Facilitating Learner-Centered

Teaching

Ma. Nelia Abarca-Valero

 Table of Contents

Module 4: Student Diversity

Introduction 19
Intended Learning Outcomes 19
Lesson 1. Student Diversity 20
Lesson 2. Learning / Thinking Styles 22
Lesson 3. Multiple Intelligences 24
Lesson 4. Learner with Exceptionalities 26
Lesson 5. Categories of Exceptionalities 26
Lesson 6. People First Language 28
Assessment Task 4 28
Summary 29
References 29

Module 5: Behaviorist Perspective

Introduction 30
Intended Learning Outcomes 30
Lesson 1. Classical Conditioning 31
Lesson 2. Connectionism 32
Lesson 3. Operant Conditioning 33
Lesson 4. Neo behaviorism 35
Assessment Task 5 37
Summary 37
References 38

Module 6: Cognitive Perspective

Introduction 39
Intended Learning Outcomes 39
Lesson 1. Gestalt Psychology 39
Lesson 2. Information Processing 42
Assessment Task 6 46
Summary 46
References 47

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 MODULE 4

STUDENT DIVERSITY

Introduction

The song goes like this.

Persons are gifts from God to me
They are all wrapped so differently.
Some are not cute…some are really really cute
But they are gifts so I thank God… giving them so wonderfully!
Everyone is unique. One cannot ignore the truth in it.
As a facilitator of learning the teacher is tasked to consider the individual differences
among the students in planning for effective instruction.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity as an enriching element in the

learning environment;
2. Plan learning activities that match learners’ learning style/s and multiple intelligences;
3. Come up with teaching strategies that consider student diversity; and
4. Advocate “People First Language.” to friends.

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Lesson 1. Student Diversity (Lucas  Corpuz, 2014)

There are factors that bring about Student Diversity. In a class, a teacher may
encounter different students from different cultural background, race, gender or
language.They may also come from the following factors:

1. Socioeconomic status – The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the middle class
or lower income group.

2.Thinking Learning Style – Some people learn better when they see things; others by
just listening; and still others by manipulating something.

3. Exceptionalities - Some people have difficulty in spoken language, some cannot

hear well, some cannot see well.

How Student Diversity Enriches The Learning Environment (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

When in a class there are different family background

different language abilities

different attitudes and aptitudes and behaviors

An average teacher may consider diversity as a problem, hassle!

A reflective teacher may see this room exciting place to learn.

A wise teacher may choose to respect and celebrate diversity!

Benefits and learning opportunities that student diversity can bring to the classroom (Lucas
& Corpuz, 2014)

1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. When they see how others are
different, they learn to assess their own attitudes, values and behaviors.

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2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The breadth and depth of student
learning is enhanced by exposure to others with different background with different points
of view. Supreme Court Justice, William J. Brennan said: ´The classroom is peculiarly the
marketplace of ideas.” German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years ago: “The
more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use
to observe one thing, the more complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity be.”
(Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of the society.
Suzanne Morse argues that “The classrooms can provide more than the theory given by
a teacher in a lecture. With student diversity, the classroom becomes a public place
where community can be practiced.

4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When activities are introduced into the
classroom, the process become a vehicle for promoting harmonious relationships
especially when they interact and collaborate to finish a task (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

Some Tips on Student Diversity

⚫ Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences. Students will be
able to realize that they may have something in common though they differ in so many
ways (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

⚫ Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’ multicultural and
cross cultural awareness. Teacher may initiate co-curricular activities aimed at
promoting diversity awareness (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

⚫ Highlight diversity and identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences. Clyde
Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spent lifetime studying human
diversity across different cultures, concluded from his studies that, “Every human is, at
the same time like other humans, like some humans and like no other human.”

⚫ Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups. Learn the names of
your students especially the foreign names (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

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⚫ Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity.

- Use formats that are student-centered (small group work, class discussions) and
teacher-centered (lectures, demonstrations).

- Use formats that unstructured (trial and error, discovery learning) and structured (step
by step instructions)

- Use procedures that are both independent (individual) and interdependent learning
(collaborative learning in pairs or groups)

⚫ Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts. Use ideas, comments and questions
that students raise in class. Ask students to give their own examples.

⚫ Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning. In addition to

`pencil and paper type of tests, students can demonstrate their learning in a variety of
performance formats such as a. oral reports, group projects, concept maps, slide
presentations, collages, etc.

⚫ Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles. Allow them personal
choice and decision making opportunities.

⚫ Form small – discussion groups from diverse back grounds.

Lesson 2. Learning / Thinking Styles (Lucas  Corpuz, 2014)

Learning / Thinking Styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes

information. They describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem
solving.
Gardner phrases the idea of learning styles as "a hypothesis of how an individual
approaches a range of materials."

Several perspective about learning-thinking styles (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

A. Sensory preferences - individuals tend to like one or two types of sensory input and
maintain dominance in one (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

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 1. Visual learners - they think in pictures and learn best from visuals including
diagrams, videos, flipcharts, handouts.
a. Visual-iconic - would rather read a map than to read a book.
b. Visual-symbolic- would rather read a book than a map, comfortable with
abstract symbolism such as mathematical formula.
2. Auditory Learners – learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking
things through and listening to what others will say. They easily interpret the
underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed
and other nuances.
a. Listeners – they remember things said to them.
b. Talkers - they prefer talking to those around them.
3. Tactile / Kinesthetic Learners- they learn best from hands –on approach. They prefer
learning by doing. They have good motor memory and motor coordination.
B. Global-Analytic Continuum (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)
1. Analytic thinkers – tend toward the linear, step by step processes of learning. They
are more comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information. They are
the “tree seers.”
2. Global thinkers – tend to see the whole patterns rather than particle elements. They
sometimes ignore details and give attention to the overall structure. They are the
“forest seers.”

Some theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum to the left-brain/right-brain

continuum. Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies. In an
individual, one side may be more dominant than the other. The left brain is regarded as
analytic in approach while the right is described as holistic or global (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

A successive processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format,

beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill.

A simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general
concept and then going to specifics.

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Table 4.1 . Roger Sperry Model (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal
2. Responds to word meaning
3. Sequential
4. Processes information linearly
5. Responds to logic
6. Plans ahead
7. Recalls people’s names
8. Speaks with few gestures
9. Punctual
10. Prefers formal study design
11. Prefers bright lights while
studying
Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Visual
2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Random
4. Processes information in varied order
5. Responds to emotion
6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people’s faces
8. Gestures when speaking
9. Less punctual
10. Prefers sound/music background while
studying
11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying

Lesson 3. Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard Gardner in
Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defined intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that
allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is values in one or more
cultures. “ He believes that the different intelligences may be independent abilities--a
person can be low in one domain area but high in another. All of us possess the
intelligences in varying degree of strength (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
In order to facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use strategies that match these
kinds of intelligences. These nine kinds are:
1. Visual/spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) - learning visually and organizing ideas
spatially. This is the ability “to see” things in one’s mind in planning to create a
product or solve a problem (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
2. Verbal Linguistic (Word Smart) - learning through the spoken and written words.

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 This is always valued in the traditional classroom (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
3. Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/logic Smart) – learning through reasoning and
problem solving (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
4. Bodily / Kinesthetic (Body Smart) - learning through interaction with one’s
environment. This intelligence is the domain of “overly active” learners. It promotes
understanding through concrete experience (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
5. Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This includes
not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all the senses
(Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
6. Intrapersonal (Self Smart) - learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is
an affective component of learning through which students place value on what they
learn and take ownership for their learning (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
7. Interpersonal (People Smart) - learning through interaction with others. It promotes
collaboration and working cooperatively with others (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
8. Naturalist (Nature Smart) - learning through classification, categories and
hierarchies. This intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning (Lucas &
Corpuz, 2014).
9. Existential (Spirit Smart) - learning by seeing the “big picture” ; “why are we here”
What is my role in the world?” (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking / Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence (Lucas &
Corpuz, 2014)
1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual
information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of materials to be learned, i.e., structured overview, advice
organizes, etc., so that students’ past experiences will be associated with the new
ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the
right – and – left brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experiences.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brain storming, Set induction, etc.

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 6. Use multisensory means from both processing and retrieving information (write
direction on the board and give them orally.)
7. Use a variety of reviews and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning. (Writing
summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.).
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (“the example you’ve provided is
an excellent one to point to the concept of…”).

Lesson 4. Learners with Exceptionalities (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in learning is
the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with exceptionalities as
persons who are different in some way from the “normal” or “average”. The term
“exceptional learners” includes those with special needs related to cognitive abilities,
behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments disturbances, and giftedness
(Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Disability. A disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a
person’s ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory,
or mental condition”
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is the law that provides
comprehensive service and support for exceptional learners.
Handicap. A handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or
impairment.

Lesson 5. Categories of Exceptionalities (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Learning Disabilities. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive
processes like perception, language, memory or metacognition that are not due to others
disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders, or sensory

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impairments. Examples of learning disabilities include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia
(number operations) and dysgraphia (writing).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either or both of these:
(1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and
impulsive behavior.

Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in spoke language including

voice disorders, inability to produce the sound… correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken
language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance.

Social / Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests.
Mental Retardation. Mental retardation refer to significant sub-average intelligence and
deficits in adaptive behavior.
Emotional / Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional states like
depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb
learning and performance in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

1. Limited energy and strength
2. Reduces mental alertness
3. Little muscle control
4. Visual impairments (malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision
even with corrective lenses)
5. Hearing Impairments (malfunction of the auditory nerves that hinders perception of
sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.

Lesson 6. People First Language (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Children with disabilities are experiencing discriminations from people who do not
understand them …from people around them who do not care whatsoever with others’

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feelings. Teachers must therefore be different. Teachers like you who should care for these
children can make use of this language trend. Put the person first, not the disability (Lucas &
Corpuz, 2014).
So we say instead of saying
A person with disability disabled person
A person with AIDS AIDS victim
People with mental retardation mentally retarded
People using a wheelchair confined to a wheelchair
Had polio polio victim
Has multiple sclerosis suffers from multiple sclerosis
Using people-first language will remind each and everyone to be more respectful and
have accepting attitude towards learners with exceptionalities. Be a teacher with a hand and
a heart who can facilitate their learning and adjustment (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

Assessment Task 4

1. Make a poster with a slogan that celebrates diversity.

2. What is/are your thinking /learning style/s? What are your dominant multiple
intelligences.
3. Advocate to 3 friends (who are not taking up this course) the “People First
Language”. Explain to them the meaning and use of it. Report their names,
address, occupation and feedback.

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 Summary
Students differ in so many ways. Socio economic status, thinking learning
style, race, gender or language are factors contributing to these differences.
Students with different backgrounds may be encountered by a teacher in a
classroom. So he / she must be ready to respect and eventually celebrate diversity. It
brings about benefits and learning opportunities to the classroom. Use varied
instructional methods to accommodate student diversity. Students may have different
multi intelligences and different learning styles. There are also some exceptional
students. They have some disabilities. People-First Language is explained and
advocated.

Reference

Lucas, M. & Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process , Lorimar

Publishing Inc.
https://www.edutopia.org/multiple-intelligences-research

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 MODULE 5

BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE

Introduction

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable

behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and
reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and
the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Contributions in the development
of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the student will be able to:

1. Explain the basic principles of behaviorism;

2. Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning;
3. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively;
4. Differentiate Tolman’s purposive behaviorism from Bandura’s social leaning
theory; and
5. Give specific applications of each theory in teaching.

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Lesson 1. Classical Conditioning (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist is well known for his work in classical conditioning
or stimulus substitution. His experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell (Lucas & Corpuz,
2014).

Pavlov’s experiment (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the
dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation
(unconditioned response).
During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented
with food.
After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced
salivation (conditioned response).
This is classical conditioning.

Other Findings of Pavlov (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014):

1. Stimulus generalization- once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of
the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
2. Extinction – if you stop pairing the bell with the food, the salivation will
eventually cease in response to the bell.
3. Spontaneous recovery – extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an
elapse time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with
food.
4. Discrimination – The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bell
(stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food.
5. Higher Order Conditioning. – Once the dog has been conditioned to associate
bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus such as a light may be flashed
at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the
flash of a light even without a bell.

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 John Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He
considered that humans are born with few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and
rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response associations through
conditioning. He believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said that if he is
given a dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything you want them to be,
basically through making stimulus-response connections through conditioning (Lucas &
Corpuz, 2014).

Experiment on Albert. Albert, a young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was
not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat.
Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon become conditioned to fear and
avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he
was also afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn”
fear by showing the rat without the loud noise (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

Lesson 2. Connectionism (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Edward L. Thorndike‘s connectionism gave us the original S-R framework of

behavioral psychology. He explained that learning is the result of associations forming
between stimuli (S) and responses (R). Such associations or “habits” become strengthened
or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The model used trial and
error learning in which some responses came to be repeated more than others because of
rewards (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

The main principle of connectionism was that learning could be adequately explained
without considering any unobservable internal states. Thorndike’s theory states that learning
has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is
formed (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

Primary Laws

Law of Effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is

strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the

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stimulus and the response weakened when the consequence is negative. Later, Thorndike
revised this law when he found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily
weaken bonds and some pleasant consequence do not necessarily motivate performance
(Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

Law of Exercise. This tells that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is practiced
the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect.” Later, he revised this also when he
found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance (Lucas &
Corpuz, 2014).

Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the
stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. Teachers should remember to say the
question first before calling on anyone to answer (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

Principles derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same
action sequence (law of readiness).

3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.

4.Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

Lesson 3. Operant Conditioning (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Burrhus Frederick Skinner. He wrote, Science and Humans Behavior, (1953) in which
he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such
as government, law, religious economics and education (as cited by Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him in that he studied
operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment).
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer
(Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

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 A positive reinforcer is any stimulus given or added to increase the response. An
example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to
children who behave well during the season (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a
response when it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in fact
it is a reward. For instance, a teacher announces that a student who gets an average grade
of 1.5 for the two grading periods will no longer take the final examination (Lucas & Corpuz,
2014).

Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that
pressing a lever will produce food. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply
turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against
the lever, and finally for pressing the lever (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The
animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned.
Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished,
reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully
through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules.
Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time
has passed since the last reinforcement.
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount if
time that must pass between reinforcement varies.
Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before
reinforcement may recur.
Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies.

Implications of Operant Conditioning (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

These implications are given for programmed instruction.
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames
which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives
immediate feedback.

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 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and
hence, a positive reinforcement.
Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforces such as
verbal praise, prizes and good grades (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly
effective.
2. Information should be represented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (
“shaping”).
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (“stimulus generalization”) producing
secondary conditioning.

Lesson 4. Neo behaviorism (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

This is neobehaviorism. It has aspects of behaviorism but later become internally driven
reaching out to cognitive perspective. There are theories that stand out.

Edward Tolman Purposive Behaviorism

It has been referred to as Sign Learning Theory. It was founded on two psychological
views: those of Gestalt psychologists and those of Watson, the behaviorist. Tolman believed
that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining
knowledge about the environment and and then revealing then revealing that knowledge
through purposeful and goal-directed behavior (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationship between stimuli rather than
stimulus – response. In your maze activity, the new stimulus or “sign” (maze B) became
associated with already meaningful stimuli, the significate (maze A). So you may have
connected the two stimuli, maze A and maze B; and used your knowledge and experience
in maze A to learn to respond to maze B (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

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Tolman’s Key Concepts (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He believed that individuals act on

beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions and they strive toward goals.

Cognitive maps in rats. He used rats in his experiment. He found out that organisms
will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

Latent Learning is a kind of learning that stays with the individual until needed. It may
not be manifested at once but can exist even without reinforcement. A two year old child
may learn how to use the remote control through latent learning (after observing his father
do it for sometime)

Concept of intervening variable. Tolman believed that learning is influenced by

expectations, perceptions, representations, needs or other internal or environmental
variables. He said hunger could be an intervening variable.

Reinforcement not essential for learning. It may be an incentive for performance but
not necessary for learning.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

It focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people
learn from one another.

General Principles:

1. People can learn by observing.

2. Learning may occur without a change in behavior.

3. Cognition plays a role in learning.

4. Social learning theory maybe considered bridge between behaviorist learning

theories and cognitive learning theories.

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 Assessment Task 5

1. Show the similarities and differences of the classical and operant conditioning in
a Venn diagram.
2. State ways you can apply Thorndike’s 3 primary laws while you teach the topic.
3. What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of young people
(preschool to college).

Summary

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable

behavior. It was developed by different behaviorists like Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and
Skinner.

Pavlov’s experiment involved a bell and a dog. He had the following findings: stimulus
generalization, extinction, spontaneous recovery, discrimination and higher order
conditioning.

Thorndike‘s Connectionism theory gave us the Educational Psychology. He came up

with the primary laws: 1.) law of Effect 2.) Law of Exercise and 3.) Law of Readiness.

Skinner studied operant conditioning. It is bound upon the notion that learning is a result
of change in overt behavior.

Neo-behaviorism is reflected in the works of Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura.

Tolman’s Purposive behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli rather than
stimulus-response. Albert Bandura’s social learning Theory focuses on the learning that
occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another.

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 Reference

Lucas, M. & Corpuz, Brenda B. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process,

Lorimar Publishing Inc.

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 MODULE 6

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Introduction

Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served as the
foundation of the cognitive perspective in learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic
focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and products of perception.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learner will be able to:

1. Describe the different Gestalt Principles;

2. Demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of Gestalt Principles in the teaching-
learning process;
3. Describe the process involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving knowledge; and
4. Cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.

Lesson 1. Gestalt Psychology (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the
importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt
means ‘form’ or ‘configuration’. Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfang Kohler and Kurt
Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or learners) are not passive, but
rather active. They suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they
actively process and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual
process. Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experiences,

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 needs, attitudes and one’s present situation can affect their perception (Lucas & Corpuz,
2014).
According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided by
certain principles of laws. These principles or laws determine what we see or make of things
or situations we meet (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Gestalt Principles (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)
Law of Proximity. Elements that are closer together will
be perceived as a coherent object. On the left, there
appears to be three columns, while on the right, there
appears to be three horizontal rows. When objects we are
Figure 6.1 Law of Proximity (Lucas 
perceiving are near each other, we perceive them as
Corpuz, 2014)
belonging together.

Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will be perceived as part

of the same form. There seems to be a triangle in the square. We link
similar elements together.
Figure 6.2 Law of Similarity
(Lucas  Corpuz, 2014)

Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we

perceive. We enclose a space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps
in the figure.

Figure 6.3 Law of Closure

(Lucas  Corpuz, 2014)
Law of Good Continuation. Individuals have the tendency to continue
contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction.
People tend to draw a good continuous line. Figure 6.4 Law of Good Continuation
(Lucas Corpuz, 2014)

Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as good

a figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry, simplicity
and regularity. The figure is perceived as a square overlapping a
triangle, not a combination of several complicated shapes. Based on our
Figure 6.5 Law of Good Pragnanz
(Lucas  Corpuz, 2014)
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experiences with perception, we “expect” certain patterns and therefore perceive the
expected pattern.

Law of Figure/Ground. We tend to pay attention

and perceive things in the foreground first. A stimulus
will be perceived as separate from its ground.

Figure 6.6 Law of Figure/Ground

(Lucas  Corpuz, 2014)

Insight Learning (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning tasking place by discovery or insight.
The idea of insight leaning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he described
experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve
problems. In the box problem, a banana is attached to the top of a chimpanzee’s cage. The
banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing on and jumping from a box. Only one
of Kohler’s apes (Sultan) could solve this problem. A much more difficult problem which
involved the stacking of boxes was introduced by Kohler. This problem required the ape to
stack one box on another, and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack.
Kohler also gave the apes sticks which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan,
Kohler’s very intelligent ape, was able to master a two-stick problem by inserting one stick
into the end of the other in order to reach the food. In each of these problems, the important
aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new
organizations (of materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)
Kurt Lewin expounded on gestalt psychology. His theory focusing on “life space”
adhered to gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that
affect hos perceptions and also his learning. Mario Polito, an Italian psychologist, writes
about the relevance of gestalt psychology to education.
Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the
here and now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as

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 students. Autonomy and freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The
time necessary for assimilation and for cognitive and existential remodelling is
respected. The contact experience between teachers and students is given
value: an authentic meeting based on sharing ideas and affections.

Lesson 2. Information Processing (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how

knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most
significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the
teaching-learning process (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Information Processing Theory
Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used in
the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and
design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to that
of the human mind (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is
learned. They consider learning as largely an internal processes, not an external behavior
change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store
and retrieve information. They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what
s/he receives shape what he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the
information processing theory (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment
through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information
will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short term memory and the long
term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved
or “remembered” when the learner needs it (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

“Types” of Knowledge (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

General vs. Specific. This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in
one.

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Declarative. This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are.
They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name,
address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.
Procedural. This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a
lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
Episodic. This includes memories of life events, like you high school graduation.
Conditional. This is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term
memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the
progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive
structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.) (Lucas & Corpuz,
2014).
These three primary stages in IPT are:
Encoding. Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
Storage. The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
Retrieval. The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated
for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.
What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in
a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken
into the memory system, a brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of
information processing revolve around the three main stages in the memory process (Lucas
& Corpuz, 2014).

Sensory Register (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for every brief time.
Capacity. Our mind received a great amount of information but it is more than what
our minds can hold or perceive.

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 Duration. The sensory register only hold the information for an extremely brief
period -- in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.

The Role of Attention (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it.
Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those things that pass through our
attention “gate” (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the
materials; when there is conscious control over attention, or when information involves
novelty, surprise, salience and distinctiveness.
Before information is perceived, is it known as “pre-categorical” information. This means
that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical
membership of the information. To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted
patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret and place
meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have no means by which to recognize that
the stimulus was ever encountered (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)
Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information, sometimes described
as 7 ± 2. Is is called working memory because it is where new information is temporarily
places while it is mentally processed. STM maintains information for a limited time, until the
learner has adequate resources to process the information, or until the information is
forgotten (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Duration: Around 18 seconds or less. To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds,
you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information in STM,
like when you repeat a phone number just given over and over.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the
stored information until needed again (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite.

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 Executive Control Processes
The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred to
as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system,
help the learner make informed decisions about how to categorize, organize and interpret
information. Examples of processes are attention, rehearsals and organization (Lucas &
Corpuz, 2014).

Forgetting
Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed. The following
are the two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014):
1. Decay. Information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very
prevalent in Working Memory.
2. Interference. New or old information ‘blocks’ access to the information in
question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

1. Rehearsal. This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
2. Meaningful Leaning. This is making connections between new information and prior
knowledge.
3. Organization. It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that
is organized efficiently should be recalled.
4. Elaboration. This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one
already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
5. Visual Imagery. This means forming a ‘picture’ of the information.
6. Generation. Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we ‘hear’.
7. Context. Remembering the situation helps recover information.
8. Personalization. It is making the information relevant to the individual.

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Other Memory Methods (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).
1. Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy). You will remember the beginning and
end of a ‘list’ more readily.
2. Part Learning. Break up the ‘list’ or ‘chunk’ information to increase memorization.
3. Distributed Practice. Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in
at once (Massed Practice).
4. Mnemonic Aids. These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help
them retains and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci
technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and association techniques,
among others.

Assessment Task 6

1. List ways of applying Gestalt Psychology in the teaching-learning process.

2. Describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving knowledge.

3. Cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.

Summary

Gestalt psychology served as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It

considered the mental processes and products of perception. It emphasized the importance
of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. Gestalt Principles include 1.
Law of principles, 2. Law of Similarity 3. Law of Closure 4. Law of Good Continuation 5.
Law of Good Pragnanz 6. Law of Figure/Ground. It asserts that learning is not
accumulation but remodeling or insight. The contact experience between teachers and
students is given value: an authentic meeting based on sharing ideas and affections.

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 Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is
learned. IPT or Information Processing Theory describes how the learner receives
information (stimuli) from the environment through the senses and what takes place in
between determines whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory
register, then the short term memory and the long term memory.

Reference

Lucas, M. & Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process , Lorimar

Publishing Inc.

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