See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/334362689

Taxonomic and Ethnical Dispersion of the Phenomenon of Pineal Concretions in

the Gerontological Context

Preprint · July 2019

DOI: 10.1134/S2079057019020206

CITATIONS READS

0 1,494

6 authors, including:

Svetlana Kalinina Ilyukha Viktor

Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences
38 PUBLICATIONS   21 CITATIONS    49 PUBLICATIONS   88 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Artem Morozov Ekaterina Antonova

Institute of Biology, Karelian Research Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences
13 PUBLICATIONS   14 CITATIONS    30 PUBLICATIONS   20 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Pineal gland morphology in Canids View project

Luzindole View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Svetlana Kalinina on 10 July 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

ISSN 2079-0570, Advances in Gerontology, 2019, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 232–243. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2019.
Russian Text © The Author(s), 2018, published in Uspekhi Gerontologii, 2018, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 913–924.

Taxonomic and Ethnical Dispersion of the Phenomenon

of Pineal Concretions in the Gerontological Context
S. N. Serginaa, *, V. A. Ilyukhaa, A. V. Morozova,
E. P. Antonovaa, E. S. Brulerb, and A. D. Volodinab
a
Institute of Biology, Karelian Research Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, 185910 Russia
b
Petrozavodsk State University, Petrozavodsk, 185000 Russia
*e-mail: cvetnick@yandex.ru
Received October 8, 2018; revised October 30, 2018; accepted November 1, 2018

Abstract—The pineal gland (PG), or epiphysis, is involved in the organization of biological rhythms and
adaptive reactions of the organism by the hormone melatonin. It is shown that various factors can influence
the morphology and functional activity of the gland. Calcified concretions (corpora arenacea, brain sand) are
unique biomineral structures of the PG; the causes of their formation and their possible functional signifi-
cance have been unclear until now. To date, concrements have been found in four species of birds and 21
mammalian species, as well as in humans; they are absent in fish, amphibians, and reptiles. In this review, we
have collected the available literature data on the composition, mechanisms of formation, and possible fac-
tors affecting the accumulation of concretions in the epiphysis. Although the generally accepted point of view
is that the accumulation of pineal calcium deposits is age-dependent, the available data on PG mineralization
lead to the conclusion that there is most likely a multifactorial mechanism of concrement formation. In addi-
tion, the nature and crystallinity of the inorganic tissue of the pineal concretions suggest that corpora arena-
cea, is a regulated and physiological type of petrification rather than a pathological type. The existence of
contradictory data on the connection between the formation of brain sand and the change in the functional
activity of the PG during seasonal endocrine changes and in the aging process requires the study of deposits
and in-depth investigation.

Keywords: pineal gland, calcified concretions, melatonin, aging, functional activity of the gland
DOI: 10.1134/S2079057019020206

INTRODUCTION successive N-acetylation of serotonin (using N-acetyl-

The pineal gland (PG), or the epiphysis of the
brain (glandula pinealis, epiphysis cerebri), has been a
subject of significant interest of researchers for more
than 2000 years, but it remains the least studied endo-
crine gland.
Today, it is known that the PG is more than a phy-
logenetic rudiment of the so-called “third eye,” or
parietal eye, of lower vertebrates, and that it functions
in almost all vertebrates as a neuroendocrine converter
of information about the photoperiod into a hormonal
signal [95].
The PG exerts multiple modulating effects on the
physiological systems of the body, mainly through the
production of substances of indole and peptide nature:
the first are serotonin and its derivatives, methoxyin-
doles (melatonin, methoxytryptamine, etc.); the
second are vasopressin, oxytocin, renin, etc. Mela-
tonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine), the most
important pineal product, is secreted with a marked
circadian rhythm; its maximal production occurs in
the dark phase of the day. Melatonin is synthesized by
transferase) and then O-methylation of N-acetylsero-
tonin by the enzyme acetyl-serotonin-methyltransferase
[85].
Information on day length is “encoded” in the
duration and amplitude of melatonin secretion, which
allows it to play a major role in the regulation of most
daily and seasonal adaptations in mammals [18]. This
hormone function is closely related to its pleiotropic
effects in the central nervous system and peripheral
tissues [67, 71]. Melatonin affects the endocrine,
reproductive, immune, cardiovascular, digestive, and
excretory systems and has anticarcinogenic and anti-
oxidant properties. Melatonin also improves cognitive
functions, prevents anxiety-depressive behavior in
healthy subjects and in pathology [110]. Hormone
deficiency is associated with a predisposition to a mel-
ancholic depression characterized by psychopatho-
logical and neurobiological disorders, including sleep
disturbances, circadian mood swings, weight loss, and
increased levels of plasma monoamine oxidase activity
and plasma cortisol [110].

232
 TAXONOMIC AND ETHNICAL DISPERSION
Fig. 1. Hieronymus Bosch, “Removing the Stone of Stu-
pidity” (1475–1480). The first picture in the history of
painting dedicated to this operation (fragment) [112].
It is known that the morphology and functional
activity of the gland is influenced by various factors
(photoperiod, hypoxia, stress).
Thus, the maintenance of rats and guinea pigs in
conditions of constant illumination leads to a decrease
in organ mass, whereas the mass does not change
when it exposed to constant darkness [45, 53].
An increase in the size of the pinealocyte nucleus is
observed in hamsters kept in the dark [52].
There is also the opinion that the size of the gland
in vertebrates varies depending on geographic latitude:
it increases as it “moves” from south to north or from
the equator to the poles [84].
The mass and linear indices of the epiphysis among
the residents of Syktyvkar (Komi Republic, Russia)
were higher in the studied age groups (21–78 years),
regardless of gender and age, as compared to those of
the residents of the midlatitudes of Russia [5, 6]. It is
also noted that, as compared with healthy subjects, the
gland volume is significantly greater in people suffer-
ing from obesity [48] and smaller in patients with
schizophrenia [44].
The author of the first most accurate description of
the PG was the famous Roman doctor Claudius (Cla-
rissimus) Galen from Pergamon (129–200 AD).
Galen called the gland “conarium” because of its
external similarity with the pinecone or pinecone-like
top of the pine branch, and the Latin name corpus
pineale (from the Latin pinus–pine) is also due to this
similarity [8]. Galen was also one of the first to dis-
cover and document the accumulation of small-sized
particles in the PG, known as brain sand or calcified
concretions (corpora arenacea, acervuli) [8]. These
structures are still the most intriguing and interesting
morphological findings in the PG for the researchers.
During the Middle Ages, the stones that formed in the
ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY Vol. 9 No. 2
233
head were considered as the cause of human stupidity,
dementia, or madness (Fig. 1). We can only assume
that the extraction of “stupidity stones,” which was
carried out by charlatans, was the result of incorrectly
interpreted ancient Greek or Arabic manuscripts
describing surgical operations on the skull.
However, the degree of pineal calcification in peo-
ple with Alzheimer’s disease is higher than in healthy
people [70].
In addition to PG, corpora arenacea can also occur
in the arachnoid and pia mater, the habenular com-
missure, and the choroid plexus [102]. Today, brain
sand has been found in the PG in many mammals and
humans, as well as in birds [56, 82, 102]. The pineal
organs of fish, amphibians, and reptiles, however, do
not contain concrements [102].
The physiological significance of concretions is
still unknown. Assumptions are made about their
piezoelectric properties [19] and, probably, the associ-
ated moon-sensory function of the PG [4]. Attempts
to detect a link between the accumulation of concre-
tions and aging [40, 102], melatonin levels [62], or
neurological disorders [70, 89] give conflicting results.
This review contains information currently avail-
able on the composition, formation mechanisms, and
possible factors affecting the accumulation of calcifi-
cations in the epiphysis of animals, mainly mammals,
due to their greater study as compared with bird con-
crements.
CHEMICAL AND MINERAL COMPOSITION
OF CALCIFIED CONCRETIONS
It is known that the composition of concrements is
heterogeneous and includes inorganic and organic
components [11, 58, 60]. The first includes hydroxy-
apatite [3Ca3(PO4)2 · Ca(OH)2] [26], calcite CaCO3
[19], fluorite CaF2 [69], and others, while the second
includes glycosaminoglycans and their complexes
with proteins, PG hormones, membrane structures,
and the cytoplasmic matrix of pinealocytes [1, 11,
105]. There are data on the content in the concrements
of special, spindle-shaped cells with oval-shaped
nuclei, which are elongated along the long axis of the
cell; they probably have a neuroglial nature and are
astrocytes undergoing apoptosis [1]. Until now, the
question of whether the pineal concretions are formed
by a single mineral (calcite, hydroxyapatite, or other)
or whether there are simultaneously deposits of differ-
ent compositions has remained open to debate.
Chemical methods have shown the presence of a
large amount of Ca and P in deposits [26] (moreover,
the light layers contain a larger amount of Ca than the
dark ones [102]) and traces of S, Mg, N, Fe, Zn, Cu
[58]. Calcium is extremely important for PG function-
ing, since it is a regulator of the synthesis and secretion of
melatonin [76]. Calcium binding to N-acetyltransferase
leads to enzyme activation and, therefore, increases
2019
234 SERGINA et al.

(a) 5 Pm (b) 20 Pm
(c) (d)

x
z

100 Pm y 48 Pm

Fig. 2. Pineal calcified concretions of humans (a, b, c) [56] and the turkey (d) [82]. Images of calcifications were obtained with
light ((a) hematoxylin and eosin staining, (d) Mallory’s stain), transmission electron (b), and synchrotron X-ray (c) microscopy.

serotonin affinity [64]; this is the rate-limiting step in
melatonin synthesis. Along with this, calcium acts as a
noncompetitive acetyl-serotonin-methyltransferase
inhibitor [64]. In addition, pinealocytes are character-
ized by a high level of Ca metabolism, which is proba-
bly associated with the receptor and effector functions
of the membrane [102], and the Ca and P levels in the
epiphysis increase with age [78]. It is also noteworthy
that the PG is characterized by a high rate of phospho-
rus metabolism as compared with various structures of
the brain; it is three to four times higher than in the
pituitary and the choroid plexus [28, 104].
Histologically, pineal mammalian calcifications look
basophilic (blue/purple color in hematoxylin and eosin
staining), concentrically twisted structures (Fig. 2, 3). It
was previously believed that the von Kossa method is
suitable for the identification of brain sand, but, in fact, it
can only be used to detect phosphates [29, 83]. Pineal
stones are studied with histochemical methods (potas-
sium pyroantimonate [51], alizarin red S [30, 82]), elec-
tronic, transmission and scanning microscopy in combi-
nation with X-ray microanalysis (Fig. 2) [56].
However, as a rule, these limited studies are based
on the use of one or two methods of analysis, which
does not make it possible to obtain a complete descrip-
tion of the morphology and mineral and chemical
composition of the solid-phase PG formations.
STRUCTURE AND LOCALIZATION
OF PG CONCRETIONS
Acervuli in birds have a round shape with a diame-
ter from 300 μm to 2 mm and are localized singly or in
clusters consisting of three to five interconnected
grains of sand (see Fig. 2d) [82]. Two types of concre-
tions are detected in mammals: the first consists of
single stones with a concentric, laminar structure,
while the second is represented by a grape-, raspberry-
, or mulberry-like structure consisting of a large num-
ber of interconnected nodes (nodules, Fig. 2a–2c)
[39, 56, 90, 105]. Both types often coexist together
[56]; there are also grains of irregular shape.
Mammalian concretions reach a size of 2–3 μm,
forming conglomerates of up to 1 mm or more.

ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY Vol. 9 No. 2 2019

 TAXONOMIC AND ETHNICAL DISPERSION
(a)
10 Pm
(c)
10 Pm
Fig. 3. Calcified concretions of the arctic fox pineal gland. (a, c, d) Hematoxylin and eosin staining; (b) Masson-Goldner staining.
Our study on arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus, Carni-
vora, Mammalia) showed that most of the concretions
found in animal PGs have a concentric structure with
alternating light and dark-colored rings (in the stan-
dard hematoxylin and eosin staining method, Fig. 3a).
Whole concretions or their individual rings were
coloured pink and/or light green with Masson–Gold-
ner staining; some of the concrements contained black
rings (Fig. 3b). Some grains of sand were intensively
dark formations without distinguishable rings (Fig. 3c),
while others seemed to be hollow structures (Fig. 3d).
In mammals, concrements can be located both in
the pial capsule covering the gland and forming septae
(meningeal nodules) and inside the parenchyma,
mainly in the distal part of the epiphysis (Table 1) [30,
60, 64, 104, 105]. Differences in the concretion struc-
ture are noted depending on their localization [30].
The brain sand located on the gland periphery is rep-
resented by particles in the form of concentric ring for-
mations, while large conglomerates consisting of
smaller particles are found in the central part [56]. The
aggregation of the latter can occur according to the
type of element formation in the form of mulberry ber-
ries or “lamination,” when the aggregate is covered
with a common plate [56]. Figure 4 shows various
ways of concretion formation.
As for concretions in the epiphysis of birds, extrap-
ineal calcifications, i.e., those located in the choroid
plexus, are found only in geese [102]. These struc-
tures, like those in mammals, are characterized by a
pronounced laminar structure. Currently, turkey is the
only bird species in which concretions are found inside
ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY Vol. 9 No. 2 2019
235
(b)
10 Pm
(d)
10 Pm
the gland, and their formation is associated with the
mineralization of collagen fibers [82].
MECHANISMS
OF CONCRETION FORMATION
To date, there is no clear understanding of how and
why calcium concretions form, but there are some
assumptions concerning the possible mechanisms of
their formation. Among them are the deterioration of
Ca2+-dependent ATPase, structural changes in cal-
cium channels, or permanent depolarization of the
calcium pump, which lead to restricted calcium excre-
tion from the cell [60], and pinealocytes death or
degeneration, which entails a general decrease in PG
activity [51, 90].
Some researchers believe that concretions form at
the site of degraded pinealocytes [40, 62], while others
[72] associate brain sand formation with the func-
tional activity of mast cells located in the subcapsular
zone and around the blood vessels near the forming
crystals. Still others believe that both pinealocytes and
collagen fibers are involved in this process [60, 82,
105], while a fourth group believes that the specific
arachnoid cells play a key role in the formation of cal-
cium deposits in the pineal capsule and the protruding
septae [102, 104]. The latter mechanism is similar to
meningeal calcification and has been found in rats
[104] and pigs [64]. The theory and patterns of brain
sand formation are described in greater detail in the
review by E.E. Zvereva [2].
236 SERGINA et al.

Table 1. List of studied species for pineal gland calcification

The presence
Class Order Family Species/genus and localization Source
of calcifications
Aves Anseriformes Anatidae Goose Anser Brisson, 1760 + [102]
Ciconiiformes Ardeidae Heron Ardea L., 1758 + [94]
Psittaciformes Psittacidae Parrots + [87]
Galliformes Phasianidae Turkey Meleagris gallopavo L., 1758 + In the parenchyma [82]
of the proximal part
Sphenisci- Spheniscidae Magellan penguin Spheniscus – [20]
formes magellanicus Forster, 1781
Mammalia Rodentia Muridae Laboratory mouse Mus (Swiss Webster) – [73]
Rat Rattus Fischer-Waldheim, 1803 + In the gland capsule, [22, 39,
(Wistar, Sprague-Dawley) in the parenchyma 104]
of the dorsal part
of the organ, in the dis-
tal part of the pineal stalk
Mongolian gerbil Meriones + [32, 49,
unguiculatus Milne-Edwards, 1867 65, 75,
101, 106]
Caviidae Yellow toothed cavy Galea spixii, – [31]
Wagler, 1831
The guinea pig Pirbright White + In the subcapsular [53]
Cavia porcellus L., 1758 space
Dasyproctidae Brazilian Agouti Dasyprocta – [31]
leporine L., 1758
Cricetidae Cotton rat + [54]
Sigmodon hispidus Say et Ord, 1825
Chiroptera Vespertilionidae Lesser Mouse-eared bat Myotis + In the capsule [103]
blythi Tomes, 1857 of the dorsal gland
Phyllostomidae Tailed tailless bat + [23]
Anoura caudifer Geoffroy, 1818
Rhinopomati- Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari + [24]
dae Wroughton, 1912
Artiodactyla Bovidae Goat Capra hircus L., 1758 + [46]
Sheep Ovis aries L., 1758 + [27, 66]
Bull Bos taurus taurus L., 1758 + [55, 68]
Asiatic buffalo Bubalus + [13]
arnee Kerr, 1792
Camelidae Arabian camel + In the parenchyma [13, 93]
Camelus dromedarius L., 1758 of the gland
Suidae Pig Sus crofa domesticus L., 1758 + In capsule and septae [64]
– [7]

ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY Vol. 9 No. 2 2019

 TAXONOMIC AND ETHNICAL DISPERSION 237

Table 1. (Contd.)
The presence
Class Order Family Species/genus and localization Source
of calcifications
Carnivora Canidae Dog Canis lupus familiaris – [47]
Fox Vulpes vulpes L., 1758 – [9]
Raccoon dog Nyctereutes + In a gland capsule [9]
procyonoides Gray, 1834
Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus L., 1758 + In the parenchyma [9, 30]
of the distal part of the
organ, in the capsule
and in the septae
Procyonidae Crab-eating raccoon Procyon – [38]
cancrivorus Cuvier, 1798
Coati Nasua nasua L., 1766 + In the distal part [43]
of the body
Mustelidae Mink Mustela vison Schreber, 1777 + In the parenchyma, [102]
in the capsule of the
ventral part of the gland
Perissodactyla Equidae Horse Equus L., 1880 + [34]
– [61]
Donkey Equus asinus L., 1758 + [41]
Primates Cercopithecidae Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta + [68]
Zimmermann, 1780
Cebidae Tufted capuchin + [21]
Sapajus apella L., 1758

FACTORS AFFECTING THE FORMATION Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus Milne-

OF CORPORA ARENACEAE
Analysis of the literature data suggests that the
mineralization process of the PG may be species-spe-
cific (Table 1). For example, it is believed that the
Edwards, 1867, Rodentia) is a species “predisposed”
to the formation of pineal nodules [32, 102], and,
therefore, the animals at one time were a favorite
object of such research. Some authors do not note the
presence of calcifications in certain species of animals,

Low density Structure similar to the structure of mulberry berries

of structure formation

Aggregated structure
Core Concentric
ring structure

High density Plate

layering
of structure
formation

Fig. 4. Possible ways of the formation of calcified concretions (according to [56]). The concentric ring structure formed from one
“core” or hotbed under conditions of a low density of the formation of such particles “accumulates” additional layers, becoming
similar to mulberry berries, whereas it aggregates into a single conglomerate when several hot spots occur.

ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY Vol. 9 No. 2 2019

238 SERGINA et al.
which may be associated not only with their absence
but also with the sensitivity of research methods, small
sample size, and other circumstances. To date, pineal
nodules have been found in four species of birds and 21
species of mammals (Table 1). In many cases, the
number of nodules and/or the degree of gland calcifi-
cation positively correlates with the age of the study
object. The generally accepted point of view is the age-
dependent nature of the accumulation of pineal cal-
cium deposits [15, 30, 40, 90].
There are also several studies showing that the
decrease in melatonin synthesis observed with age
correlates with an increase in Ca2+ deposits [62, 90],
which is most likely associated with a decrease in the
functioning of PG β-adrenergic receptors [50].
Despite this, some researchers still follow the point of
view concerning the age-independent nature of PG
calcification [72, 97].
In the Mongolian gerbil, it was shown that exoge-
nous melatonin [101], bilateral upper cervical gangli-
onectomy at an early age [32], and also sympathetic
denervation of the PG [86] inhibited concretion for-
mation, while psychosocial and acute immobilization
stress [49, 75] and a short photoperiod [65] led to an
increase in the degree of gland calcification. Based on
the results of these studies, it is logical to assume that
the occurrence of concretions is directly related to the
PG functional activity [3, 32, 49, 65, 75, 86, 101]. Infor-
mation concerning the influence of the PG functional
activity on brain-sand formation is rare and fragmen-
tary. It was revealed that an increase in the number and
volume of calcium-containing secretory vacuoles in
animal pinealocytes is observed at various endocrine
shifts: the hibernation and anestrous phase in the gar-
den dormouse (Eliomys quercinus L., 1766, Rodentia)
[88], the proestrus phase in the mole (Talpa europaea
L., 1758, Insectivora) [80], and at the beginning of the
warm period or sexual rest in the hedgehog (Erinaceus
europaeus L., 1758, Insectivora) [81] and Mongolian
gerbil [106]. In sheep, the degree of calcification is sig-
nificantly higher in individuals in the postpuberty
period than in immature and sexually mature animals
[27]. According to R.A. Zimmerman et al. [111], the
number of concretions in humans increases signifi-
cantly during puberty due to functional load on the
PG. It is assumed that the number of deposits may
vary during life, i.e., calcifications are likely to have a
dynamic nature [32].
Studies in humans show that the degree of calcifi-
cation varies in different decades of life and varies
among nations and populations living in different time
zones (Table 2) [14, 25, 33, 36, 42, 74, 77]. This is
probably due to changes in the functional activity of
the organ under the influence of the light regime in a
particular region. The lowest frequency of pineal con-
cretions was recorded for residents of Gambia (1.3%)
[16], Nigeria (5%) [36], and Japan (9.9%) [33]. How-
ever, among Ugandans, this indicator reaches 43%
ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY
[77]. A study by Turkish scientists [99] showed that the
degree of gland calcification significantly increases
with age, especially in men, but the index decreases
with height above mean sea level and intensity of sun-
light exposure in the region of residence.
It is possible that skin pigmentation is also associ-
ated with epiphysis functioning: calcifications are
found in 19.2% of Indians, 15.6% of indigenous Fiji-
ans living in Fiji [74], and 9.8% of dark-skinned peo-
ple and 16% of fair-skinned people living in the
United States [14]. However, K.-J. Fan [42] recorded
a quite high level of concretion occurrence in dark-
skinned people in America—70%.
There is convincing evidence of the regulatory role
of the epiphysis in the functioning of the human
reproductive system [79]; therefore, gender is another
factor affecting the gland calcification. In most cases,
it is observed more often in men (Table 2). However,
to date, it is not known for certain how these or other
factors influence brain-sand formation, and the rea-
son for the differences in the occurrence of concre-
tions between large and small races, as well as between
different nations and ethnic groups, remains unclear.
The available data on PG calcification leads to the
conclusion that there is most likely a mechanism of
concrement formation that depends on many factors
[102]. In addition, the nature and crystallinity of the
inorganic tissue of pineal concretions suggest that the
corpora arenacea is a regulated and physiological,
rather than a pathological, type of organ petrification
[26, 72, 96].
Compared to other biomineralization examples,
enamels and dentin, pineal nodules are close to the
latter in chemical composition and crystallographic
properties, but they differ greatly in the amount of free
phosphorus, which is absent in nodules but is abun-
dant in dentine [26]. Some researchers believe that PG
calcification is similar to bone formation [96]. The
existence of conflicting data on the connection of
between brain-sand formation with changes in the PG
functional activity during endocrine rearrangements
and in the aging process of the organism raises the
question of pineal deposit research in a series of rele-
vant and necessary in-depth studies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their deep gratitude to Ph.D. E.A. Khizh-
kin for his help with the preparation of the illustrative mate-
rial, to Alexandra Elbakyan, and to the reviewers of the
journal, for careful consideration of the article and the most
valuable comments and suggestions, which were taken into
account during editing.
Vol. 9 No. 2 2019
 TAXONOMIC AND ETHNICAL DISPERSION 239

Table 2. Occurrence of pineal concretions in residents of different countries

Dependence
Age,
Country Occurrence on age/gender (for whom Source
years old
it is more common)
Russia, Moscow 35–94 – – [10]
Russia, Komi Republic 19–78 – – [3, 5]
Russia, Far East 7–57 – +/ [1]
United States 0–9 5%—3.2–8.9 years old – [107]
3 months–65 – +/ [91]
3–40+ 2%—3–12 years old; 46%—13–40 years old; +/ [108]
69%—40+ years old;
fair-skinned
– General 12.2%; 16% fair-skinned, 9.8% +/– [14]
dark-skinned
15–90 – –/ [97]
– 70% dark-skinned +/ [42]
Ecuador 62–78 55% –/– [37]
Western countries – 66%—by the age of 50 +/ [57]
Ethiopia – 72% +/+ men [15]
Nigeria Up to 70 5% – [36]
Gambia – 1.3% +/ [16]
Uganda 10+ 43% +/+ men [77]
Cameroon 0–89 46.2% over 9 years old +/+ men [100]
New Zealand Children General 20%; under 6 years old—1% +/ [40]
under 16 (the youngest–3 years old);
under 10 years old—8%; 8–14 years old—39%
Japan Adults 9.9% – [33]
20–79 – +/+ men [63]
Thailand 33–91 19.5% – [98]
Poland Fetuses, – – [72]
children
Turkey 4–97 68.5% +/+ men [99]
15–85 71.6% +/+ men [109]
Saudi Arabia 2–87 64.8% +/+ women [17]
Pakistan 0–50+ 0%—in the first decade; 1.5%—in the second; +/ [25]
10.5%—in the third; 30%—in the fourth;
does not change further
India 3 months–91 16.7% +/ [59, 92]
Fiji – + (19.2% in Indians; 15.6% in Fijians) – [74]
Iran 0–70+ 18.29% (comparison with the United States 55%) – [12]
15–85 71% +/ [35]

ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY Vol. 9 No. 2 2019

240 SERGINA et al.
FUNDING
The study was carried out under state order (project
no. 0218-2019-0073) and co-financed by the Russian
Foundation for Basic Research, grant no. 18-34-00035.
COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS
The authors declare that they have no conf lict of in-
terest. This article does not contain any studies involving
animals or human participants performed by any of the au-
thors.
REFERENCES
1. Gul’kov, A.N., Reva, I.V., Reva, G.V., et al., Corpora
arenacea of the epiphysis with cerebral ischemia, Fun-
dam. Issled., 2014, vol. 4, no. 10, pp. 654–659.
2. Zvereva, E.E., Theory and formation of corpora arena-
cea in the pineal gland: a literature review, Krymsk. Zh.
Eksp. Klin. Med., 2016, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 32–37.
3. Ivanov, S.V., Age morphology of the human epiphysis:
study in vivo, Usp. Gerontol., 2007, vol. 20, no. 2,
pp. 60–65.
4. Ivanov, S.V. and Kostoglodov, Yu.K., Morphological
and chronoepidemiological basis for lunasensory
pineal gland function in the context of the redumer
hypothesis of aging, Adv. Gerontol., 2011, vol. 1, no. 3,
pp. 220–222.
5. Karmanova, L.V., Age-related morphological features
of the pineal gland of the inhabitants of Syktyvkar city
(Komi Republic), Zdorov’e Chel. Severe, 2009, no. 2,
pp. 24–25.
6. Kravchuk, E.I. and Kravchuk, V.I., Morfometrich-
eskaya vozrastnaya transformatsiya shishkovidnogo tela
cheloveka (Morphometric Age-Related Transforma-
tion of the Human Pineal Gland), Tver, 1956.
7. Kuzemtseva, L.V., Morphology of the pineal gland in
pigs during ontogenesis and in post-vaccination stress,
Cand. Sci. (Vet.) Dissertation, Izhevsk: Ural. Gos. S-kh.
Akad., 2004.
8. Paskalev, D., Radoinova, D., and Galunska, B., Doc-
tor Zakharina Dimitrova (1873–1940): a pioneer in
the study of the epiphysis microstructure, Nefrologiya,
2011, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 115–118.
9. Sergina, S.N., Ilyukha, V.A., Uzenbaeva, L.B., et al.,
Morphofunctional activity of the pineal gland in mem-
bers of the Canidae family depending on the season,
Materialy XXIII s”ezda Fiziologicheskogo obshchestva
im. I.P. Pavlova (Proc. XXIII Congr. of Pavlov Physio-
logical Society), Voronezh: Istoki, 2017, pp. 2473–
2475.
10. Fokin, E.I., Morphology of human pineal gland in late
postnatal ontogenesis, Alzheimer’s disease, and
schizophrenia, Cand. Sci. (Med.) Dissertation, Mos-
cow, 2008.
11. Khelimskii, A.M., The histophysiology of colloid and
corpora arenacea of the pineal gland: a histochemical
study, Probl. Endokrinol., 1969, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 50–
54.
ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY
12. Abbassioun, K., Aarabi, B., and Zarabi, M., A com-
parative study of physiologic intracranial calcifica-
tions, Pahlavi Med. J., 1978, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 152–166.
13. Abou-Easa, K., Tousson, E., and Abd-El-Gawad, M.,
Involution signs during the postnatal life in the pineal
tissue of buffalo and camel, Nat. Sci., 2009, vol. 7,
no. 9, pp. 35–44.
14. Adeloye, A. and Felson, B., Incidence of normal
pineal gland calcification in skull roentgenograms of
black and white Americans, Am. J. Rentgenol., 1974,
vol. 122, no. 3, pp. 503–507.
15. Admassie, D. and Mekonnen, A., Incidence of normal
pineal and choroids plexus calcification on Brain CT
(computerized tomography) at Tikur Anbessa Teach-
ing Hospital Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Ethiop. Med. J.,
2009, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 55–60.
16. Akano, A. and Bickler, S.W., Pineal gland calcifica-
tion in sub-Saharan Africa, Clin. Radiol., 2003, vol. 58,
no. 4, pp. 336–337.
17. Aljarba, N. and Abdulrahman, A.A., Pineal gland cal-
cification within Saudi Arabian populations, J. Anat.
Soc. India, 2017, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 43–47.
18. Arendt, J., Melatonin and the pineal gland: influence
on mammalian seasonal and circadian physiology,
Rev. Reprod., 1998, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 13–22.
19. Baconnier, S. and Lang, S.B., Calcite microcrystals in
the pineal gland of the human brain: Second harmonic
generators and possible piezoelectric transducers,
IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., 2004, vol. 11, no. 2,
pp. 203–209.
20. Barcelos, R., Filadelpho, A., Baroni, S., and Graça, W.,
The morphology of the pineal gland of the Magellanic
penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus Forster, 1781), J.
Morphol., 2015, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 149–156.
21. Barros, R.A.C., Anatomia macroscópica e
microscópica da glândula pineal do macaco Cebus
apella, PhD Thesis, São Paulo: Univ. de São Paulo,
2006.
22. Becker, U.G. and Vollrath, L., 24-Hour-variation of
pineal gland volume, pinealocyte nuclear volume and
mitotic activity in male Sprague-Dawley rats, J. Neural
Transm., 1983, vol. 56, nos. 2–3, pp. 211–221.
23. Bhatnagar, K.P. and Hoffman, R.A., Calcareous con-
cretions in the pineal gland of the long-tongued bat,
Anoura caudifer, Proc. X Int. Bat Research Conf., Bos-
ton, 1995.
24. Bhatnagar, S. and Lall, S.B., Paradigm shifts in the
histochemical profile of enzymes in the pineal gland of
Rhinopoma kinneari Wroughton (Microchiroptera:
Mammalia), Ann. Neurosci., 2010, vol. 15, no. 1,
pp. 11–16.
25. Bhatti, I.H. and Khan, A., Pineal calcification, J. Pak.
Med. Assoc., 1977, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 310–312.
26. Bocchi, G. and Valdre, G., Physical, chemical, and
mineralogical characterization of carbonate-hydroxy-
apatite concretions of the human pineal gland, J.
Inorg. Biochem., 1993, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 209–220.
27. Bolat, D., Kürüm, A., and Canpolat, S., Morphology
and quantification of sheep pineal glands at pre-
pubertal, pubertal and post-pubertal periods, Anat.
Histol. Embryol., 2018, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 338–345.
Vol. 9 No. 2 2019
 TAXONOMIC AND ETHNICAL DISPERSION
28. Bonewald, L.F., Harris, S.E., Rosser, J., et al., The
turnover of phosphate in the pineal body compared
with that in other parts of the brain, Biochem. J., 1947, 44.
vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 398–403.
29. Boskey, A., Von Kossa staining alone is not sufficient
to confirm that mineralization in vitro represents bone 45.
formation, Calcified Tissue Int., 2003, vol. 72, no. 5,
pp. 537–547.
30. Bulc, M., Lewczuk, B., Prusik, M., et al., Calcium
concrements in the pineal gland of the Arctic fox (Vul- 46.
pes lagopus) and their relationship to pinealocytes, glial
cells and type I and III collagen fibers, Pol. J. Vet. Sci.,
2010, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 269–278.
31. Câmara, F.V., Lopes, I.R., de Oliveira, G.B., et al.,
The morphology of the pineal gland of the yellow 47.
toothed cavy (Galea spixii Wagler, 1831) and red-
rumped agouti (Dasyprocta leporine L., 1758), Microsc.
Res. Tech., 2015, vol. 78, no. 8, pp. 660–666. 48.
32. Champney, T.H., Joshi, B.N., Vaughan, M.K., and
Reiter, R.J., Superior cervical ganglionectomy results
in the loss of pineal concretions in the adult male gerbil
(Meriones unguiculatus), Anat. Rec., 1985, vol. 211,
no. 4, pp. 465–468. 49.
33. Chiba, M. and Yamada, M., About the calcification of
the pineal gland in the Japanese, Psychol. Clin. Neuro-
sci., 1948, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 301–303.
34. Cozzi, B., Cell types in the pineal gland of the horse: 50.
an ultrastructural and immunocytochemical study,
Anat. Rec., 1986, vol. 216, no. 2, pp. 165–174.
35. Daghighi, M.H., Rezaei, V., Zarrintan, S., and Pour-
fathi, H., Intracranial physiological calcifications in 51.
adults on computed tomography in Tabriz, Iran, Folia
Morphol., 2007, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 115–119.
36. Daramola, G.F. and Olowu, A.O., Physiological and 52.
radiological implications of a low incidence of pineal
calcification in Nigeria, Neuroendocrinologia, 1972,
vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 41–57.
53.
37. Del Brutto, O.H., Mera, R.M., Lama, J., et al., Pineal
gland calcification is not associated with sleep-related
symptoms. A population-based study in community-
dwelling elders living in Atahualpa (rural coastal Ecua-
dor), Sleep Med., 2014, vol. 15, no. 11, pp. 1426–1427. 54.
38. De Oliveira Marques, L., De Carvalho, A.F.,
Mançanares, A.C.F., and Mançanares, C.A.F.,
Estudo morfológico da glândula pineal de Procyon
cancrivorus (Cuvier, 1798) (mão-pelada), Biotemas, 55.
2010, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 163–171.
39. Diehl, B.J.M., Time-related changes in size of nuclei
of pinealocytes in rats, Cell Tissue Res., 1981, vol. 218,
pp. 427–438. 56.
40. Doyle, A.J. and Anderson, G.D., Physiologic calcifi-
cation of the pineal gland in children on computed
tomography: prevalence, observer reliability and asso- 57.
ciation with choroid plexus calcification, Acad.
Radiol., 2006, vol. 13, no. 7, pp. 822–826.
41. Ebada, S., Morphological and immunohistochemical 58.
studies on the pineal gland of the donkey (Equus asi-
nus), J. Vet. Anat., 2012, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 47–74.
42. Fan, K.J., Pineal calcification among black patients, J.
Natl. Med. Assoc., 1983, vol. 75, no. 8, pp. 765–769. 59.
43. Favaron, P.O., Mançanares, C.A.F., De Carvalho, A.F.,
et al., Gross and microscopic anatomy of the pineal
ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY Vol. 9 No. 2 2019
241
gland in Nasua nasua–coati (L., 1766), Anat. Histol.
Embryol., 2008, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 464–468.
Fındιklι, E., Inci, M.F., Gökçe, M., et al., Pineal
gland volume in schizophrenia and mood disorders,
Psychiatr. Danubina, 2015, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 150–158.
Fiske, V.M., Bryant, G.K., and Putnam, J., Effect of
light on the weight of the pineal in the rat, Endocrinol-
ogy, 1960, vol. 66, pp. 489–491.
Ghosh, S. and Haldar, C., Histology and immunohis-
tochemical localization of different hormone receptors
(MT1, MT2, AR, GR, ERα) in various organs (spleen,
thymus, ovary, uterus and testes) of Indian goat C. hir-
cus, Int. J. Res. Stud. Biosci., 2015, vol. 3, pp. 50–62.
Gomes, L.A., Estudo morfológico da glâdula pineal
no cão, PhD Thesis, São Paulo: Univ. de São Paulo,
2003.
Grosshans, M., Vollmert, C., Vollstaedt-Klein, S.,
et al., The association of pineal gland volume and body
mass in obese and normal weight individuals: a pilot
study, Psychiatr. Danubina, 2006, vol. 28, no. 3,
pp. 220–224.
Heinzeller, T., Impact of psychosocial stress on pineal
structure of male gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus,
Cricetidae), J. Pineal Res., 1985, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 145–
159.
Henden, T., Stokkan, K.A., Reiter, R.J., et al., Age-
associated reduction in pineal beta-adrenergic recep-
tor density is prevented by life-long food restriction in
rats, Neurosignals, 1992, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 34–39.
Humbert, W. and Pévet, P., Permeability of the pineal
gland of the rat to lanthanum: significance of dark
pinealocytes, J. Pineal Res., 1992, vol. 12, pp. 84–88.
Hoffman, R.A. and Reiter, R.J., Pineal gland: influ-
ence on gonads of male hamsters, Science, 1965,
vol. 148, pp. 1609–1611.
Jung, D. and Vollrath, L., Structural dissimilarities in
different regions of the pineal gland of Pirbright white
guinea-pigs, J. Neural Transm., 1982, vol. 54, nos. 1–
2, pp. 117–128.
Karasek, M., Smith, N.K., King, T.S., et al., Inclusion
bodies in pinealocytes of the cotton rat (Sigmodon his-
pidus), Cell Tissue Res., 1983, vol. 232, no. 2, pp. 413–
420.
Kawamura, N., Ishibashi, T., and Miyamoto, H.,
Scanning electron microscopy of brain sand in the
bovine pineal gland, Jpn. J. Zootech. Sci., 1986, vol. 57,
no. 12, pp. 1043–1045.
Kim, J., Kim, H.W., Chang, S., et al., Growth patterns
for acervuli in human pineal gland, Sci. Rep., 2012,
vol. 2, p. 984.
Kitay, J.I. and Altschule, M.D., The Pineal Gland:
A Review of the Physiologic Literature, Cambridge, MA:
Harvard Univ. Press, 1954.
Kodaka, T., Mori, R., Debari, K., and Yamada, M.,
Scanning electron microscopy and electron probe
microanalysis studies of human pineal concretions,
Microscopy, 1994, vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 307–317.
Kohli, N., Rastogi, H., Bhadury, S., and Tandon, V.K.,
Computed tomographic evaluation of pineal calcifica-
tion, Indian J. Med. Res., 1992, vol. 96, pp. 139–142.
242 SERGINA et al.
60. Krstić, R., A combined scanning and transmission
electron microscopic study and electron probe micro-
analysis of human pineal acervuli, Cell Tissue Res.,
1976, vol. 174, no. 1, pp. 129–137.
61. Kumar, P., Timoney, J.F., and Nagpal, S., Histologi-
cal studies on the pineal gland of the horse, Haryana
Vet., 2007, vol. 46, pp. 89–91.
62. Kunz, D., Schmitz, S., Mahlberg, R., et al., A new
concept for melatonin deficit: on pineal calcification
and melatonin excretion, Neuropsychopharmacology,
1999, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 765–772.
63. Kwak, R., Takeuchi, F., Ito, S., and Kadoya, S., Intra-
cranial physiological calcification on computed
tomography (Part 1): Calcification of the pineal
region, No Shinkei Geka, 1988, vol. 40, no. 6, pp. 569–
574.
64. Lewczuk, B., Przybylska, B., and Wyrzykowski, Z.,
Distribution of calcified concretions and calcium ions
in the pig pineal gland, Folia Histochem. Cytobiol.,
1994, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 243–249.
65. Lewinski, A., Vaughan, M.K., and Champney, T.H.,
Darkexposure increases the number of pineal concre-
tions in male gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus), IRCS
Med. Sci., 1983, vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 977–978.
66. Lima, E., Santana, M., Castro, M.B., et al., Micro-
structure and morphoquantitative study of pineal
gland in Santa Ines sheep, Ars Vet., 2011, vol. 27, no. 3,
pp. 186–191.
67. Luchetti, F., Canonico, B., Betti, M., et al., Melatonin
signaling and cell protection function, FASEB J., 2010,
vol. 24, no. 10, pp. 3603–3624.
68. Lukaszyk, A. and Reiter, R.J., Histophysiological evi-
dence for the secretion of polypeptides by the pineal
gland, Am. J. Anat., 1975, vol. 143, no. 4, pp. 451–464.
69. Luke, J., Fluoride deposition in the aged human pineal
gland, Caries Res., 2001, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 125–128.
70. Mahlberg, R., Kienast, T., Hädel, S., et al., Degree of
pineal calcification (DOC) is associated with poly-
somnographic sleep measures in primary insomnia
patients, Sleep Med., 2009, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 439–445.
71. Majidinia, M., Sadeghpour, A., Mehrzadi, S., et al.,
Melatonin: a pleiotropic molecule that modulates
DNA damage response and repair pathways, J. Pineal
Res., 2017, vol. 63, no. 1, p. e12416.
72. Maślińska, D., Laure-Kamionowska, M., Derę-
gowski, K., and Maśliński, S., Association of mast cells
with calcification in the human pineal gland, Folia
Neuropathol., 2010, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 276–282.
73. Matsunaga, M.M., Crunfli, F., Fernandens, G.M.,
et al., Morphologic analysis of mice’s pineal gland, J.
Morphol. Sci., 2011, vol. 28, pp. 157–160.
74. McKay, R.T., Pineal calcification in Indians and Fiji-
ans, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 1973, vol. 67,
no. 2, pp. 214–216.
75. Milin, J., Stress-reactive response of the gerbil pineal
gland: concretion genesis, Gen. Comp. Endocrinol.,
1998, vol. 110, no. 3, pp. 237–251.
76. Morton, D.J. and Reiter, R.J., Involvement of calcium
in pineal gland function, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.,
1991, vol. 197, no. 4, pp. 378–383.
ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY
77. Mugondi, S.G. and Poltera, A.A., Pineal gland calci-
fication (PGC) in Ugandans. A radiological study of
200 isolated pineal glands, Br. J. Radiol., 1976, vol. 49,
no. 583, pp. 594–599.
78. Ongkana, N., Zhao, X.Z., Tohno, S., et al., High
accumulation of calcium and phosphorus in the pineal
bodies with aging, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 2007,
vol. 119, no. 2, pp. 120–127.
79. Oliveira, P.F., Sousa, M., Monteiro, M.P., and
Alves, M.G., Pineal gland and regulatory function, in
Encyclopedia of Reproduction, Amsterdam: Elsevier,
2018.
80. Pévet, P., The pineal gland of the mole (Talpa euro-
paea L.), Cell Tissue Res., 1977, vol. 182, no. 2,
pp. 215–219.
81. Pévet, P., Vacuolated pinealocytes in the hedgehog
(Erinaceus europaeus L.) and the mole (Talpa euro-
paea L.), Cell Tissue Res., 1975, vol. 159, no. 3,
pp. 303–309.
82. Przybylska-Gornowicz, B., Lewczuk, B., Prusik, M.,
and Bulc, M., Pineal concretions in turkey (Meleagris
gallapavo) as a result of collagen mediated calcifica-
tion, Histol. Histopathol., 2009, vol. 24, pp. 407–415.
83. Puchtler, H. and Meloan, S.N., Demonstration of
phosphates in calcium deposits: a modification of von
Kossa’s reaction, Histochemistry, 1978, vol. 56, nos. 3–
4, pp. 177–185.
84. Ralph, C.L., The pineal gland and geographical distri-
bution of animals, Int. J. Biometeorol., 1975, vol. 19,
no. 4, pp. 289–303.
85. Rath, M.F., Coon, S.L., Amaral, F.G., et al., Mela-
tonin synthesis: acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase
(ASMT) is strongly expressed in a subpopulation of
pinealocytes in the male rat pineal gland, Endocrinol-
ogy, 2016, vol. 157, no. 5, pp. 2028–2040.
86. Reiter, R.J., Welsh, M.G., and Vaughan, M.K., Age-
related changes in the intact and sympathetically
denervated gerbil pineal gland, Am. J. Anat., 1976,
vol. 146, no. 4, pp. 427–432.
87. Renzoni, A. and Watters, P.A., Comparative observa-
tions on the pineal body of some Australian parrots,
Aust. J. Zool., 1972, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 1–15.
88. Roux, M., Richoux, J.P., and Cordonnier, J.L., Influ-
ence of the photoperiod on the ultrastructure of the
pineal gland before and during the seasonal genital
cycle in the female garden dormouse (Eliomys querci-
nus L.), J. Neural Transm., 1977, vol. 41, nos. 2–3,
pp. 209–223.
89. Sandyk, R., Pineal and habenula calcification in
schizophrenia, Int. J. Neurosci., 1992, vol. 67, nos. 1–
4, pp. 19–30.
90. Schmid, H.A., Decreased melatonin biosynthesis, cal-
cium flux, pineal gland calcification and aging: a
hypothetical framework, Gerontology, 1993, vol. 39,
no. 4, pp. 189–199.
91. Schmid, H.A., Requintina, P. J., Oxenkrug, G. F., and
Sturner, W., Calcium, calcification, and melatonin
biosynthesis in the human pineal gland: a postmortem
study into age-related factors, J. Pineal Res., 1994,
vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 178–183.
92. Singh, R., Ghosh, S., Joshi, A., and Haldar, C.,
Human pineal gland: Histomorphological study in dif-
Vol. 9 No. 2 2019
 TAXONOMIC AND ETHNICAL DISPERSION
ferent age groups and different causes of death, J. Anat.
Soc. India, 2014, vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 98–102.
93. So, N., Ismail, H.I., and Osman, D.I., Morphology of
the pineal gland of the one humped camel (Camelus
dromedaries), J. Vet. Med. Anim. Prod., 2013, vol. 3, no. 2.
94. Stammer, A., Untersuchung über die Struktur und die
Innervation der Epiphyse bei Vögeln, Acta Biol. (Sze-
ged), 1961, vol. 7, pp. 65–75.
95. Stehle, J.H., Saade, A., Rawashdeh, O., et al., A sur-
vey of molecular details in the human pineal gland in
the light of phylogeny, structure, function and chrono-
biological diseases, J. Pineal Res., 2011, vol. 51, no. 1,
pp. 17–43.
96. Tan, D.X., Xu, B., Zhou, X., and Reiter, R.J., Pineal
calcification, melatonin production, aging, associated
health consequences and rejuvenation of the pineal
gland, Molecules, 2018, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 301–332.
97. Tapp, E. and Huxley, M., The histological appearance
of the human pineal gland from puberty to old age, J.
Pathol., 1972, vol. 108, no. 2, pp. 137–144.
98. Tharnpanich, T., Johns, J., Subongkot, S., et al.,
Association between high pineal fluoride content and
pineal calcification in a low fluoride area, Fluoride,
2016, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 472–484.
99. Turgut, A.T., Karakaş, H.M., Özsunar, Y., et al., Age-
related changes in the incidence of pineal gland calci-
fication in Turkey: a prospective multicenter CT study,
Pathophysiology, 2008, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 41–48.
100. Uduma, F.U., Fokam, P., and Motah, M., Incidence
of physiological pineal gland and choroid plexus calci-
fications in craniocerebral computed tomograms in
Douala, Cameroon, Global J. Med. Res., 2011, vol. 11,
no. 1.
101. Vaughan, M.K., Spanel-Borowski, K., Karasek, M.,
et al., Action of subcutaneous implants or injections of
melatonin on reproductive and metabolic variables
and pineal concretions in male gerbils (Meriones
unguiculatus), Biomed. Res., 1983, vol. 4, no. 3,
pp. 329–336.
ADVANCES IN GERONTOLOGY Vol. 9 No. 2 2019
View publication stats
243
102. Vígh, B., Szél, A., Debreceni, K., et al., Comparative
histology of pineal calcification, Histol. Histopathol.,
1998, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 851–870.
103. Vígh, B., Vigh-Teichmann, I., and Aros, B., Pineal
corpora arenacea produced by arachnoid cells in the
bat Myotis blythi oxygnathus, Z. Mikrosk.-Anat.
Forsch., 1989, vol. 103, no. 1, pp. 36–45.
104. Vígh, B., Vigh-Teichmann, I., Heinzeller, T., and Tut-
ter, I., Meningeal calcification of the rat pineal organ,
Histochemistry, 1989, vol. 91, no. 2, pp. 161–168.
105. Welsh, M.G., Pineal calcification: structural and
functional aspects, Pineal Res. Rev., 1985, vol. 3,
pp. 41–68.
106. Welsh, M.G. and Reiter, R.J., The pineal gland of the
gerbil, Meriones unguiculatus, Cell Tissue Res., 1978,
vol. 193, no. 2, pp. 323–336.
107. Whitehead, M.T., Oh, C., Raju, A., and Choudhri, A.F.,
Physiologic pineal region, choroid plexus, and dural
calcifications in the first decade of life, Am. J. Neu-
roradiol., 2015, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 575–580.
108. Wurtman, R.J., Axelrod, J., and Barchas, J.D., Age
and enzyme activity in the human pineal, J. Clin.
Endocrinol. Metab., 1964, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 299–301.
109. Yalcin, A., Ceylan, M., Bayraktutan, O.F., et al., Age
and gender related prevalence of intracranial calcifica-
tions in CT imaging; data from 12,000 healthy sub-
jects, J. Chem. Neuroanat., 2016, vol. 78, pp. 20–24.
110. Zhang, L., Guo, H.L., Zhang, H.Q., et al., Melatonin
prevents sleep deprivation-associated anxiety-like
behavior in rats: role of oxidative stress and balance
between GABAergic and glutamatergic transmission,
Am. J. Transl. Res., 2017, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 22–31.
111. Zimmerman, R.A. and Bilaniuk, L.T., Age-related
incidence of pineal calcification detected by computed
tomography, Radiology, 1982, vol. 142, no. 3, pp. 659–
662.
112. Cutting the stone. https://cameralabs.org/8630-izv-
lechenie-kamnya-bezumiya. Accessed October 5,
2018.
Translated by P. Kuchina