UNIT 2

Morality and Ethics (Theories

and Concepts)
 MORAL ISSUES

o MICRO approach emphasizes typical

everyday problems that take on significant
proportions in an employees’ personal and
professional life.
o MACRO approach addresses societal
problems that are often kept aside and are
not addressed until they unexpectedly
resurface on a regional or national scale.
 VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES

Organization Customer/Client
oriented issues oriented issues

Competitor Family oriented

oriented issues issues

Legal/ Govt. Social/Environment

oriented issues oriented issues
 WHY DO MORAL ISSUES ARISE?
o RESOURCE CRUNCH
• Due to pressure created through time limits, availability of
money or budgetary constraints, and technology decay or
obsolescence.
o OPPORTUNITY
• Double standards or behavior of the employers towards
the employees and the public.
• Emphasis on results and gains at the expense of the
employees.
Cont…
o ATTITUDE
• Low morale of the employees because of
dissatisfaction and downsizing
• Absence of grievance redressal mechanism
• Lack of promotion or career development policies
or denied promotions,
• Lack of transparency
• Poor working environments.
 TYPES OF INQUIRIES
There are three types of inquiries available which we use to resolve
moral issues:

Normative Conceptual
Inquiry Inquiry

Factual
Inquiry
 NORMATIVE INQUIRY (based on values)
• It seeks to identify and justify the morally-desirable norms or standards that
should guide individuals and groups. It also has the theoretical goal of
justifying particular moral judgments.
Questions to be probed:
1. How far does the obligation of employees to their employer, their clients
and general public extend in any given situation?
2. Whose values are primary in taking a moral decision: their own, the public,
the government or their organization?
3. When should employees be expected to blow whistle on dangerous
practices of their employers?
4. When is the government justified in interfering with the organisations on
such issues and why?
 CONCEPTUAL INQUIRY(based on
meaning)
It is directed to clarify the concepts, principles and
issues in applying morals and ethics.
Questions to be probed:
• What is bribe?
• When do a gift becomes bribe?
• What is a profession and who are professionals?
• What is safety?
 FACTUAL INQUIRY(based on facts)

• Also known as ‘descriptive or explorative’ inquiry, it is aimed to

obtain facts needed for understanding and resolving moral issues.
• Researchers conduct factual inquiries using mathematical or
statistical techniques.
• The inquiry provide important information on business realities, the
procedures used, and the psychological profiles of managers.
Questions to be probed:
• What are the laws enforced in intellectual property rights recently?
• What is the validity period of a patented product?
• What tests are to be conducted to keep a check on quality of
products?
 MORAL DILEMMA

o Moral dilemmas are situations in which two

or more moral obligations, duties, rights,
goods, or ideals come into conflict with
each other.
o The crucial feature of a moral dilemma is
that all the moral principles cannot be fully
respected in a given situation.
 MORAL DILEMMA
Three complexities leading to moral dilemma are:
o The problem of vagueness: This complexity arises due to the fact that
it is not clear to individuals as to which moral considerations or
principles apply to their situation. In simple words, One is unable to
distinguish between good and bad (right or wrong) principle.
Example- Receiving brand new car from supplier on Diwali.
o The problem of conflicting reasons: Even when it is perfectly clear as
to which moral principle is applicable to one’s situation, there could
develop a situation where in two or more clearly applicable good
moral principles come into conflict. Example- Anna on a project
heading team of males has to be replaced since she is female.
o The problem of disagreement: Individuals and groups may disagree
how to interpret, apply and balance moral reasons in particular
situations. Example- transparency whether customers can be allowed
to inspect the plant and machinery.
 STEPS IN CONFRONTING/ SOLVING MORAL DILEMMA

1. Identification of all pertinent moral factors and reasons. It involves addressing

solutions for conflicting responsibilities, opposing rights, incompatible ideals
involved.
2. Collection of all information, data, and facts (factual inquiry) relevant to the
situation.
3. Rank the moral options i.e., priority in application through value system, and
also as obligatory, all right, acceptable, not acceptable, damaging, and most
damaging etc.
4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma. Write down the
main options and sub-options as a matrix or decision tree to ensure that all
options are included.
5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and
suggestions on various alternatives.
6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed.
 MORAL AUTONOMY

o Moral autonomy is defined as a skill and habit

of thinking rationally about the ethical issues,
on the basis of moral concern.
o Autonomous people hold moral beliefs and
attitudes based on their critical reflection
rather than on passive adoption of the
conventions of the society or profession.
 SKILLS TO IMPROVE MORAL AUTONOMY
o Proficiency in recognizing moral problems and ability to distinguish as
well as relate them to problems in law, economics, and religion.
o Skill in comprehending, clarifying and critically assessing arguments
on opposing sides of moral issues.
o Ability to form consistent and comprehensive view points based on
facts.
o Awareness of alternate responses to the issues and creative solutions
for practical difficulties.
o Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtleties
o Using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and developing
tolerance of different perspectives among morally reasonable people,
and
o Maintaining moral integrity.
 THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

These theories are based on the sorts of

reasoning and motivation adopted by
individuals with regard to moral questions.
o Lawrence Kohlberg Theory
o Carol Gilligan Theory
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY
o According to Kohlberg, people develop the cognitive ability to engage in
moral reasoning through a series of stages from infancy to adulthood.

o Pre-Conventional Moral Development

Stage 1
Stage 2
o Conventional Moral Development
Stage 3
Stage 4
o Post-Conventional Moral Development
Stage 5
Stage 6
 Level 1: PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY 0-9 YEARS
• Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of
reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.
o Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment
o Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not punished
o Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules, especially if that
authority has the power to inflict pain

• Stage 2 – Self Interest Orientation

At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and
judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible, but
only if it serves one's own interests.
o Is motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy
o Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of need
o Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does
 LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY 10-20 YEARS

• Stage 3 - "Good Boy-Good Girl" Orientation

This stage is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is
an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices
influence relationships.
o Finds peer approval very important
o Feels that intentions are as important as deeds and expects others to accept
intentions or promises in place of deeds

• Stage 4 – Authority and Social Order Orientation

At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order
by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
o Respects authority and obeys it without question
o Supports the rights of the majority without concern for those in the
minority
o about 80% of the population that does not progress past stage 4.
 LEVEL 3: POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY – 20+

• Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights Orientation

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and
beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society,
but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
o Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the greatest
number of people
o Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule
o Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual

• Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

Kohlberg's final level is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rules.
o Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented by social
rules and customs
o Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social rule he/she
has rejected
 CAROL GILLIGAN THEORY

Carol Gilligan, a former student and colleague of Kohlberg,

criticized Kohlberg’s theory as male biased.
She charged that Kohlberg’s studies were concluded with
male samples only and also his approach is dominated by a
typical preoccupation with general rules and rights.
According to Gilligan, males have tendency to over-ride the
importance of moral rules and convictions while resolving
moral dilemmas; whereas females have tendency to try
hard to preserve personal relationships with all people
involved in a situation.
CAROL GILLIGAN THEORY
GILLIGAN’S LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
DIFFERENCES
 Types of Ethical Theories

✔Consequentialist/ Teleological theories (primarily

concerned with the ethical consequences of
particular actions)

✔Non-consequentialist/ Deontological theories

(broadly concerned with duties and obligations in any
given situation)

✔Agent-centered theories (more concerned with the

overall ethical virtues/ status of a person)
VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES
 Theories of Ethical Action

•Two basic approaches are possible in resolving ethical dilemmas:

✔Deontological (action-oriented ) approach- Under this approach

an ethical standard consistent with the fact that it is performed
by a rational and free spirit of a person. The fundamental moral
rights justify the action to be taken.

✔Teleological (result- oriented) approach- The moral character of

actions depends on simple practical reasoning of which actions
actually help or hurt others. So, actions which produce more
benefits are considered right.
 Consequentialist Theories
1. The Egoistic/Self Interest Approach
•Proposed by: Thrasymacus (c. 459-400 BCE), Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679), Ayn Rand (1905-1982)
•Also known as Ethical Egoism, or the ethics of Self- Interest:
The view that morality coincides with the self-interest of an
individual or an organization.
•The theory of ethical egoism justifies that human beings are
essentially selfish. According to egoism we care for others
because it is in our best interest.
•An action is morally right if it promotes one’s long-term
interest.
•An action is morally wrong if it undermines it.
•Eg- providing more facilities does not mean you care about
them but you want them to be more productive.
 Objections to Egoism
The theory is not sound: The doctrine of psychological
egoism is false – not all human acts are selfish by
nature, and some are truly altruistic/ unselfish.

Egoism is not a moral theory at all: Egoism misses the

whole point of morality, which is to restrain our selfish
desires for the sake of peaceful coexistence with
others.

Egoism ignores blatant wrongs: All patently wrong

actions are morally neutral unless they conflict with
one’s advantage.
 Consequentialist Theories
Utilitarianism Approach
• This theory says that an action or decision is right if it maximizes the overall
benefit of for good of maximum no. of people.
• “Ends justify the Means”
• It asserts that any act which has better consequence is considered moral.
• We should act in ways that produce the greater good or happiness for the
greatest number of people affected by our actions.
• The principle of utility: Actions are morally praiseworthy if they promote the
greatest human welfare, and blameworthy if they do not.

Main representatives:
❑ Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) - actions could be described as good or bad
depending upon the amount and degree of pleasure and/or pain they would
produce
❑ John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) - modified this system /subjective concept of
“happiness” opposed to the more materialist idea of “pleasure”/
 Four Theses/ Forms of Utilitarianism
Consequentialism: The rightness of actions is
determined solely by their consequences.
Hedonism: Utility is the degree to which an act
produces pleasure. Hedonism is the thesis that
pleasure or happiness is the highest good that all
individuals aim to get it in life.
Maximalism: A right action should produce
maximum good consequences and the least bad
consequences.
Universalism: Those consequences are to be
considered where everyone is affected, and everyone
is equally affected.
 Objections to Utilitarianism
Some actions seem to be intrinsically immoral, though
performing them can maximize happiness. For
example, stealing an old computer from the employer
will benefit the employee more than the loss to the
employer. But he should remain “faithful”

Utilitarianism is concerned with the amount of

happiness produced, not how that amount of benefit is
getting distributed.

It is difficult to calculate which actions can produce the

most good for great number of people compared to
other action.
Non- Consequentialist/ Deontological
Approach
 Duty-Based Approach
•Associated with Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): Doing what
is right is not about the consequences of our actions, but
about having the proper intention in performance of
one’s duties such as, ‘being honest’, ‘not cause suffering
of others’, ‘keeping promises’ etc.
•Individuals have rights that should not be sacrificed
simply to produce a greater good – ethical rights which
are basic to all individuals.
• We will not use people as a means to an end.
•We have duties ( also defined as obligations,
commitments or responsibilities).
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
 Agent-centered Theories
The Virtue Approach

-Argues that ethical actions should be consistent with

ideal human virtues.
-Aristotle: ethics should be concerned with the whole of
a person’s life, not with the individual discrete actions a
person may perform in any given situation.
-Approach prominent in non-Western contexts,
especially in East Asia (Confucius (551-479 BCE): to act
virtuously (in an appropriate manner)
 Agent-centered Theories
Aristotle’s theory of the ‘Golden Mean’

Aristotle, defined virtue as a character trait that

manifests itself in habitual action.
Honesty, for example, cannot consist in telling the truth
once; it is rather the trait of a person who tells the truth
as a general practice.
According to his theory, the virtue of wisdom or good
judgement is highly essential for accomplishing the
rational activities.
The focus is on finding the ‘Golden Mean’ between the
extremes of excess (i.e., too much) and deficiency (i.e.,
too little).
 Examples: ‘Golden Mean’

Courage is the ‘Golden mean’ between the two

extreme moral grounds foolhardiness (the
excess of rashness) and cowardice (the
deficiency of self control).

That is, according to Aristotle, one should be

courageous but should not go to the extremes of
being violent or coward.
 Use of Ethical Theories
•Ethical theories aid in identifying the moral
considerations or reasons that constitute a
dilemma.
•They sometimes, offer ways to rank the relevant
moral considerations in order of importance and
provide a rough guidance in solving moral
problems.
•The theories augment the precision with which
we use moral terms and they provide frame
works for moral reasoning when discussing moral
issues with colleagues.
 Custom and Religion
•Relativism
•Distinction between ‘morals’ (‘treatment of
others’) and ‘mores’ (‘harmless customs’)

•Cultural Relativism
•Different cultures have ideas about ethical
behavior

•Moral (ethical) Relativism

•What is “really right or wrong” is completely
determined by the culture and society in which a
person lives