CAVING METHODS

CAVING METHOD – SUBLEVEL CAVING

1 Introduction

In this mining method, similar to sublevel stoping, the steeply inclined strong orebody is divided
into number of sublevels (between two haulage levels) but mining of ore proceeds, by blasting the
fans drilled in the orebody, at the top most sublevel horizon and the blasted muck is removed
immediately and dumped into the orepass meant for this purpose to deliver the ore at the main
haulage level below. The void so created allows its h/w and cap rocks, which are weak, fractured
and cavable (unlike sublevel stoping where wall and cap rocks are competent) to cave in. In a very
wide orebody the stoping at this horizon proceeds transversely from its extreme h/w towards its
extreme f/w contact all along the stope length (fig. 16.25(a)), whereas, in wider to narrow
orebodies (not less than 6 m thick) from one end of the stope towards its other end longitudinally
(fig. 16.25(b)). The same procedure is repeated at each of the sublevel horizons starting from the
top most till it reaches to its bottom most. Since this stope is divided into number of sublevels and
caving of h/w is allowed simultaneously, hence the name ‘sublevel caving’.
In order to ensure proper caving of h/w and cape rocks, and smooth flow of the blasted ore through the
collecting x-cuts/drives; a proper study must be carried out to decide the size of various openings that are
included within a stope layout. Prominent parameters amongst them are the dimensions of the
crosscuts/drives, interval between sublevel horizons, spacing between the crosscuts, inclination of fans and
burden between fans.
Thus, this method is characterized by blasting the fans drilled between two sub-levels either longitudinally
or transversely, and replacing the void created by the caved waste rock obtained by allowing the hanging
wall and capping over it to cave in. Hence, a weak and cavable hanging wall, and acceptability of surface
subsidence are the pre requisites for the success of this method.

Following are the suitable conditions, in general, for the application of sublevel caving:
● Ore strength: medium hard to strong requiring fragmentation by drilling and blasting but less stronger
than the one suitable for the unsupported stoping methods.
● Rock strength: weak to moderate but fractured, jointed and cavable.
● Deposits shape: tabular or massive.
● Deposit’s dip: steep but can be applied to flat dips; in that case it will resemble to longwall mining with
caving.
● Size and thickness: large extent along and across the dip, thickness 6m.
● Ore grade: moderate but uniform as sorting is not possible.
● Depth: moderate, practiced up to a depth of 1.2 km.
Applications: Limited applications for mining the coal (anthracite). But widely applied to mine out the
ores of metal and non-metal deposits such as iron, copper, lead, zinc, nickel and many others. One of the
world’s largest u/g mine – Kiruna Iron Ore Mine, LKAB, Kiruna, Sweden has adopted this method.

Main elements of the system/working parameters - An optimum range of these parameters could be as under:
● Dividing deposit in levels spaced 60–80 m apart, all along the strike extension.
● Size of main level and stope entries 3–5 m.
● Height of opening 2.7–4 m (Based on equipment height).
● Length of stope 50–90 m (longitudinal), 50–60 m (transverse).
● Height of stope level interval, range: 60–80 m.

Details of the sublevel entries:

● Distance between sublevels vertically from 9–14 m to 20–32 m (fig. 16.26 (d)).
● Spacing between crosscuts (if transverse stoping) from 7.5–11 m to 23 m (center to center, figure
16.26 (d)).
● Dimensions of drill crosscuts (drives) – width 3 m–6m height 2.5 m–4 m.
● Fan inclination vertical to 70–80°
(figs 16.26 (e) and (f )), Inclination of outer holes 70–85° (fig. 16.26 (d)).
● Ring burden 1.2–1.8 m.
2 Unit operations
● Drilling: Development – Use of jacklegs, stopers and jumbo drills for drivage work. Stoping – drifter mounted single
or twin boom fan drilling rigs.
● Blasting: use of NG based explosives, ANFO, slurries at the development headings. ANFO, slurries in the stopes.

● Charging with the use of pneumatic loaders to charge ANFO else conventional.
Firing electrically.
● Mucking: Use of LHDs, FEL, rocker shovels and Cavos.
● Haulage: LHDs, trucks or shuttle cars at the sublevel horizons from the working faces to the ore passes.
From the ore pass gravity flow and muck is discharged to the trucks or tracked haulage system using mine
cars and locomotive.
In figures 16.25(a) to (b) most of these operations with the use of equipment of different types have been
shown.

2.1 Variants

● Longitudinal sublevel caving (figs 16.25(b), 16.26(a)).

● Transverse sublevel caving (figs 16.25(a) and (c), 16.26(b)).
● Top slicing.
Figure 16.26 Sublevel caving
system – influence of dip and
thickness. Relative position of
sublevel horizons.
3 Stope preparation – (Transverse sublevel caving)
In order to prepare a stope between two main (haulage) levels, first the access to the stope’s location is
made by driving drives and crosscuts from these main levels. A raise connects these levels; commonly
known as service raise or man-pass. To facilitate equipment movement within the stope, particularly in a
highly mechanized mine, access by ramp to the stope becomes essential. The stope is then divided into
number of sub-horizons, spaced at an interval of 9–14m5, when blastholes of 50–75 mm. dia. are used.
With the application of larg. dia. holes of 100–110 mm this spacing could be increased to 32 m, as per the
prevalent practices at iron ore mines LKAB, Sweden (fig. 16.26(d)), and some of the mines in Russia
(figs 16.26(e) and (f))1 and Canada.
The development work first of all commences at the top sublevel and it consists of driving footwall drive
through out the length of the stope in waste rock at a location at least 10 m away from the footwall contact
of the orebody. From this drive the drilling crosscuts, spaced at a predetermined interval are driven across
the orebody up to its hanging wall contact. At hanging wall contact each of these crosscuts are connected
and the resultant opening is termed as hanging wall drive. At this hanging wall drive a slot raise is driven
to ultimately convert into the slot by widening it by long parallel holes. Using this slot as a free face, the
fans drilled (as described above) from the drill crosscuts are blasted. Similar development work is carried
out at each of the sublevel’s horizons. An ore pass is driven between two levels, and it is connected to
each of these sublevel’s horizons to facilitate the ore dumping into it.
4 Stope preparation (Sublevel caving – longitudinal)

The stope is developed on a similar pattern, as that of transverse sublevel caving but instead of drilling cross
cuts across the deposit, the drill drives along the deposit are driven at each of the sublevel horizons, as
shown in figure 16.25(b). Stope blasting commences from the slot created for the purpose at the wider most
portion of the orebody within the stope.

5 Layouts
The layout shown in figure 16.25(a) is a prospective view of a transverse sublevel caving stope. In figure
16.25(b) longitudinal section along the strike direction of the deposit for a longitudinal sublevel caving stope
has been shown. Details of the blasthole required to create a slot has been also shown.
This stoping method can be applied to any dip but overall recovery of the ore from a stope reduces as the
deposit’s dip decrease from vertical to the horizontal and flat dips (fig. 16.26(a)).
The influence of orebody thickness also plays important role so far the overall recovery is concerned.
Narrow orebodies using longitudinal sublevel caving results lower recoveries comparing the same when
wider orebodies are mined using the transverse sublevel caving (figs 16.26(b) and (c)). Sometimes ore is
medium-hard that require rock bolting during stoping operations.
An account of various unit operations that are undertaken at the different horizons of a sublevel caving
stope for a steeply dipping deposit has been presented in figure 16.25(a). While mucking is in progress at
the top most sublevel horizon of a stope, the fans are blasted at the immediate level below. The drilling
operations are in progress at the next level below, and the drivage work including making a slot and
putting sublevel cross cuts, is in progress at the bottom most horizon.
The diagram shown in figure 16.26(d) presents the relative positions of sublevel horizons vertically. The
horizontal distance between the adjacent cross cuts at the same horizon that need to be kept to allow a
smooth flow of the blasted ore and the caved rocks have been also shown. This design is the
development of several years of practice at some of the prominent mines using this method. Layouts
shown in figures 16.26(d), (e) and (f) are latest designs with the application of large dia. holes, as
described above.
The mechanics of progress of gravity flow of ore and waste rocks within an extraction ellipsoid has been
presented in figure 16.27. As shown in figure 16.27, material mobility is a function of shape and
eccentricity of the ellipsoids of extraction and loosening as shown in figure 16.27.
Figure 16.27 Important parameters influencing operation of smooth flow of muck.
5.1 Advantages
● Productivity: Fairly high, OMS in the range of 20–40 t/shift/man.
● Production rate – High. It can be considered as one of the bulk mining methods.
● Recovery – with pillar extraction 80–90%, but with dilution sometimes it exceeds 100%.
● Commencement of regular production; at an early stage even during stope development 20–25% of the
designed production rate can be achieved. Stope development and stoping activities goes simultaneously.
● Adaptability to mechanization: suitable for varying degree of mechanization.
● Safety – little exposure to unsafe conditions, workers work under the protective roofs, easy to ventilate,
thus better working conditions.

5.2 Limitations
● Dilution is high, ranging from 10 to 35%, and that results considerable ore losses in the stopes. This feature
also limits its application to high valued ores.
● Subsidence and caving occur over wide areas causing land degradation.
● Cost is comparatively high (40–60% relative cost). Development cost and time are fairly high. Stope
development is responsible for the high costs. Capital required – sufficient.
● Provision for the equipment access in the stope needs to be incorporated.
CAVING METHOD – BLOCK CAVING
1 Introduction
The system is characterized by breaking the ore by the caving action initiated when support is withdrawn from
a sizable area (which has been created first of all) under a column of ore (block), allowing it to cave in. At the
same time a series of workings are cut along vertical plane boundaries of the block to weaken its bound to the
solid. Gravity and rock pressure of over burden make the undercut ore to cave in, thereby filling gradually, the
undercutting space. Thus, unlike sublevel caving, not only the walls (h/w as well as f/w) and the capping rocks
but also the ore itself must be weak, fractured and cavable. The caved ore is discharged through the ore passes,
which are known by the structures such as: funnels, finger raises, bells, etc. connecting either to grizzly level
for its screening through it (in some layouts), or directly to troughs that are connected to the extraction
drives/cross-cuts. LHD mucking, or direct discharge into mine cars through chutes enables muck transfer from
the stope for its onward disposal. Since the orebody is divided into large sized blocks, and the caving and
mining of the whole block starts at a time, hence the name ‘block caving’.
In order to ensure proper caving of walls and cap rocks, and smooth flow of the caved ore through the
collecting x-cuts/drives; a proper study must be carried out to decide the size of various openings that are
included within a stope layout. Prominent parameters amongst them are the dimensions of the funnels/finger
raises/ troughs, and spacing between them.
Following are the suitable conditions, in general, for the application of block caving:

● Ore strength: weak, soft, friable, fractured and/or jointed. It should cave freely under its own weight
when undercut. It should not be sticky if wet and not readily oxidized.
● Rock strength: weak to moderate but fractured, jointed and cavable. Almost similar characteristics as
that of ore. Ore rock boundary should be distinct.
● Deposits shape: thick tabular or massive. Preferably regular.
● Deposit’s dip: steep but can be applied to flat dip if deposit is very thick.
● Size and thickness: large extent along and across the dip, thickness 30 m.
● Ore grade: can be low but uniform as sorting is not possible.
● Depth: moderate, practiced up to a depth of 1.2 km. If sufficient depth then strength of over burden
could exceed that of rock strength (h/w rock), thereby surface subsidence can be reduced.

Applications: Widely applied to win the ores of metal and non-metal deposits such as iron, copper, lead,
zinc, asbestos, diamond (South Africa), molybdenum, nickel and many others. This is a bulk mining
method that has been applied in the mines with high production.
Figure 16.28 Block caving system. Some details of mass caving starting from the surface (Top/I).
Progressive stages during caving shown (Bottom/II).
2 Unit operations

● Drilling: Development for undercutting – use of jacklegs and jumbo drills for drivage work. Stoping –
drifter mounted single or twin boom fan drilling rigs to drill fans for undercutting or troughing. Also for
drilling long holes in the form of fans or rings to induce caving in some cases.
● Blasting: use of NG based explosives, ANFO (if hole dia. larger than 40 mm), slurries at the
development headings as well during stoping.
● Charging with the use of pneumatic loaders to charge ANFO else conventional.
Firing – electrically. Secondary breaking in stopes by plaster or pop shooting; bamboo blasting, use of
dynamite bomb and/or application of impact hammer.
● Mucking (figs 16.29, 16.30): gravity flow through funnels/bells, finger raises equipped with chute. If
trough-draw point system adopted then loading at the draw points with the use of LHDs, FEL or rocker
shovels. Use of scrapers made if mill hole system adopted.
● Haulage: at the main level use of LHDs, trucks or tracked haulage system using mine cars and
locomotive.
Figure 16.29 Block caving with grizzly and finger raise system.
2.1 Variants

Based on deposit’s division:

● Block caving: Regular square or rectangular areas (30m 30 m to 60m 60 m) are undercut and usually
these are mined in alternating or diagonal order. The height of block is in the range of 40–100 m, seldom
more. Ores that are weak, fractured and break fine, usually fall in this category. In order to minimize dilution
and provide space for service and ventilation openings; blocks are separated by pillars (both the sides). It is
being applied in about 50% cases.
● Panel caving: When ore is unstable and caves readily, panels of 20 m to 60 m wide and 150–300 m long,
are arranged along or across the strike of orebody, and they are mined retreating. Caving in several panels
can be performed simultaneously with a definite lead. In order to minimize dilution and provide a space for
the service and ventilation openings; panels are separated by pillars (3–10 m wide). Adaptability of this
variant is in 25% cases.
● Mass Caving: In this scheme no division of the area is made as in block or panel caving variants. Also no
pillar is left. Irregularly sized prisms are mined as large as consistent with caving properties of the ore and
stress on the opening below. Undercutting is initiated on the retreat pattern. Adaptability of this type of
caving is 25%.
Based on the readiness to caving:
● Self caving
● Induced caving.

3 Methods of draw
Gravity draw – this system requires a finely fragmented and easy flowing ore/product. It requires
maximum amount of development openings and uses minimum amount of mechanized equipment
comparing to all other drawing schemes. It is unskilled, labor intensive and highly sensitive to
fragmentation size. Percentage adaptability is around 30%. Some of the mines adopting this system with
their production rates are: San Manual, Arizona, U.S.A (60000 t/d); El Teniente mine, Chile (60000 t/d);
Rio Blanco mine, Chile (12000 t/d); Lutopan mine, Philippines (24000 t/d). This system has been
illustrated in figure 16.29. This figure shows the relative position of the various structures that are
required to be developed prior to initiate the caving i.e. the stoping operations in a stope.
Slusher draw – this system can handle coarser fragments. It requires arrangement for electric power
in the stoping areas. It requires elaborate arrangement for the ventilation than the same required in the
gravity system but less than the LHD system. Percentage adaptability is up to 45%. Some of the mines
adopting this system with their production rates are: Climax mine, Colorado, U.S.A (31000 t/d); El
Salvador mine, Chile (18000 t/d); Santo Thomas II mine, Philippines (24000 t/d); Ertsberg Eastmine
Indonesia (10000 t/d). This system has been illustrated in figure 16.30. The ore discharged through
the finger raises to the slusher drifts are ultimately loaded into the mine cars through the draw holes.
Thus, this allows a continuous feed to the train, which can be hauled by the locomotives.
Figure 16.30 Different schemes for drawing muck from block caving stopes.
Some of these draw systems are applicable for Sublevel and VCR stopes also.
LHD/loader draw – this method is least sensitive to fragmentation size. Concept is new and can be used
for small, irregular and large massive deposits. The development openings required are almost equal to
gravity system. Sufficient capital and mechanization is needed. Elaborate ventilation arrangements are
necessary. Percentage adaptability is 25% but growing. Some of the mines adopting this system with their
production rates are (after Pillar 1981): Henderson mine, Colorado, U.S.A (30000 t/d); El Teniente mine.
Chile (40000 t/d). This system has been illustrated in figure 16.29.
The system allows ore fragments of large size unlike the other two system described above. Large bucket
sized LHDs run by electric or diesel motive powers can be used to suit production and working
conditions’ requirements.
4 Stope preparation
First the block to be mined is connected to the main mine entries such as shafts, main levels, declines etc.
in the usual manner by driving a network of mine roadways in the form of drives, crosscuts and raises to
facilitate haulage, ventilation and other mine services.
Sublevel or sub-horizons are required to be developed between undercut and the haulage level. This
includes driving of finger raises, grizzly level and transfer raises in case of grizzly system of draw. In case
of slusher system of draw, the development work between undercut and haulage level involves driving of
draw or finger raises, scram/slusher drifts and transfer raises/trenches. Similarly for LHD draw system a
network of troughs and draw-points need to be developed.
Amongst these development activities, the most critical activity is undercutting. This needs careful
removal of pillars or supports installed, so that caving can be initiated without danger of air blast,
premature collapse etc.
The interval required between different development entries (sublevels, ore passes and undercut) is a
function of draw system adopted. Gravity system requires maximum development work whereas the
mechanized loading by LHD etc. is the least.
Boundary weakening, other than undercutting, is rarely performed in block caving. Occasionally corner
raises are driven on one side of undercut block, and slab (widened) to create a narrow slot.
5 Layouts
In figure 16.28 (top) a mine having mass caving system has been illustrated. In block caving; to start with
as shown in figure 16.28 (bottom) (a), the ore in-situ is under-cut.
This initiate caving and production commences (fig. (b)). The effect of caving influencing the whole stope
including capping can be seen in fig. (c); subsidence begins.
Automated caving (using hydraulic fracturing) at Northparkes, Australia4: E26 mine belonging to Rio
Tinto was Australia’s first block cave mine. Construction of first block known as lift 1 was commenced
in 1993 and completed in 1997. It is known to be highly productive and low cost operation, for example,
in 1999–2000; E26 produced 50,340 t of copper-gold ore per underground employee, including
contractors. E26 deposits has been divided into two sections (figs 16.31(a) and (b)), lift 1 extends to 480
m below surface, and lift 2 consist of lower 350 m of the deposit.
The undercut of lift 1 dimensions measure 196 m long by 180 m wide. Continuous caving was never
achieved so cave inducement was required to main caving and sustain production. Use of hydraulic
fracturing to induce caving was tested in the existing boreholes and then it was applied. It yielded some
7 Mt of ore at significantly lower cost than conventional cave inducement techniques. An inflatable
straddle packer system and diesel powered triple pump were used to induce hydraulic fracturing (fig.
16.31(c)). The straddle packers were connected to AQ drill rods and lowered down a selected borehole
using a diamond drill. Once in position, the packers were inflated with water, usually around 5MPa
above the anticipated injection pressure. The triplex pump then pumped water under high pressure along
an injection line and into the straddle section between the packers. Pressurization of rock between the
straddle sections induces tensile stress along the walls of the hole and eventually fractures the rock, or
open existing fractures. Further injection forces water into these fractures causing them to extend into
surrounding rock mass. Most hydraulic fracture treatments were characterized by increase seismicity
both during and after injection. In several cases this increase in seismicity was followed by significant
caving events.
Laubscher Mining Rock Mass Rating (MRMR) was chosen to identify cavability and it was found that
with MRMR from 33 to 50 (lift 1) was suitable for caving. During planning Gemcom’s PC-BC, a
programme design and evaluation of block cave, was extensively used.
Draw points system as shown in figure 16.31(d) for use of Toro 450E LHD were used during lift 1 as
well for lift 2 (with modification of making brows stronger by reinforcement).
Figure 16.31 Automated caving (using hydraulic fracturing) at Northparkes, Australia.
5.1 Advantages
● Productivity: fairly high, OMS in the range of 15–40 t/shift/man; maximum in the range of 40–50
t/shift/man.
● Production rate – high; it can be considered as one of the bulk mining methods.
● Recovery – with pillar extraction 90%, but with dilution sometimes it exceeds 100%.
● Commencement of regular production: On completion of undercutting and haulage layout production
can be commenced. Drilling and blasting during stoping are completely eliminated.
● Cost – Comparatively lowest (20% relative cost). Cost is comparable with surface mining methods.
Tonnage yield/m of development is the highest.
● Adaptability to mechanization: suitable for high degree of mechanization for mucking and
transportation.
● Safety – good safety records.
Figure 16.32 Summary of schemes that are applicable to draw
muck from stopes. Selection of a particular system depend upon
the stope layout and mucking unit deployed.
5.2 Limitations

● Dilution is high and it ranges 10–20% and needs control. This feature limits its application to high valued
ores.
● Subsidence and caving occur over wide areas causing land degradation.
● Draw control is critical factor for the success of this method.
● Stope development is comparatively slow, tedious and costly.

TERIMA KASIH