Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Conductivité

    Uploaded by

    暗い側の
    12 views5 pages

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    12 views5 pages

    Conductivité

    Uploaded by

    暗い側の

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 5
    244 4. Wash bottle, S00 mt. € Magnetic stirrer (optional). 8. Reagents 1 Ozone-demand-free water: See Section 2350D-3a. , Sulfuric acid, H,S0,, 2N: Cautiously add 56 mL. cone SO, to 800 mL ozone-demand-free water in a 1-L volumetric flask. Mix thoroughly, cool, add up to mark with ezone-demand- free water. ‘e. Potassium iodide, KI: Dissolve 20 g KI in about 800 mL of ‘ozone-demand-free water in a 1-L volumetric flask, Make up to ‘mark with ozone-demand-free water. 4d. Standard sodium thiosulfate titrant, Na,S;Os, 0.1N: See Section 4500-C1.B.2c ‘Standard sodium thiosulfate titrant, Na,S,0 ,0,005N: Di- lute the proper volume (approximately 50 mL) of standardized OLN Na,S,0, t0 1 L. J. Starch indicator solution: See Section 4500-C1B.2¢, 4, Procedure Determine the output of the ozone generator by passing the ozone gas through two serial KI aps (Fraps A and B) for about 10 min. For best results, keep gas flow below approximately 1 ‘Limi. Each trap is a gas washing bottle containing a known volume (at least 200 mL) of 2% KI. Quantiaively transfer contents of each trap into a beaker, add 10 ml. of 2NH,SO,, and titrate with standardized 0.005NV Na,S;O: unt the yellow iodine color almost disappears. Add 1 to 2m starch indicator solution and continue titrating tothe disappearance of bie coor. Puta known volume (atleast 200 mL) of sample ina separate 225 washing botle (abel gas washing botls to avoid contam- inating the reaction vessel with iodide) Direct ozone gas through {his eaction vessel. For ozone demand studies, direct gas steam Teaving reaction vessel through a KI trap (rap C) prepared «8 above. Ozonate sample for a given contact time, For ozone demand studies, tum ozonaor off tend of contact ine and pour contents of Trap C into a beaker. Add 10 mL. 2N H,S0, and titrate with 0.005 Na,S,0, as described above. For dzone requirement studies, remove a portion from the reaction vessel at the end of contact time and measure residual ezone concentra tion by the indigo method PHYSICAL & AGGREGATE PROPERTIES (2000) 8. Calculation 1. Ozone dose: A+ XN x2 zone dose, mghnin = A * BY N24 tran for Trap A, ‘iran for Trap B, 1 = normality of Na,$,0,, and T= ozonation time, min . Ozone demand: Cnn ean pi one denna © = where: C= mi ttran for Tap C Report sample ozone demand and blank ozone demand, ozone dose, ozonation time, sample temperature, sample pH, sample volume, and analytical method. Because the ozone transfer rate is highly dependent on experimental conditions, also report vessel volume, vessel type, gas flow rate, and sample volume. ¢. Ozone requirement: The ozone requirement in the semi- batch testis the ozone dose, mg/min, required to obtain the target ‘ozone residual after the desired ozonation time. See Section 2350E.Sa to calculate dose. When reporting ozone requirement, also include target oxidant residual as wel as other experimental, characteristics listed in { B above. 6. Precision and Bias See Section 2350B.6. 7. Bibliography See Section 4500-05.B.7 and 8, 2510 CONDUCTIVITY* 2510 A. Conductivity, K; is a measure of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current. This ability depends on the presence of ions; on their total concentration, mobility, and * Apwoved by Standard Methods Commie, 1997 Joint Task Grup 200 Paton Rober. Bap (chi), Stephen W. Jonson, Willa F. Koch, Ruse W. Late Miss Pam, Introduction valence; and on the temperature of measurement. Solutions of ‘most inorganie compounds are relatively good conductors. Con: versely, molecules of organic compounds that do not dissociate in aqueous solution conduct a current very poorly, if at all CONDUCTIVITY (2610Vntroduction "Taaus 25101, Equivatert Cospucrvry, A, asp CoxpucTVTY oF Porassn Count ar 25.0°C.*** Equivalent Conductivity, A mho-en equivalent KCI Concentration Mor equivalent. ° 149.9 0.0001 1489 0.0005 1477 0.001 1469 (0.005 1936 oor M12 1382 1333 1289 1280 173, u19 "Based on he aso che 1968 tempera standard adhe di vole andrd Vales re sear (0 20.158 oO. mblem, ichever i gree. 1, Definitions and Units of Expression Conductance, G, is defined as the reciprocal of resistance, R: « 1 g where the unit of Ris ohm and G is ohm”! (sometimes written mho). Conductance of a solution is measured between two spatially fixed and chemically inert electrodes. To avoid po- larization at the electrode surfaces the conductance measure- ‘ment is made with an alternating current signal.' The con- ductance of a solution, G, is directly proportional to the electrode surface area, A, cm?, and inversely proportional 10 the distance between the electrodes, L, em, The constant of ptoportionality, k, such that: ia o~+(7) is called “conductivity” (preferred to “specific conductance”). It is a characteristic property of the solution between the electrodes. The units of k are Mohm-em or mho per centime- ter. Conductivity is customarily reported in micrombos per centimeter (amho/em), In the International System of Units (SD the reciprocal of the chm is the siemens (S) and conductivity is reported as milli siemens per meter (mS/m); | mS/m = 10 mbosfem and 1 4uS/em = 1 ymbolem. To report results in SI units of mS/m divide mhosiom by 10. ‘To compare conductivities, values of kare reported relative to electrodes with A= 1 em? and L = 1 om, Absolute conduc- tances, G,, of standard potassium chloride solutions between clectrodes of precise geometry have been measured; the comre- sponding standard conductivities, kare shown in Table 25101. The equivalent conductivity, A, of a solution is the conduc- tivity pr unit of concentration. As the concentration is decreased toward zero, A approaches a constant, designated as A°, With k 2.48 {n units of micrombos per centimeter itis nevessary to convert concentration to units of equivalents per cubic centimeter; there- fore A = 0.001K/concentation where the units of A, k and concentration are mho-cm*/ equivalent, umhofem, and equivalen/L, respectively. Equiv~ alent conductivity, A, values for several concentrations of KCI are listed in Table 2510:L. In practice, solutions of KCI ‘more dilute than 0.001M will not maintain stable conductiv- ities because of absorption of atmospheric CO. Protect these dilute solutions from the atmosphere. 2. Measurement 4, Instrumental measurements: In the laboratory, conductance, G,, (or resistance) of a standard KCI solution is measured and from the corresponding conductivity, k,, (Table 2510:1) a cell constant, C, em”, is calculated: ky cre Most conductivity meters do not display the actual solution ‘conductance, G, oF resistance, R; rather, they generally have a dial that permits the user to adjust the internal cell constant to match the conductivity, &, of a standard, Once the cell constant has been determined, or set, the conductivity of an unknown solution, ke 0G, ‘will be displayed by the meter. Distilled water produced in a laboratory generally has a conduc- tivity in the range 0.5 to 3 gmhos/em. The conductivity increases shortly after exposure to both air and the water container. ‘The conductivity of potable waters in the United States ranges generally from 50 to 1500 mhosiem. The conductivity of domestic wastewaters may be near that of the local water supply, although some industrial wastes have conductivities above 10000 jumhos/em. Conductivity instruments are used in pipe- lines, channels, flowing streams, and lakes and can be incorpo- rated in multiple-parameter monitoring stations using recorders. Most problems in obtaining good data with conductivity mon- itoring equipment are related to electrode fouling and to inade- quate sample circulation, Conductivities greater than 10 000 to ‘Taats 25101, Sawrce ANALYa IxxusraaTiG CALCULAMON OF (Conc je tok NATURAL WATERS mgt mit [el ima 33 1642 2 320 2% ou 32 59 110 1242 7 1280 20 28 5782 246 50000 jumhofem or less than about 10 pumhovem may be diffi cult to measure with usual measurement electronics and cell ‘capacitance. Consult the instrument manufacturer's manual or published references." Laboratory conductivity measurements are used to: + Establish degree of mineralization to assess the effect ofthe total concentration of ions on chemical equilibria, physiological effect on plants or animals, corrosion rates, ete + Assess degree of mineralization of distilled and deionized + Evaluate variations in dissolved mineral concentration of raw water or wastewater. Minor seasonal variations found in reservoir waters contrast sharply with the daly fuctustions in some polluted river waters. Wastewater containing significant trade wastes also may show a considerable deily variation, * Estimate sample size to be used for common chemical determinations and to check results of a chemical analysis ‘+ Determine amount of ionic reagent needed in certain pre- cipitation and neutralization reactions, the end point being de- noted by a change in slope of the curve resulting from ploting conductivity against buret readings. + Estimate total dissolved solids (mg/L) in a sample by mul- tiplying conductivity (in micromhos per centimeter) by an em- pirical factor. Tis factor may vary from 0.55 to 0.9, depending on the soluble components of the water and on the temperature of measurement, Relatively high factors may be required for saline or boiler waters, whereas lower factors may apply where considerable hydroxide or free acid is present. Even though sample evaporation results inthe change of bicarbonate to ear- ‘bonate the empirical factor is derived for a comparatively con- stant water supply by dividing dissolved solids by conductivity. *+ Approximate the milliequivalents per liter of either cations or anions in some waters by multiplying conductivity in units of :mieromhos per centimeter by 0.01 '. Calculation of conductivity: For naturally occurring, waters that contain mostly Ca?*, Mg?" Na’, K*, HCO,”, $O,?-, and CT" and with TDS less then about 2500 mg/L, the following procedure can be used to calculate conductivity from measured ionic concentrations.’ The abbreviated water analysis in Table 2510: illustrates the calculation procedure At infinite dilution the contribution to conductivity by differ- ent kinds of ions is additive. In general, the relative contribution of each cation and anion is calculated by multiplying equivalent conductances, A. and A, mho-cm:/equivaleat, by concentration in equivalents per liter and correcting units. Table 2510:IIT contains a short lst of equivalent conductances for ions com- ‘monly found in natural waters.® Trace concentrations of ions ‘generally make negligible contribution to the overall conductiv- ity. A temperature coefficient of 0.02/deg is applicable to all ions, except H” (0.0139/deg) and OH” (0.018/deg). At finite concentrations, as opposed to infinite dilution, con ductivity per equivalent decreases with increasing concentration (Gee Table 2510:1). For solutions composed of one anion type and one cation type e.g, KCl as in Table 25101, the decrease in conductivity per equivalent with concentration can be calculated, £0.1%, using an ioni-strength-based theory of Onsager.” When mixed salts are present, as is nearly always the case with natural and wastewaters, the theory is quite complicated."° The follow ing semiempirical procedure can be used to calculate conductiv- ity for naturally occurring waters: PHYSICAL & AGGREGATE PROPERTIES (2000) ‘Tawus 2510EIL Equrvatan Conoucrances, (oa10-08 qUvalsn) FoR Tons ws Warem AT 25.0 C* Caton ‘Anion x a on 1986 cw HCO, 445 tae 120," n Ne 17250," 300 x roy 164 NHS Ac 409 yoke e 384 ware* NOy na HPO, 3 1iHPOE- 7 First, calculate infinite dilution conductivity (Table 2510:1, Column 4): ke Le peat) + Ele, pomm) where: || = absolute vu of the charge of heh ion, raM, = millimolar concention of the i-th on, and Aji", = equivalent conductance ofthe ih ion. If mM is used to express concentration, the product, (X.) (oni) or (Xi), corects the nits from ltrs to cm. In tis case Fis 578.2 umbholem (Table 2510:M, Column 4). Next, calculate fone strength, 25 in molar units i ea 000 ‘The ionic strength is 15.33/2000 = 0.00767 M (Table 2510:11, Column 5). Calculate the monovalent ion activity coefficient, y, using the Davies equation for IS = 0.5 M and for temperatures from 20 to 30's sus 15%) — 030) y In the present example JS = 0.00767 M and y = 0.91 Finally, obtain the calculated value of conductivity, Ka from: In the example being considered, ky = 5782 x 0.91 = 4788 mholem versus the reported value as measured by the ‘USGS of 477 umho/em. For 39 analyses of naturally occurring waters, conductivi- ties calculated inthis manner agreed with the measured values to within 2%. 8, References 1, Waiano, HH, LL, Manwerr & LA, Deas, 1974, Instrumental Methods of Analysis, Sth ed. D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, NY. 2, Wo, ¥.C, WF, Koon, WJ. Han & RL. Kay. 1987, Review of elecuoiyic conductance standards. J. Solution Chem. 16:No.12. CONDUCTIMITY (2510)/Laboratory Method 5. Jasren, W.S. 1988. Secondary Standard Potassium Chloride Con

    You might also like