Chapter 7: Central Europeans, People of the Former Soviet Union,

and Scandinavians
Learning Objectives

1. List the countries that are included as parts of Central Europe, the former Soviet Union
(FSU), and Scandinavia.
2. Discuss the immigration patterns, historical socioeconomic influences, and current locations
of these European, FSU, and Scandinavian groups in America today.
3. Describe the typical religions, family structures, and traditional health beliefs and practices of
these groups before and after immigration to the United States.
4. Discuss the differences and similarities among staple foods and preparation techniques
within and across these countries.
5. Identify key foods for each of the food groups for these regions and how these foods have
been adapted by immigrants in the U.S.
6. Describe the traditional meal composition and cycles and compare these to the meal
composition and cycles of these groups living in America today.
7. Describe regional specialties and dishes these immigrants have contributed to the current
American diet.
8. Identify health concerns and counseling strategies associated with nutritional intake of these
groups.

Chapter Summary

Central Europe and the FSU

The European settlers from central Europe, the former Soviet Union (FSU), and Scandinavia
were some of the earliest and largest groups to come to the U.S. This chapter focuses on the
traditional and adapted foods and food habits of Germans, Poles, and other central European
groups; Russians and other FSU populations; and Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians. Immigration
continues from these countries to the U.S. and their influence on its cuisine continues as well.
Bread baking, dairy farming, meat processing, and beer brewing are food methods brought to
America.

Central Europe includes the area from the North and Baltic seas, south to the Alps, and east to
the Baltic States. The countries reviewed include Germany, Austria, Hungary, Romania, the
Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. The climate of central Europe
is harsh and cold but the land is fertile.

FSU includes the Commonwealth of Independent States or CIS. Countries include the Russian
Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of
Moldavia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan and the Baltic States (Estonia,
Latvia, and Lithuania). This region stretches from China and the Pacific Ocean, and includes the
Arctic and parts of the Middle East. The harsh winters affect agricultural capacity.

Central European foods have become common in the American diet. Germans form the largest
group of immigrants in the U.S. and yet is one of the least visible. Immigration patterns are
reviewed. Polish immigrants have arrived in several waves over the last two centuries. Poles
have come from Russia, Germany, and Austria. Other central Europeans reviewed include the
Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks and, Swiss. Gypsy immigrants to the U.S. came from
various countries but remain a cohesive ethnic group.

Russians came to the West Coast and Alaska as fur traders while later Russian immigrants
settled on the East Coast. Immigrants from the countries of FSU followed the political upheavals
of the USSR. Ukraine, Lithuania, and Armenia provided the largest immigrant populations from
the FSU.

Currently in the U.S., Germans as a group are highly acculturated. The Pennsylvania Dutch and a
few other German descendants have concentrated communities. Poles are one of the largest
ethnic groups in the U.S. Poles still live a middle-class lifestyle, mainly in the Northeast and
upper Midwest. Hungarian Americans, Czech descendants, Slovaks, and the Swiss immigrants
have all acculturated over the generations and have assimilated into the U.S. culture.

Though it is estimated that approximately 1 million Gypsies (Romas) live in the United States,
their exact numbers are unknown, as they have retained their tradition of roving, and they are a
very mobile population.

Russian Americans mainly live in suburbs and attain higher educational levels and professional
careers. Immigrants from the FSU are from Russia, the Ukraine, and various other FSU nations.

Germans are mainly Lutherans with a minority of Jews and Roman Catholics. Rural Germans
from Germany still adhere to the Mennonite religion. The Amish, a sect of the Mennonites,
follow the Bible literally. The Poles are mainly Roman Catholics, as are many Austrians,
Slovaks, and Ukrainians. Gypsies follow their traditional spirituality, romaniya.

The traditional family structure in the U.S. is related to the European groups. Gypsies maintain
extended families, and multifamily groups called kumpanias continue today. Russian families
were large traditionally but in the U.S. the Russian family structure is smaller than the average
American family.

German Americans’ health beliefs include the belief that illness is due to personal health
behaviors. The Pennsylvania Dutch use traditional folk practices and believe in a strong religious
foundation for healing practices. Polish Americans also have religious and faith-based attitudes
towards healing. Gypsies believe in a system of purity and pollution, marimé, which may be
related to Asian Indian beliefs. Russia and the FSU nations have healing practices that are an
integration of the biomedical therapies and traditional cures such as herbal teas.

Regional variations in central European and FSU cuisine are minor. The often cold, damp
climate limited foods that could be grown. Foods commonly include potatoes, beans, cabbage,
beets, eggs, dairy products, pork, beef, fish, apples, rye, wheat, and barley. Foods were often
dried, pickled, or fermented for preservation. Bread is a staple with over 100 varieties. Armenia
is the exception. Greeks, Turks, Persians, Syrians, and other Arabs have influenced Armenian
cuisine, making it more similar to that of the Middle East.
People of central Europe typically ate 4-6 large meals per day. The poor had fewer meals which
were typically meatless. Lunch is the main meal. Central Europeans are more formal than
Americans.

The majority of central European holidays have a religious significance. Christmas and Easter
are celebrated and many of the traditions seen in the U.S. were brought by central European
immigrants. Examples include the Easter egg hunt and the Christmas tree. In Russia, Easter is the
most important of the holidays.

Germans use soups and teas for many common ailments. Other therapeutic food uses include
avoidance of cold beverages by the Pennsylvania Dutch, and the use by Polish Americans of
sauerkraut for colic. Gypsies believe fresh foods are nourishing and leftovers are avoided.
Russians consider full, hearty meals necessary for good health.

The central European and Russian diet is not significantly different from American fare.

Meats in the diet have increased for most central European immigrants to the U.S. The meal
cycles of recent immigrants from Russia and FSU countries were studied and it was found that
traditional foods are being prepared with more fruits and vegetables found here in the U.S.
Special occasions are times when more traditional meals and traditional ingredients are eaten.
Recent immigrants from Russia and the FSU were seen to consume a diet high in saturated fats,
sodium, and sugar. Gypsies have high rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and vascular
disease.

In counseling, communication difficulties may occur with recent or older central European or
Russian immigrants. Strategies are reviewed for effective counseling. Acculturated immigrants
have communication styles typical of dominant American culture.

Scandinavians
The Scandinavian countries include Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Iceland. These
countries are located north of the Baltic and North Seas. The warmer southern areas have the
larger populations. Norwegians and Swedes homesteaded in the Midwestern states, especially
Illinois, Minnesota, Michigan, Iowa, and Wisconsin. There are more than 10 million Americans
are of Scandinavian descent. Scandinavians assimilated rapidly into American society. The
majority of immigrants from Scandinavia were Lutheran.

Large nuclear families with strong family ties were typical. Family size decreased with
increasing acculturation. For Scandinavians, the sauna is used therapeutically, fish is eaten for
good health, and the Finns believe in natural health care. The Swedes are known for therapeutic
massage.

Most Scandinavian cooking and food processing methods reflect preservation methods of
previous centuries. Fish and shellfish are the hallmark of the Scandinavian diet. Fish was
traditionally dried, smoked, or pickled. Milk was often fermented and many specialty cheeses are
eaten.
Bread is often prepared from rye flour. These may be hard, cracker-like breads.

Three meals a day plus a coffee break are typical. A smörgåsbord is a large variety of hot and
cold dishes arrayed on a table, and each diner selects his or her choices. The biggest, richest,
most lavish meal of the year is eaten on Christmas Eve.

The diet of Scandinavians is typical of the American majority, including three meals a day and
inclusion of many dairy and animal protein dishes. Scandinavian Americans may be at increased
risk of developing heart disease. Communication styles include control of emotions, use of
comfortable silence, and avoidance of unnecessary discussion of illness.

Chapter Outline

I. Central Europeans and People of the FSU

A. Introduction
1. Central Europe, as reviewed in this text, includes the area from the North and Baltic
seas, south to the Alps, and east to the Baltic States.
a. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Romania, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Poland
as well as Switzerland and Liechtenstein
(1) Climate of central Europe is harsh and cold
(2) Much of the land is fertile
b. FSU includes the Commonwealth of Independent States or CIS
c. Russian Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldavia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and
Uzbekistan and the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania)
(1) This region stretches from China and the Pacific Ocean up through the Arctic
and to parts of the Middle East.
(2) Harsh winters affect agricultural capacity
d. Central European foods have become common in the American diet

B. Cultural Perspective
1. History of Central Europeans and Russians in the United States
a. Immigration Patterns
(1) Germans
(a) For almost three centuries, Germans have been one of the most significant
elements in the U.S.; one in every six Americans is of German descent.
(b) Earliest German settlement was in Pennsylvania in 1681.
(c) Majority of the immigrants became farmers, and there was a steady
westward settlement pattern.
(d) Called the Pennsylvania Dutch
(e) German immigrants arrived throughout 1800s and 1900s. New immigrants
often joined previous generations now living in large urban areas in the
Northeast and Midwest.
(f) 1930s saw German Jews as immigrants
(g) In 1917, World War I, period of discrimination against Germans
 (2) Poles
(a) Largest wave of Polish immigrants was between 1860 and 1914
(b) Polish immigrants from this phase settled in German and Czech
communities
(c) 2 million Poles from areas of Russia and Austria arrived as temporary
workers but many stayed and settled, especially in the developing cities of
the middle Atlantic and Midwestern states
(d) Later, through the 1900s, immigrants settled in urban areas
(3) Other Central Europeans
(a) Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, and Swiss settled in U.S. in
1800s and 1900s
(b) Austrians and Hungarians were counted together in U.S. immigration
records until 1910
(c) Before and during Hitler’s rise, a wave of educated Austrian-Jewish
immigrants arrived in the U.S.
(d) Austrian immigrants around 1900 often settled in the Northwest and
Midwest, with many young men arriving to work in coal mines. After
1950 new arrivals tended to settle in Hungarian communities
(e) Czech immigrants initially tended to be farmers settling near Germans;
Later Czech immigrants were skilled laborers and settled in urban areas of
New York, Cleveland, and Chicago
(f) Slovak immigrants were your male agricultural workers who arrived
before World War II
(g) Immigrants from Switzerland came to the U.S. for economic opportunities
(h) Gypsy immigrants to the U.S. come from various countries and speak
various dialects
(4) Russians and People of the FSU
(a) Russians came to the West Coast and Alaska as fur traders and established
forts. After the sale of Alaska to the U.S., many Russians moved to
California
(b) Later Russian immigrants settled on the East Coast
(c) Several major waves of Russian immigration occur: In the 1880s, after
1917 Russian Revolution, and again in 1990 after the break-up of Soviet
Union
(d) Many Russian immigrants settled in urban northeast areas of the U.S.
Many arrived in New York City
(e) Ukraine, Lithuania, and Armenia provided largest immigrant populations
from FSU
(f) Many Ukrainians worked in the Pennsylvania mines and settled there.
(g) Armenian immigration waves were in 1890, between the world wars, and
in the 1980s.
b. Current Demographics and Socioeconomic Status
(1) Germans
(a) More than 47 million Americans of German heritage according to 2010
census data
 (b) As a group they are highly acculturated and have higher economic
achievement levels.
(c) Pennsylvania Dutch and a few other German descendants live in
concentrated communities.
(2) Poles
(a) One of the larger ethnic groups (9 million in 2011), Poles still live a
middle-class lifestyle, mainly in the Northeast and upper Midwest
(b) Many have been involved in the formation and leadership of U.S. labor
unions
(3) Other Central Europeans
(a) Austrian descendants are often counted as Germans but census data
indicate that there may as many as 4 million Americans of Austrian
descent
(b) Hungarian Americans are highly acculturated, and working in white-collar
jobs
(c) Czech descendants live in cities or rural non-farm areas and are very
acculturated
(d) Slovaks often work in white-collar jobs, have higher education levels, and
enjoy strong cultural ties
(e) Most Swiss immigrants were multilingual and multicultural when they
arrived and are easily assimilated into the U.S. culture
(f) Gypsies retained their tradition of roving; approximately 1 million
Gypsies live in the US
(4) Russians and People of the FSU
(a) 3 million Russian Americans live in the US as of 2010, many living in
suburbs, attaining higher educational levels and professional careers.
(b) Between 1971 and 1991, many Russian Jews arrived in U.S.
(c) Immigrants from the FSU are from Russia, the Ukraine, and various other
FSU nations
(d) During the 1950s, many Russian Americans quickly acculturated due to
the tense political relations between the USSR and America
2. Worldview
a. Religion
(1) Germans
(a) Major religious affiliation is Lutheran with a minority of Jewish and
Roman Catholics
(b) Rural Germans from Germany still adhere to the Mennonite religion
(c) The Amish are a strict sect of the Mennonites
(2) Poles
(a) Many are Roman Catholics
(b) Many established parish churches
(3) Central Europeans
(a) Austrians, Slovaks, Ukrainians often are Roman Catholics
(b) Some ethnic parishes established
(c) Gypsies follow their traditional spirituality, romaniya. Association with
non-Gypsies “contaminates” Gypsies
 (4)Russians and People of the FSU
(a) Except for the Soviet Jews, the Russian Orthodox Church plays a central
role in the Russian communities
(b) Most Armenians are members of the Armenian Apostolic Church
b. Family
(1) Germans
(a) Large families were the traditional family structure. Children often worked
in the family business
(b) Pennsylvania Dutch, particularly the Amish, have large families
(2) Poles
(a) Traditional families were patriarchal with father providing financial
support
(b) The wives and children seldom worked outside the house
(3) Other Central Europeans
(a) Traditional Czech and Hungarian families have church activities, fraternal
societies, and political organizations that serve as an extended family
(b) Slovaks maintain strong family ties
(c) Gypsies maintain extended families and multifamily groups called
kumpanias and this structure continues today
(4) Russians
(a) Russian families were large traditionally but in the U.S. the Russian
family structure is smaller than the average American family
(b) Armenian families are often tight knit, passing traditional customs down
to the next generation
c. Traditional Health Beliefs and Practices
(1) German Americans use botanical remedies extensively. Health beliefs include
the concept that illness is due to personal health behaviors, including stress
and doing hard work
(2) The Pennsylvania Dutch use traditional folk practices and believe in a strong
religious foundation to healing practices
(3) Polish Americans have religious and faith-based attitudes towards healing
(4) Gypsies believe in a system of purity and pollution, marimé, which may be
related to Asian Indian beliefs. Illness may be due to contact with non-gypsies
and also due to supernatural causes. Home remedies and gypsy healers are
used
(5) Russia and the FSU nations have healing practices that are an integration of
the biomedical therapies and traditional cures such as herbal teas.
Supernatural causes may be associated with illness and magical cures may be
used
(6) In Siberia, shamans may be used to treat health problems

C. Traditional Food Habits

1. Ingredients and Common Foods: Staples and Regional Variations
a. Regional variations in central European and FSU cuisine are minor. The often
cold, damp climate limited foods that could be grown. Armenia is the exception;
Armenian cuisine is more like that of the Middle East.
 b. Common ingredients:
(1) Potatoes, beans, cabbage, beets, eggs, dairy products, pork, beef, fish, apples,
rye, wheat, and barley
(2) Foods were often dried, pickled, or fermented for preservation.
c. Grain-based dishes
(1) Bread, often made with rye flour and other grains, is a staple item; over 100
varieties exist.
(2) Dumplings are one food in common among Germany, Russia, and
Czechoslovakia Dumplings might be stuffed with a variety of meats and
vegetables.
d. Meats and seafood
(1) Pork, smoked hams (with regional variations), beef dishes, poultry
(2) Traditionally, meat was scarce and expensive; therefore, many recipes include
ways to stretch the meat by including breadcrumbs, grinding the meats,
chopped meat dishes, stews
(3) Sausages are an important meat product with specific sausage types produced
in each country
(4) Fresh- and saltwater fish and seafood are eaten fresh, smoked, or cured.
Caviar is eaten.
e. Dairy -- Cheese, fresh milk, butter, sour cream, fresh cream are all common
ingredients
f. Sweets and desserts
(1) Bakery products include regional specialties associated with countries.
(2) Austrian strudel, German Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte (Black Forest Cake),
Russian kisel
g. Beverages
(1) In central Europe coffee is common
(2) Strong tea is drunk in Russia. Vodka is a popular alcohol
(3) Beer is popular in Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia
(4) In Russian and other FSU nations a sour beer called kvass is popular
h. Table 7.1 Cultural Food Groups: Central European and Russian/FSU – Includes
comments on the regional variations of each food group and how these have been
adapted in the U.S.
2. Exploring Global Cuisine: Armenia – Cuisine has been influenced by Greeks, Turks,
Persians, Syrians, and other Arabs (Muslim influence)
a. Staple foods include lamb, yogurt, and breads such as pita
b. Many fruits and vegetables common to warm areas
3. Meal Composition and Cycle
a. Daily Patterns
(1) Central Europe – In the past, five or six meals a day would have been eaten by
the rich, while the poor often had meatless meals
(a) Germans usually ate a small breakfast, a small midmorning meal, a lunch
that was the main meal of the day, a coffee break, and a light evening meal
(2) Russia and the FSU – Traditionally the rich ate four meals a day and the poor
ate less. Today, three hearty meals a day are typical and lunch is the largest
meal of the day
 (a) Zakuski, meaning “small bites,” is still a part of Russian dinners today.
These are an array of small appetizers eaten before the meal
b. Etiquette – Central Europeans are more formal than Americans
c. Special Occasions – The majority of central European holidays have a religious
significance. Christmas and Easter are celebrated and many of these traditions are
seen in the U.S. Examples include the Easter egg hunt and the Christmas tree
(1) Germany – Oktoberfest is a popular, annual festival the lasts for 16 days in the
fall Christmas Eve and Christmas day have traditional foods associated with
them. Easter egg hunts on Easter Sunday originated here
(2) Poland – Christmas and Easter are celebrated. On Easter babka, a rich yeast
cake, is eaten
(3) Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia – all celebrate Christmas,
Advent, Lent, and Easter and specific foods are traditionally served
(a) At Christmas Czechs eat carp four different ways
(b) Slovaks break the Advent fast on Christmas Eve by eating oplatky, a small
wafer-like Communion bread spread with honey. A traditional Easter
dessert is paska.
(c) Easter Eve is the biggest and most important meal of the year in Hungary
(4) Russia and the FSU – Easter is the most important of the holidays and desserts
include pascha. The Butter Festival precedes Lent
d. Therapeutic Uses of Foods
(1) Germans use soups and teas for many common ailments. Other therapeutic
food uses include avoidance of cold beverages by the Pennsylvania Dutch and
Polish Americans using sauerkraut for colic
(2) Gypsies believe fresh foods are nourishing and leftovers are avoided. Certain
lucky foods need to be included in the diet for health
(3) Russians consider butter good for eyesight. Full, hearty meals are needed for
good health

D. Contemporary Food Habits in the U.S.

1. Adaptations of Food Habits
a. Ingredients and Common Foods
(1) The central European and Russian diet is not significantly different from
American fare
(2) Meats in the diet have increased for most central European immigrants
(3) German Americans of eastern Pennsylvania eat many traditional dishes
(4) Many American dishes have German names and history
b. Meal Composition and Cycle
(1) Central European, Russian, and FSU Americans tend to eat meals similar to
traditional American meals
(2) More dairy products are eaten
(3) Little dietary acculturation was found in a study of recent immigrants from
Russia and other FSU countries
(4) Special occasions are associated with more traditional meals and traditional
ingredients are eaten
2. Nutritional Status
 a. Nutritional Intake
(1) There has been very little research specifically focused on the nutritional
intake of the central Europeans after acculturation
(2) Recent European-wide studies show the diets of central Europeans are among
the highest in animal products, potatoes, sweets, and refined or processed
items in Europe
(3) Recent immigrants from Russian and FSU nations may suffer some nutritional
deficiencies due to inadequate consumption of fruits and vegetables
(4) A study of recent immigrant Russian mothers found strong support for
breastfeeding
(5) Heavy alcohol use has been reported in Russia, certain FSU nations, and
Poland
(4) Gypsies have high rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and vascular disease
b. Counseling
(1) Communication difficulties may occur with recent or older central European
or Russian immigrants
(2) Acculturated immigrants have communication styles typical of dominant
American culture
(3) Germans expect good manners and formal relationships
(4) Poles tend to speak quietly
(5) Self-reliance in health care is assumed
(6) Gypsies assume weight gain is a measure of stature and wealth
(7) Russians expect formality

II. Scandinavians
A. Cultural Perspective
1. Introduction
a. The Scandinavian countries include Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, and
Iceland.
b. These countries are located north of the Baltic and North Seas. The warmer
southern areas have the larger populations.
2. History of the Scandinavians in the U.S.
a. Immigration Patterns
(1) The majority of Scandinavian immigrants arrived to the U.S. in the 1800s,
peak years of Scandinavian immigration were between 1820 and 1930
(2) Norwegians and Swedes homesteaded in the Midwestern states, especially
Illinois, Minnesota, Michigan, Iowa, and Wisconsin
(3) The Danes developed 24 rural communities between 1886 and 1935 in which
properties were only sold to other Danes
(4) Second and third generation Finns are highly acculturated
b. Current Demographics and Socioeconomic Status
(1) According to the 2010 U.S. Census, there are approximately 1.4 million
Danes, 4.1million Swedes, 4.5 million Norwegians, and 650,000 Finns and
their descendants now living in the United States
(2) Scandinavians assimilated rapidly into American society
 (3) Most descendants are white-collar workers and professionals with some
Norwegians and Swedes still farming in the Midwest
3. Worldview
a. Religion – Majority of immigrants from Scandinavia were Lutheran
b. Family
(1) Large, nuclear families with strong family ties were typical
(2) Family size decreased with increasing acculturation
c. Traditional Health Beliefs and Practices
(1) Although information is limited, the sauna is used therapeutically
(2) Fish is eaten for good health
(3) Finns believe in natural health care
(4) Swedes practice therapeutic massage

B. Traditional Food Habits

1. Most Scandinavian cooking and food processing reflects preservation methods of
previous centuries. Fish was dried, smoked, or pickled. Milk was often fermented
2. Ingredients and Common Foods: Staples and Regional Variations
a. Fish and shellfish are the hallmark of the Scandinavian diet
b. Lutefisk is a dish made of dried salt cod that has been soaked in a lye solution
before boiling. This dish is still eaten in some rural areas
c. Fermented dairy products such as sour cream, cheese, and buttermilk are common
and many specialty cheeses are eaten
d. Meats were often prepared with vegetables or breadcrumbs added to stretch the
meat. This is the origin of Swedish meatballs
e. Bread is often prepared from rye flour. These may be hard, cracker-like breads
f. Desserts are often rich but not overly sweet
g. Beverages include aquavit and beer
h. Table 7.2 Cultural Food Groups: Scandinavians – Food groups and specific
comments regarding foods for each country are included
3. Meal Composition and Cycle
a. Daily Patterns
(1) Three meals a day plus a coffee break are typical
(2) A smörgåsbord is a large variety of hot and cold dishes arrayed on a table,
where each diner makes individual selections
b. Etiquette
(1) As with many other Europeans, the fork remains in the left hand, and the knife
remains in the right one
(2) When not eating, keep your hands above the table with the wrists resting
on the edge
c. Special Occasions – The biggest, richest, most lavish meal of the year is eaten on
Christmas Eve. Traditional foods include a rice porridge dish, lutefisk, and many
traditional Christmas cookies.

C. Contemporary Food Habits in the U.S.

1. Adaptations of Food Habits – The diet of Scandinavians is typical of the American
majority, including three meals a day and many dairy and protein dishes. Traditional
dishes are eaten at holidays
2. Nutritional Status
a. Nutritional Intake – Scandinavian Americans may be at increased risk of
developing heart disease
b. Counseling – Communication styles include control of emotions, silence (which
is comfortable), and avoidance of unnecessary discussion of illness