INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR MODELS

NUCLEUS BASICS

Z – proton number
A
Z XN with A=Z+N N – neutron number
A – atomic/weight number
76
32 Ge 44
1
size: R  R0A R0 1 .2 fm R  5.1 fm
3


mass: m(X)  Zmp  Nm (that’s why it holds together)

n

binding energy: 
B(Z,N )  Zm  Nmn  m(Z,N )  c 2
p

B(76 Ge)  36m p 
 44mn  m(76Ge)  c  661.6 MeV
2

8 Fe
B/A [MeV/nucleon]

He
U
fission
6

4
fusion

2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
A
 NUCLEAR FORCES
short range, spin-orbital character

YUKAWA THEORY OF NUCLEAR FORCES

based on exchange of 0, +, and –
p+n→p+n
N+N→N+N
consider range of 1.4 fm
pn np  from uncertainty principle
p – n N N mcrh
+ 0 → m  140 MeV

n p N N
Heisenberg
p Fermi
n
p
n
e– e– n
p
0 n p

n too weak p
violates angular momentum conservation
n p
 NUCLEAR MODELS
• total wavefunction of the nucleus is far too complicated to be useful even if it
was possible to calculate it
(only possible for the lightest nuclei)

 we make use of models and use simple analogies

Types of nuclear models

Semiclassical Quantum mechanical

Independent particle Fermi gas Shell

Rotational
Collective Liquid drop
Vibrational
 FERMI GAS MODEL
Built on analogy between nucleus and ideal gas
• particles don’t interact
• particles move independently in the mean field of the nucleus

Ground state → particles occupy lowest energy states

allowed by the Pauli principle
V V

–R R –R R

Fermi energy EF

Fermi sea
–V0 –V0

neutrons protons
 FERMI MODEL
Distribution of nucleon momentum states: 2Vd 3p
dn 
EF
2h 3

• total number of states up to EF:

– momentum → energy
n  dn
0
– np  Z ; nn  A – Z
3
– volume  V  4 3  r0 A
• Fermi energy:
h2 2

h 9 2 A  Z  23

9 Z 
3
p
n
EF     EF    
2 2
2mr0  4 A  2mr0  4 A 
→ for Z  A – Z  A/2

EF  const  1 equal for all nuclei

m
 FERMI MODEL
EF  30 (V0  40 MeV)
MeV
 NUCLEAR LIQUID DROP MODEL
Weizsäcker formula for the binding energy (A  30)

condensation energy  V
B(A,Z ) aV  A holding nucleus together

2 surface tension  S
 aS  A 3
near-surface nucleons are bound less

1
 aC   1)  A 3
Coulomb potential

Z(Z

 aA
 (A  2Z  A1 asymmetry
)2
even-even pairing energy

 2
 NUCLEAR LIQUID DROP MODEL
 0
1
 even-odd  A 

 
 odd-odd
1
R  A3
 NUCLEAR LIQUID DROP MODEL
Weizsäcker formula for the mass of the nucleus
m(A,Z )
Zmp  A  Z  BA,Z 

mn
m(A,Z )
Zmp  A  Z  a ZZ  1  aA A  2Z  A 1  
2
 a A  aS

mn V
A3 2 C 1A  3

  ee
for constant A  m(A,Z) is quadratic in Z 
  0 oe
  oo
odd A even A 
1
m(A,Z)
m(A,Z)

oo  A 2

ee

– +, EC – +, EC 76As

+
NUCLEAR LIQUID DROP MODEL
–
76Ge
2–
Z Z 76Se
 NUCLEAR LIQUID DROP MODEL
Valley of stability
2
m(A,Z ) 3

Zmp  A  Z  a ZZ  1  aA A  2Z  A 1  
2
  a A  aS
m n V
A3 C 1 A 

For fixed A the most stable Z is obtained by differentiating m(A,Z)

Z N
PROTON NUMBER Z

A 1
Z 
2
2 1 0.0075A 3
RO PREBM TOUNN

82
2
2
8
2
0
2
8
5
50
0
8
2

28

20

8
NUCLEAR LIQUID DROP MODEL
8, 50, 82, 126
136
not explained by Fermi gas
model nor liquid drop model
M
A NEUTRON NUMBER N
G
I
C

N
U
M
B
E
R
S
:
2,
8,
2
0,
2
 NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL – WHY?
New model needed to explain discontinuities of several
nuclear properties → binding energy
→ high relative abundances
→ low n-capture cross section
→ high excitation energies
? Fe
→ …
MAGIC
U
8
NUMBERS
B/A [MeV/nucleon]

He
fission
6

4 fusion semi-empirical
experimental

2 Magic number
=
0
0 50 100 150 200 closed shell
250
A

Magic numbers indicate similarity of nucleus to electron shells of atom,

BUT still different from “Atomic magic numbers” (2, 10, 18, 36, 54, 86)
 NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL

AIM → Explain the magic numbers

ASSUMPTION → Interactions between nucleons are

neglected
→ Each nucleon can move independently in
the nuclear potential

STEPS → Find the potential well that resembles the

nuclear density
→ Consider the spin-orbit coupling
 NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL
Potential well
 
Hamiltonian of a nucleus: H   Ti  V (ri )     v(rij )  V (ri )
i i , j ,i  j i 

central potential residual potential

Potential well candidates Central potential » Residual potential  →0

V(r) R r

1. Square Well
2. Harmonic
Oscillator

V0 3. Woods-Saxon
Potential
d2 2M  l  l  1 h2 
Rnl  r V (r ) Rnl  0
dr
2
 2Mr
2

2 E
h nl 
NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL
 

Solve Schrödinger equation

 NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL
Square well potential

 V0 r R
0
Vr   0  no analytical solution
r R


V(r)

R r Occupation Total
1g 18 58
2p 6 40
1f 14 34
2s 2 20
1d 10 18
1p 6 8
1s 2 2
-V0
Closed Shell

Magic Number
 NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL
Harmonic potential

1
0  
Vr V0  M 2 r 2  analytical solution possible
2

V(r)

r Occupation Total
1i,2g,3d,4s 56 168
1h,2f,3p 42 112
1g,2d,3s 30 70
1f,2p 20 40
1d,2s 12 20
1p 6 8
1s 2 2
-V0
Closed Shell

Magic Number
 NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL
Woods-Saxon potential resembles the nuclear
density from
scattering
V0 measurements
V0  r    no analytical solution
1 exp  r R 
a

V(r)

R r Occupation Total
1i,2g,3d,4s 56 168
1h,2f,3p 42 112
1g,2d,3s 30 70
1f,2p 20 40
1d,2s 12 20
1p 6 8
1s 2 2
-V0
Closed Shell

Magic Number
 NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL
Spin-orbit coupling contribution
Maria Mayer (Physical Review 78 (1950), 16) suggested:
1. There should be a non-central component
2. It should have a magnitude which depends on S & L

V r   V0 r   Vs r L  s with V r   1d  r
f
non-central potential V
s 0s
r dr
Woods-Saxon shape

Results in energy splitting of individual levels

for given J (angular momentum)
j=l–½

for l > 0
 E 1d 3/2
j = l +/-NUCLEAR
½ SHELL MODEL e.g.  1d
j=l+½ 1d 5/2
 NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL Level splitting
4s
6
3d 4s 3d 132
3d 4s 2
2g 72
2g 2g
1i 115 2
3d 2

5 3p 1i 126
2g 92
REMARKS
1i
1i 131 2
2f3p 3p 2
3p 532 The essential features are
2f 7 2
2f
3s1h
2f 2
1h 92 given by any potential of the
4 82
1h
2d
3s 1h 112
form
2d 3s 1 2

V  r   V0  r   Vs  r  L 
1g 2d 32
2d 5 2
1g 1g7 2
3 2p
50
1g9 2
1f
2p 2p1 2
1f 5 2
Energies of levels are
1f
2p32 parameter dependent
28
2 1f 7 2
2s 20
2s 1d32 Shell model fails when dealing
1d 2s 12
1d
1d 5 2
with deformed nuclei, i.e.,
8 nuclei far from magic numbers
1 1p
1p 1p 1 2
1p 32

2
1s 1s
Collective models: rotation
0 1s 12
plus
square w ell harmonic oscillator
Woods-Saxon
s
potential
p
i
n
-
o
r
b
i
t

c
o
u
p
l
i
n
g
 Other models

Close to CLOSED-SHELL nuclei well described by shell model

However, most of the nuclear properties are indeed determined by
nucleons outside the closed shells
Collective models → treating the closed shells as inert and
only dealing with the rest

Models not mentioned (but used):

1. rotational model → rotations of permanently deformed nuclei

2. vibrational model → excitations within shell – multipole account

3. Nilsson model → shell model with deformed potential

4. -particle model → -particle clusters inside the nucleus

5. interacting boson model → considering pairs of nucleons as bosons