft trim condition
Trim coefficient equations,
28
THE END
29 References
Ferninand P. Beer, E. Russel Johnston, Jr., John T. Dewolf, David F. Mazurek, ‘Mechanics of Materials ’, 6th edition
Yedavalli, R. K. (2020). Flight Dynamics and Control of Aero and Space Vehicles. John Wiley & Sons.
Shearer, C. M., & Cesnik, C. E. (2007). Nonlinear flight dynamics of very flexible aircraft. Journal of Aircraft, 44(5), 1528-1545.
Chudoba, B., & Cook, M. (2003). Identification of design-constraining flight conditions for conceptual sizing of aircraft control effectors.
In AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference and Exhibit (p. 5386).
Hearn, E. J. (1997). Mechanics of Materials 2: The mechanics of elastic and plastic deformation of solids and structural materials .
Elsevier.
Besson, J., Cailletaud, G., Chaboche, J. L., & Forest, S. (2009). Non-linear mechanics of materials (Vol. 167). Springer Science &
Business Media.
Fasel, U., Tiso, P., Keidel, D., Molinari, G., & Ermanni, P. (2019). Reduced-order dynamic model of a morphing airborne wind energy
aircraft. AIAA Journal, 57(8), 3586-3598.
Russell Johnston, E. (2012). Mechanics of materials. Copyright.
Van Schoor, M. C., & von Flotow, A. H. (1990). Aeroelastic characteristics of a highly flexible aircraft. Journal of Aircraft, 27(10), 901-
908.
Muvdi, B. B., & McNabb, J. W. (2012). Engineering mechanics of materials. Springer Science & Business Media.
Daniel, I. M., Ishai, O., Daniel, I. M., & Daniel, I. (1994). Engineering mechanics of composite materials (Vol. 3, pp. 256-256). New York:
Oxford university press.
Lemaitre, J., & Chaboche, J. L. (1994). Mechanics of solid materials. Cambridge university press.

Lecture 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flight Dynamics : Static

• Longitudinal static stability requirement is given as

• The tail angle of incidence

• Using the small disturbances approximation

Test for longitudinal static stability

• Location of the controls fixed neutral point on the mac

• The condition described as controls free is taken to mean the

• The inderterminate angle is therefore given as,

• In an attempt to eliminate the elevator angle from the pitching

• In an attempt to eliminate the elevator angle from the pitching

• The elevator control force is therefore given as ,

• The corresponding aerodynamic change on the

• Directional static stability is the ability of the aircarft to yaw

• Wind tunnel test on an aircraft, shows that for small

After some mathematical manipulations, we get the

Trim coefficient equations,

You might also like