BiOxidrop: Intravenous Oxygenous Delivery for Hypoxia via Oxygen and Bicarbonate Microcapsule 

Injections 

   
 BiOxidrop: Intravenous Oxygenous Delivery for Hypoxia via Oxygen and Bicarbonate 

Microcapsule Injections 

ABSTRACT 

Hypoxia is a life-threatening complication that results from insufficient oxygen supply to body 

tissues; it is caused by conditions like carbon monoxide poisoning and brain injury. A constant state of 

blood oxygenation is crucial because lack of blood flow can cause irreversible tissue damage. Current 

methods to treat hypoxia depend on open airways and cannot oxygenate blood via injection. To 

deliver oxygen to deoxygenated red blood cells, we propose BiOxidrop, a microcapsule composed of a 

core of concentrated oxygen gas and bicarbonate, surrounded by a phospholipid shell, which will 

dissolve upon contact with the red blood cell. BiOxidrop also has lipo-polymers for stability, pores for 

Plasma Lyte A release, and antibodies for hypoxia biomarker recognition. With the advent of 

breakthroughs, such as the discovery of an ideal biomarker and the optimization of the oxygen to 

bicarbonate ratio, BiOxidrop could become a revolutionary technology that quickly and effectively 

treats hypoxia. 

   
 BiOxidrop: Intravenous Oxygenous Delivery for Hypoxia via Oxygen and Bicarbonate 

Microcapsule Injections 

DESCRIPTION 

Present Technology  

Hypoxia occurs when there is insufficient oxygen supply to tissues. This condition is caused 

by any event that severely limits blood flow, including drowning, strangling, choking, suffocation, 

cardiac arrest, head trauma, carbon monoxide poisoning, and anesthesia complications.1 Hypoxia can 

deteriorate into brain hypoxia, a condition in which the brain is deprived of oxygen. Depletion of 

blood in the brain is life-threatening because the brain needs a constant supply of oxygen--the brain 

fully utilizes 25 percent of the body’s total oxygen supply.2 Because oxygen is necessary for cellular 

respiration, in which brain cells metabolize glucose into a viable energy source, interruption of oxygen 

supply can disturb functioning of brain cells. In as little as five minutes, brain cells can begin dying, 

and over a prolonged period of time, hypoxia can cause comas, seizures, and even brain death. The 

longer the brain is deprived of oxygen, the more likely brain hypoxia is to cause brain damage. 

Furthermore, research has shown that lack of oxygen, rather than excessive stimulation, causes half of 

the seizure-related brain damage and neuronal death in epilepsy.3 Because of the rapid effects and 

widespread causes of hypoxia, it is vital to minimize the duration of oxygen deprivation.  

Currently, treatment of hypoxia is based on life support. Techniques vary widely according to 

the patient’s condition, but the aim is to give more oxygen to the patient.4 Most patients are treated 

1
​The Cleveland Clinic. 2018. Cerebral Hypoxia [Internet]. Cleveland Clinic; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available from
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/6025-cerebral-hypoxia
2
CNS Clinic-Jordan. 2018. Cerebral Blood Flow and Oxygen Consumption [Internet]. CNS Clinic; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available
from ​http://www.humanneurophysiology.com/cbfo2consumption.htm
3
​Leal-Campanario R, et al. 2017. Abnormal Capillary Vasodynamics Contribute to Ictal Neurodegeneration in Epilepsy.
Scientific Reports 7 (2017).
4
​Davis CP. 2018. Hypoxia and Hypoxemia [Internet]. MedicineNet; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available from
https://www.medicinenet.com/hypoxia_and_hypoxemia/index.htm
with additional oxygen supplied by a nasal cannula. A nasal cannula is a device consisting of a 

lightweight tube split into two prongs and placed in the nostrils. It is generally used whenever small 

amounts of supplemental oxygen are required, without rigid control of respiration. However, the nasal 

cannula does not work when patients suffer from an obstructed airway or acute lung failure.5 

Similarly, a nonrebreather mask also delivers supplemental oxygen to the patient. Although it delivers a 

higher concentration of oxygen, the mask requires an adequate and consistent rate of oxygen flow; 

otherwise, patients may begin to take in carbon dioxide.  

Additionally, in cases such as carbon monoxide poisoning, patients can be placed in hyperbaric 

chambers that increase oxygen concentrations in the blood. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy involves 

breathing pure oxygen in a pressurized room or tube, where the air pressure is increased to three times 

the normal air pressure.6 Under these conditions, the lungs can gather more oxygen than they can at 

normal air pressure, allowing the organ to restore normal oxygen levels.  

Furthermore, in some cases, patients with hypoxia may be treated with mechanical ventilation, 

also called intubation. Intubation is a medical procedure in which a tube is inserted into the airway so 

that a ventilator can push air into the lungs to enable the patient to breathe. However, this presents a 

considerable risk to the patient, as intubation can exacerbate hypoxia. 7 

Despite the success of these treatments for hypoxia in the past decades, current treatments 

require time to assemble and use. However, timing is vital when treating hypoxia, especially since 

cerebral hypoxia can cause permanent brain damage within a few minutes. Technologies such as the 

nasal cannula, mechanical ventilation, and hyperbaric chamber require access to high-tech medical 

5
​Alaska Air Medical Escort Training Manual, Fourth Edition. Hypoxia and
Oxygenation. p. 71 - 82.
6
​Mayo Clinic Staff. 2018. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy [Internet]. MFMER; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available from
https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/hyperbaric-oxygen-therapy/about/pac-20394380
7
​Roppolo LP and Wigginton JG. 2010. Preventing severe hypoxia during emergent intubation: is nasopharyngeal oxygenation
the answer? Critical Care. 14(6).
equipment and training. When these technologies suffer complications, brain cells and tissue may 

deteriorate in just a few minutes. As a result, it is important to consider other treatments for hypoxia, 

including intravenous oxygen delivery, which delivers oxygen quickly, efficiently, and safely.  

History  

Since the early 1800s, scientists have researched the possibilities of intravenous injection of 

oxygen. As early as 1811, Nysten tested the effect of injecting various gases into the veins of dogs. 

When experimenting with oxygen, Nysten intermittently supplied around 20 to 50 cubic centimeters 

of oxygen into the jugular vein. After every 2 to 15 minutes, he would repeat the injection. Nysten 

eventually discovered the limitations to injected quantities. With 100 to 150 cubic centimeters of 

oxygen gas injected into a dog in doses of 20 cubic centimeters, no effects on the dog were evident. 

However, with 200 cubic centimeters injected in doses of 30 to 40 cubic centimeters at a time in 

shorter intervals, the dog died.8  

In 1902, another scientist named Gaertner continued to research IV oxygen delivery. In 

determining the physiological effects of intravenous oxygen administration, Gaertner continuously 

administered sizable amounts of oxygen, around 1 or 2 cubic centimeters per kilo of body weight per 

minute, to various dogs. Notable changes, namely a drop in the pressure in the arteries during the 

contraction of the left ventricle of the heart as well as an irregular heartbeat, occurred when the dose 

was around 2 cubic centimeters per kilo per minute.9  

Raymond E.Weston and Leonard Karel, building upon Gaertner’s experiment with dogs, 

researched the effects of denitrogenation on the response of dogs to intravenously injected oxygen. 

According to Weston and Karel’s findings, published in 1946, intravenous oxygen administration on 

8
​Tunnicliffe FW, Lond MD, Lond BS, Stebbing GF. 1916. The Intravenous Injection of Oxygen Gas as a Therapeutic Measure.
The Lancet. 188 (4851): 321-323.
9
​Bourne G and Smith RG. 1927. The Value of Intravenous and Intraperitoneal Administration of Oxygen. Am J Physiol. 82 (2).
de-nitrogenated dogs in rates as low as 1 mL per kgm per minute resulted in marked increases in 

respiratory rates and greater than 25% decreases in oxygen content in the arteries.10 

In 1975, Dr. H.S. Regelsberger invented the Oxyven-Device,11 a medical device which injects 

exact, minute amounts of oxygen into human veins. Regelsberger used this intravenous oxygen 

therapy for disturbed blood flow, macular degeneration, and treatment after heart attacks or strokes. 

Over the course of 30 years of research, Regelsberger has used the Oxyven-Device for doses of around 

1-2 mL per minute administered in quantities of around 10 to 50 mL. However, his application of 

medical oxygen requires an extended period of treatment of 2 to 4 weeks.12 

Since Nysten’s initial work, many scientists have researched about intravenous oxygen 

injections. However, all existing creations of IV oxygen have been ineffective, which is why we aim to 

develop a solution that takes into account oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations.  

Future Technology  

Introducing, BiOxidrop. To treat critical hypoxia in a patient with an obstructed airway, we 

propose a microcapsule with a concentrated 

oxygen gas core, created with an intravenous fluid 

similar to that of blood plasma based on 

electrolyte composition. The oxygen is combined 

with bicarbonate, and together, they are enclosed 

in a phospholipid shell. Lipopolymers will be 

attached to the phospholipid membrane to ensure 

10
​Weston RE and Karel L. 1947. The Influence of Denitrogenation on the Response of Anesthetized Dogs to Intravenously
Injected Oxygen. J Clin Invest. 26(5): 837–848.
11
​Regelsberger HS. 2018. Oxyven – our company [Internet]. Oxyven; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available from
http://www.oxyven.de/en/
12
​Weber W. 2018. Intravenous Oxygen Therapy [Internet]. Praxis Dr. med. Dipl. Chem; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available from
http://www.dr-weber-laser-clinic.com/en/our-therapies/intravenous-oxygen-therapy/
that the capsule does not dissolve before it reaches a red blood cell. Antibodies will also be embedded 

in the phospholipid bilayer for binding to markers of hypoxia (Figure 1). Pores will be designed so that 

the Plasma-Lyte A concentrated with bicarbonate will be able to leave the capsule easily. The size of 

the BiOxidrop capsule will be on the micrometer scale so that it can efficiently diffuse into the blood 

yet still be molded into any shape necessary for use.  

First, a BiOxidrop suspension must be made in order to create an oxygen gas bubble. To create 

this air bubble, a volume of fluid must mix with the gas, and then sound waves will be fired at the 

suspension to allow for mixing of the liquid and gas. This process is similar to how bubbles are formed 

in an oil and water suspension when it is shaken. For the fluid, we will use Plasma-Lyte A, which is 

similar to blood plasma in humans, but we will add a higher concentration of bicarbonate.  

During asphyxiation, the ability to ventilate is not possible, meaning that oxygen cannot enter 

the body, and carbon dioxide cannot leave. By injecting the BiOxidrop, which has a core of oxygen gas, 

doctors can raise oxygen levels for a time period depending on how many capsules are used. Once the 

BiOxidrop is injected into the bloodstream, the capsule can easily be engulfed by red blood cells due to 

their high affinity for oxygen; the cells are starved of 

oxygen (Figure 2). The phospholipid layer of the 

BiOxidrop will combine with the phospholipid 

layer of the red blood cell for the oxygen to enter 

the red blood cell. This way, there is no waste 

produced from the BiOxidrop because all 

components can be incorporated into the body.13 

13
​Kheir JN, et. al. 2012. Oxygen Gas–Filled Microparticles ProvideIntravenous Oxygen Delivery. Sci Transl Med. 4 (140).
 However, only half the problem is solved. Because carbon dioxide cannot be exhaled, it stays in 

the body dissolved in blood plasma as carbonic acid. Thus, rising acidity levels in the body can lead to 

acidosis, a condition in which body fluids or tissues become too acidic. The body’s normal level of pH 

is 7.4, but small fluctuations can be accounted for by the lungs and kidney to maintain homeostasis. 

However, during asphyxiation, the lungs cannot adjust to pH changes. Thus, an increase in protons 

cannot be accommodated for by the organs, making a small decrease of pH to 7.35 lethal to patients.14 

Organs will fail because homeostasis cannot be maintained with the regular buffer system of carbonic 

acid and bicarbonate. Currently, intravenous sodium bicarbonate is given to patients who have 

metabolic acidosis to raise pH levels. The side effects include high blood sodium and swelling. 

However, because the bicarbonate will be dissolved in the Plasma-Lyte A and not be combined with 

sodium, those side effects will not be present with the BiOxidrop.  

To ensure that the Plasma-Lyte A, which has a higher concentration of bicarbonate than 

normal blood plasma, is not taken in by red blood cells, pores facilitated by polymers will be designed 

on the BiOxidrop specifically for the Plasma-Lyte A. The polymers will release the fluid in reaction to 

the concentration of hydrogen ions in the blood, especially if the blood has a pH of below 7.4. This 

way, all the fluid will leave before the BiOxidrop deposits its oxygen in a red blood cell. If the 

BiOxidrop is successful in the future, it will afford doctors extra, precious minutes in critical surgical 

operations when there is asphyxiation or problems with anesthesia. The BiOxidrop can be used to 

treat patients in hypoxemic cardiac arrest to raise circulating oxygen levels, hemorrhagic shock to 

increase perfusion, or carbon monoxide poisoning to enable a faster reversal and recovery. 

14
​Stephens C. 2017. Acidosis [Internet]. Healthline; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available from
https://www.healthline.com/health/acidosis
 Breakthroughs  

In order to turn the BiOxidrop into reality, a number of breakthroughs are necessary. A major 

breakthrough would need to allow us to pinpoint the site of oxygen deprivation and deliver oxygen 

directly to the area, instead of just letting the capsule randomly roam the bloodstream. This specificity 

would enable the rapid and targeted treatment of hypoxia. Furthermore, we need to determine the 

optimal concentration of oxygen and bicarbonate that will yield the greatest amount of oxygen 

deliverance while still maintaining a balanced pH. For efficient oxygen transport to take place, 

BiOxidrop would need to dissolve precisely at the target area and release the greatest amount of oxygen 

gas possible.  

Future research should investigate potential biomarkers for BiOxidrop to identify once it has 

been injected into the bloodstream. An ideal biomarker has not yet been found due to extreme spatial 

and temporal differences in tissue oxygen levels, which is caused by the complex nature of blood 

supplies and oxygen consumption. As none of the current methods for hypoxia targeting are 

completely effective, scientists should look at other kinds of markers, for example injectable markers 

that ​use injectable molecular reporters of oxygen as endpoints.15 We predict that the antibodies on the 

outside of the BiOxidrop phospholipid bilayer will then be able to detect and bind to these markers.  

Research also must be conducted to determine the optimal ratio of oxygen to bicarbonate. 

Because a too-high oxygen concentration would make the solution too viscous to mix well with blood, 

we hypothesize that a capsule containing 70% oxygen and 30% bicarbonate will be optimal. To test our 

hypothesis, we will perform an i​ n vitro s​ tudy of the kinetics of oxygen transfer on donated human 

blood. We will add capsules of BiOxidrop made up of three different ratios of oxygen and bicarbonate 

15
​Quynh-Thu L and Courter D. 2008. Clinical Biomarkers for Hypoxia Targeting. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 27 (3): 351-362.
(90% oxygen/10% bicarbonate, 70% oxygen/30% bicarbonate, 50% oxygen/50% bicarbonate) to the 

blood samples, as shown in Figure 3. Then, we will continuously monitor the blood oxygen level over 

a period of 60 minutes, perform a test of linear regression, and compare the rates of change between 

the experimental groups. We will also closely monitor the blood pH levels, and if a pH change of 

greater than 0.05 is witnessed in any group, that group will have to be ruled out. To ensure the success 

and safety of BiOxidrop usage, three trials will be performed on the four different human blood types.  

Design Process 

Our design is currently implementing an intravenous injection (Figure 4). However, there are 

less invasive approaches to deliver the BiOxidrop. A noninvasive technique is to topically apply the 

oxygenated particles (Figure 5). With this application, the 

capsule would have to go through the epidermis, past the oily 

secretion and sweat produced by glands in the dermis layer. 

Because the BiOxidrop is so miniscule, it may get damaged 

before it reaches the blood 

vessels in the dermis. Thus, 

the current design solves 

this problem because the 

capsules are directly injected into the blood vessels. Another issue with topical application is that it can 

only be used to improve wound healing and will not be of great use in urgent situations, as skin 

absorbs medication very slowly. This is especially true in emergencies when an extra minute of hypoxia 

could lead to permanent brain damage. Intravenous injections would allow doctors to use BiOxidrop 

in a wider array of diseases and emergencies than simply wound healing.  

The second alternative we considered was a sublingual tablet (Figure 6). The tablet would be 

placed under the tongue and easily dissolved. However, we would 

have to make a coating for the BiOxidrop so that the capsules are not 

absorbed or damaged by the enzymes in the secretions from salivary 

glands before it reaches the bloodstream. We considered a sublingual 

tablet over an oral pill because the sublingual tablet does not have to 

pass through the digestive system. Most concerning would have been 

the stomach acid because we would have to create a more durable layer over the BiOxidrop to ensure 

that the capsules actually reach a blood vessel. Moreover, the sublingual tablet can be applied when the 

patient is unresponsive and the airway is obstructed because the tablet does not need to be swallowed.
16
The sublingual tablet also has advantages over the topical application because the sublingual 

application allows the BiOxidrop to be absorbed much faster because blood vessels are immediately 

behind the mucous membrane. Therefore, oxygen can be replenished at a much faster rate. However, 

the current design can deliver oxygen within seconds because the BiOxidrop is injected directly into a 

vein. 

16
​McDonough JH, Van Shura KE, LaMont JC, McMonagle JD, Shih T. 2008. Comparison of the Intramuscular, Intranasal or
Sublingual Routes of Midazolam Administration for the Control of Soman-Induced Seizures. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology
and Toxicology. 104: 27-34.
 Our final alternative design, which is closest to our current design, is the nasal atomizer (Figure 

7).17 With an intranasal application, the BiOxidrop can be delivered to an easily accessed vascular bed 

in the nose. The BiOxidrop would be applied as a mist instead of large droplets which would aggregate 

and run off, so the oxygen capsules are not absorbed. The BiOxidrop would be stored as a liquid 

because the atomizer can change the liquid suspension into a 

mist. Thus, the BiOxidrop can be directly delivered to the rich 

vascular plexus of the nasal cavity, providing a direct into the 

blood stream because the mucous membranes are easily 

crossed. The intranasal pathway is faster because there are no 

enzymes in the nose that would try to break down the capsule. 

In fact, intranasal medications’ rates of absorption and plasma concentrations are comparable to 

intravenous injections. However, our current design allows doctors to choose any vein in the body 

rather than being limited to the nasal cavity, so doctors can deliver oxygen faster to areas that require 

more immediate attention with intravenous oxygen delivery. 

Consequences 

The BiOxidrop is promising as a treatment of hypoxia, especially when time is a 

life-saving factor in cerebral hypoxia.​It can quickly restore oxygen to the bloodstream in the body, 

avoiding brain cell loss. However, akin to all technologies, the development of intravenous oxygen 

delivery is new and requires significant work to be done, including evidence that the therapy is safe 

before it can be implemented as an emergency treatment in hospitals and at home. As with all 

technologies, the BiOxidrop can pose positive and negative consequences on society.  

17
​2017. Therapeutic Intranasal Drug Delivery [Internet]. Intranasal.net; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available from
http://intranasal.net/Overview/default.htm
 Although this breakthrough appears to be a significant advancement in treating hypoxia, there 

can be negative consequences that prevent the immediate usage of BiOxidrop. For example, the long 

term effects of the BiOxidrop are unknown. While we can conduct tests on animal models such as rats, 

the long term effects of BiOxidrop on human health would remain unclear. For example, it would be 

unknown whether or not the synthetic polymers and lipids present in the BiOxidrop would be 

efficiently degraded by the body. Although Bioxidrop is present in extremely minuscule amounts, it 

could still possibly coalesce and interfere with physiological interactions, such as participating in 

hormonal interactions by acting as a hormone. However, this problem is unconfirmed and if it does 

present itself, it is possible that the benefits of this technology, when used in emergency situations and 

not frequently enough for foreign polymers to congregate, will outweigh its risks. As a result, in these 

situations, the US Food and Drug Administration would likely still keep the drug on the market.18 

Nevertheless, if we continue researching and testing these possible consequences, it will save many 

patients and provide a quick treatment for hypoxia.  

Additionally, due to the small and intricate design of the microcapsules, developing 

microcapsules will be expensive, and each injection requires multiple microcapsules. However, if 

research start-up companies take the BiOxidrop, streamline the production process, and deploy it in 

emergency rooms and ambulances, long-term costs will be dramatically reduced.  

BiOxidrop is the future of intravenous oxygen delivery--it rapidly delivers oxygen gas 

directly to deoxygenated red blood cells.  

   

18
​US Food and Drug Administration. 2016. Development & Approval Process (Drugs) [Internet]. US Food and Drug
Administration; [cited 2017 Feb 6]. Available from ​http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/​.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

2017. Therapeutic Intranasal Drug Delivery [Internet]. Intranasal.net; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available 

from ​http://intranasal.net/Overview/default.htm 

Alaska Air Medical Escort Training Manual, Fourth Edition. Hypoxia and Oxygenation. p. 71 - 82. 

Bourne G and Smith RG. 1927. The Value of Intravenous and Intraperitoneal Administration of 

Oxygen. Am J Physiol. 82 (2). 

CNS Clinic-Jordan. 2018. Cerebral Blood Flow and Oxygen Consumption [Internet]. CNS Clinic; 

[cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available from 

http://www.humanneurophysiology.com/cbfo2consumption.htm 

Davis CP. 2018. Hypoxia and Hypoxemia [Internet]. MedicineNet; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available 

from ​https://www.medicinenet.com/hypoxia_and_hypoxemia/index.htm 

Kheir JN, et. al. 2012. Oxygen Gas–Filled Microparticles Provide Intravenous Oxygen Delivery. Sci 

Transl Med. 4 (140). 

Leal-Campanario R, et al. 2017. Abnormal Capillary Vasodynamics Contribute to Ictal 

Neurodegeneration in Epilepsy. Scientific Reports 7 (2017). 

Mayo Clinic Staff. 2018. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy [Internet]. MFMER; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. 

Available from 

https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/hyperbaric-oxygen-therapy/about/pac-203943

80 

McDonough JH, Van Shura KE, LaMont JC, McMonagle JD, Shih T. 2008. Comparison of the 

Intramuscular, Intranasal or Sublingual Routes of Midazolam Administration for the Control 

of Soman-Induced Seizures. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology. 104: 27-34. 
Quynh-Thu L and Courter D. 2008. Clinical Biomarkers for Hypoxia Targeting. Cancer Metastasis 

Rev. 27 (3): 351-362. 

Roppolo LP and Wigginton JG. 2010. Preventing severe hypoxia during emergent intubation: is 

nasopharyngeal oxygenation the answer? Critical Care. 14(6). 

Regelsberger HS. 2018. Oxyven – our company [Internet]. Oxyven; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available 

from ​http://www.oxyven.de/en/ 

Stephens C. 2017. Acidosis [Internet]. Healthline; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. Available from 

https://www.healthline.com/health/acidosis 

The Cleveland Clinic. 2018. Cerebral Hypoxia [Internet]. Cleveland Clinic; [cited 2018 Feb 8]. 

Available from ​https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/6025-cerebral-hypoxia 

Tunnicliffe FW, Lond MD, Lond BS, Stebbing GF. 1916. The Intravenous Injection of Oxygen Gas 

as a Therapeutic Measure. The Lancet. 188 (4851): 321-323. 

US Food and Drug Administration. 2016. Development & Approval Process (Drugs) [Internet]. US 

Food and Drug Administration; [cited 2018 Feb 6]. Available from 

http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/​. 

Weber W. 2018. Intravenous Oxygen Therapy [Internet]. Praxis Dr. med. Dipl. Chem; [cited 2018 

Feb 8]. Available from 

http://www.dr-weber-laser-clinic.com/en/our-therapies/intravenous-oxygen-therapy/ 

Weston RE and Karel L. 1947. The Influence of Denitrogenation on the Response of Anesthetized 

Dogs to Intravenously Injected Oxygen. J Clin Invest. 26(5): 837–848. 

 
Images​:  

Digital image. CloudFront. 

https://dfgh5erbttm3r.cloudfront.net/uploads/article/hero_image/3232/header_truth-about

-your-trusty-antibiotic-ointment-1600x900.jpg 

Digital image. Weebly. 

http://angelcalmerin.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/3/7/13377307/3193871.jpg?379 

Intranasal Atomization Drug Delivery. Digital Image. Teleflex.   

https://www.teleflex.com/en/usa/productAreas/ems/productGroups/atomizationDevices/p

roducts/