Physiology Lecture

Plants and water Balance

 Water- most important compound of living matter
o Crucial for maintaining the normal physiological state of the cell
 Functions of water:
o Solvent/dispersion medium /medium for biochemical reaction- solvent for
mineral salts and organic compounds and, at the same time, a dispersion medium
for colloidal macromolecules and a medium for biochemical reaction progression
o Thermal stability- ensures the ensures the phenomenon of osmosis and allows
turgidity, contributing to stomata movement, to plant orientation in space and to
sprout, leave and other organ positioning and orientation;
o Integral part of cell protoplasm
o Ensure osmosis and turgor pressure
o Donor of protons and electrons for photosynthesis- serves as a donor of protons
and electrons for CO2 reduction in the dark phase of photosynthesis
o Component of redox reactions of the Krebs cycle
o Participates in vital chemical reactions- participates in the reactions of hydrolysis,
oxidation and reduction, assimilation and dissimilation
o Structural part of biological membranes- structural water in biological membranes
ensures the assembly of the phospholipid bilayer, and thus, influences on the
permeability of these membranes to electrons and protons
o Universal carrier- represents a universal carrier, ensuring the transport of dissolved
substances through the xylem and phloem vessels, as well as the radial transport
though the symplast and apoplast
o Integrity of plant organism- ensures the integrity of plant organisms, forming a
continuous flow from the root to the leaves, via which mineral salts and organic
substances are transported
 Chemical Potential
o The free energy per mole of a substance
o Basic principle that describes or measure the capacity of a substance to react or
move
o Determines the hydration capacity of a plant cell
o μ = μ * + RT ln Xw
 μ = chemical activity
 μ* chemical activity of pure water at atmospheric pressure & temperature as
the solution under consideration
 R = universal gas constant
 T = absolute temperature
 C = concentration
 Ln = logarithm
 Chemical Potential of Water (ψw)
o Drives water movements in plants
o In combination to an equal but opposite pressure by the cell wall (Cell wall pressure)
o Result: turgidity
o When ψ p = 0, plant is flaccid
o Ψp = ψ s Ψ w
o Value may either be (+) or (-)
o Turgor Pressure- Produced by the outward force exerted by the expanding
protoplast against the cell wall, known as
 Osmotic Potential (ψs)
o A colligative property of a solution, dependent on the number of particles in a
solution
o Methods for determining ψs averages the contributions of both vacuole & cytoplasm
o Due to the central vacuolar contents (50 80% H 2 O + dissolved solutes)
o ≈ 0.1 to 0.3 MPa, due to salts in the vacuole
o Value is always (-)
 Matrix potential
o A 3rd component of water potential
o Ψw = ψ p + ψ s + ψ m
 o A result of the adsorption of water to solid surfaces
o Particularly important in seed imbibition
o Ψm is a result of the adsorption of water to solid surfaces
 It is particularly important in the early stages of water uptake by dry seeds
(called imbibition) and when considering water held in soils
o Also occurs in cells, but its contribution to water potential is relatively little compared
with solute component. It is also difficult to distinguish the matric component from
osmotic potential.

o
 Water Absorption at the Roots
o by osmosis of water from soil to root hairs
o Osmotic force is developed by the osmotic pressure of the vacuolar sap in root hairs
and cortical parenchyma
o Water is absorbed when the osmotic force of the root hairs of plant roots exceeds the
retention of the water by the soil.
o Water entrance into the cell does not depend on the osmotic pressure value, but
rather on the difference between this value (P) and that of turgidity (T). This pressure
difference, called the suction force (S), is the true active force, participating in water
absorption (S = P T).
o Once inside the root, water moves in 2 pathways: apoplastic and symplastic
pathways.
 Apoplastic pathway is determined by the adhesive properties of the cell walls.
 Symplastic pathways occurs via the lipid bilayer membrane and via
plasmodesmata.
 Water Flux in Plants & ψw
o At incipient plasmolysis (protoplast volume = 1.0)


o In hypotonic solution: ( e.g. pure H 2 O) : ψ = 0;


o In hypertonic solution: ( ψs(H20) < ψs(cell))


 Pathways of water in cells
o Via bilipid layer
o Via aquaporins (gated)
 Regulate osmotic flow (osmoregulation)
 Anatomy of Water Conduction
o Tracheid and vessel element structure provides for the efficient movement of water
through the xylem.
o The tracheid have bordered pit pairs with a central torus that provides a way of
sealing the tracheid if necessary.
o Vessel elements are made up of vessel members that have a perforation plate at
each end.
o The perforation plate may have a scalariform or reticulate structure
 Water potential at various levels of tree
 TRANSPIRATION COHESION TENSION THEORY
Explanation:
 o 1) Evaporation of water by along leaf mesophyll spaces sets up negative pressure
that pulls columns of along xylem from roots to treetops;
o 2) Lower columns of water molecules are pulled up by cohesion & adhesion

The theory can be explained as follows:

(1) Evaporation of water from cell walls into air spaces of a leaf and from the leaf into the
atmosphere (transpiration) sets up a gradient of water potential not only between living cells but
also along cell walls.

(2) the high surface tension of water means that the walls do not dry out but remain permanently
wetted so that due to cohesion (mutual attraction between water molecules) and adhesion
(attraction of water to solid phase such as cell wall), water flows ultimately from root xylem into
the leaf veins (vascular bundle) to replace that which is lost.

(3) water removal from the leaf xylem creates negative pressure a pulling force that drives the
transpiration stream. This tension is relayed to root cells (and soil) resulting to water uptake.

 Evidences supporting Cohesion Theory

o sound of air being drawn rapidly into the wound of plant
o dendrographic demonstration of decrease in woody stem diameter during active
transpiration
o pressure bomb demonstration of water tensions on the order of 0.5 to 2.5 MPa
o findings that Ψ w at lower parts of plant is higher than those of higher
o parts of plant (lower Ψ w)
 Cavitation and Embolism
o When pressure falls to low, water vaporizes
o Xylem conduits fill with water vapor
o Air bubbles forms called embolism that blocks the flow of water
o “Designed leakage hypothesis” (Zimmerman, 1983)
 the hypothesis claims that embolism & cavitation may actually bea safety
valve mechanism during periods of critically low water potential to reduce
transpiration rates and water conductance at the xylem during periods of
drought
 Anatomy of Transpiration
o The process is closely tied to leaf anatomy
o Driving force of water along the plant body
o A 2-stage process:
 1) Evaporation of H2O from the moist cell walls into substomatal air
space
 Substomatal evaporation (stomatal transpiration, 90-95%
 Peristomal evaporation (cuticular transpiration, 5-10%)
 2) Diffusion of H2O vapor from substomatal space into the atmosphere
 Exit of water vapor from the leaf follows 2 pathways:
o A) stomatal transpiration (90-95%)
o B) cuticular transpiration (5-10%)
 Driving force of transpiration: Vapor pressure difference between
substomatal space & atmospheric water
 Plants in water balance
o Water lost by transpiration: 97-99%
o Water used in photosynthesis: 1% due to:
 a perfectly developed root system, necessary for absorption
 the conducting vessels, necessary for transport
 the protective tissues, necessary to minimize evaporation
 stomata, which regulate transpiration
o WB = A/T ≈ 1
 WB -Water Balance
 A –absorption
 T –transpiration
Photosynthesis
Key concepts:
1. Photosynthesis feed the biosphere.
2. Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food.
3. The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.
4. The Calvin cycle use the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce carbon dioxide of
sugar.
5. Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climate.
6. Photosynthesis is essential for life on earth.
 Photosynthesis- process in which plants and other photosynthetic organism manufacture
carbohydrates using CO2 and water with the energy from the sun.
o Pigments in the chloroplasts allow plant cells to capture and harness light energy for
reducing carbon dioxide into sugars.
 Autotroph- self-feeding; producers
o Organisms which synthesize organic molecules from inorganic sources
o Photoautotroph- make organic compounds using the energy derived from the sun
(solar energy)
o Chemoautotroph- chemosynthesis
 Makes organic compounds using energy derived from the oxidation of
chemicals
 Heterotroph- other source feeding organisms
o Organisms which obtain molecules from another organism
o Consumers- ingests organic matter which is living or recently killed (e.g., herbivores,
carnivores, scavengers)
o Decomposers- feeds on dead animals/organisms on non-living organic litter such as
feces or fallen leaves (e.g., bacteria, fungi)

 Photosynthesis is a series of redox reactions

 CO2 is reduced by NADP to complex high energy molecules of carbohydrates.
 Water is oxidized and split to yield electrons, protons, and oxygen.
 o Electron and protons are used to synthesize ATP and reduce NADP while O2 is
used for cellular respiration
 Nature of lights and pigments
o Photons- light that triggers the photosynthetic process travels as a wave or packets
of energy
o Light is a narrow band within the electromagnetic radiation that is emitted by the sun.
o Light, if broken up by a prism, is comprised of different wavelengths of energy that
measures between 380 to 740 nm
o Pigments- molecules or substances in living organisms that absorb light
 The thylakoid membrane of chloroplast contains many pigments that
absorb light of different frequencies or wavelengths
 3 important pigments: chlorophyll a and b, and carotenoids.
 Chloroplasts- organelle of photosynthesis
o A typical mesophyll cell has about 30-40 chloroplast
o Stroma- dense fluid that’s surrounded by the two membranes of chloroplast
o Thylakoid- third membrane system made u of stacks that is suspended in the
stroma
o Thylakoid membranes- separate the stroma from the thylakoid space at the
thylakoid interior
o Grana/granum- thylakoid stacks that are stacked in columns
o Chlorophyll- green pigment that gives leaves their color which resides abundantly in
the thylakoid membrane
 Chlorophyll and carotenoid membranes are combined with thylakoid
membrane proteins to form pigment protein complexes in the thylakoids
 Photosystems
o Pigment protein complexes
 Photosystem I
 Photosystem II
o Pigments in each photosystem are organized in such a way that most of the pigment
act as light harvesting complexes and funnels the absorbed light energy into a single
mesophyll molecule that acts as a reaction center
o Once the light reaches the reaction center chlorophyll, light becomes so
concentrated that it causes energized electrons in the molecules to jump off from the
molecule and transfer to nearby electron carriers or protein complexes that connects
to photosystem I and II
 These events are reduction and oxidation that molecules undergo in the
photosystems
o End results are the reduction of NADP and the synthesis of ATP
 Main pathways of photosystems
o Light reactions and Calvin cycle
o Light reaction- involves events that convert solar energy into chemical energy by
the chlorophyll found at the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts
 Transfers energy and electrons to ATP and NADP
o Calvin Cycle- process of reducing CO2 into sugar or carbohydrates using energy
and electrons from ATP and NADP that were produced from the light reactions
 Results to high energy sugars or carbohydrates which are then shuttled
and stored elsewhere in the plant
 Light reaction and Calvin cycle are linked together mainly by the energy and electron
carriers, ATP, and NADP
 Once used in the Calvin cycle, ADP and oxidized NADP are then shuttled back to the light
reactions where they pick up energy and electrons for the reduction and transformation of
other CO2 in the calvin cycle
 Light reactions- occur at the thylakoid membrane
o 5 major multi-protein complexes
 Photosystem I
 Photosystem II
 Cytochrome complex
 NADP reductase
 ATP synthase
o Membrane-bound electron carriers plastoquinone (pq) and plastocyanin (pc) helps
convery electrons across multi-protein complexes during redox reactions
o Cytochrome complex, pq, and pc bridges photosystems II and I
o Ferredoxin transfers electrons lost by photosystem I to NADP via NADP synthase
o Light reaction starts with photo oxidation of photosystem II, splitting H2O thereby
releasing oxygen
o During light absorption by the photosystems, photons of light excites the chlorophyll
with energy that causes the reaction center of chlorophyll for both photosystems II
and I to lose electron
o The electrons lost by photosystem II are then transferred redox reductions to
plastoquinone (pq), cytochrome complex, plasocyanin (pc), and to photosystem I
where it replaces the electrons lost by photosystem I during photoexcitation with light
o Like in the mitochondrial membranes, pq and cytochrome acts as electron transport
chain of chemiosmosis
o as electron flow from ETC, photons are pumped into the thylakoid space that
establishes a photon motive force or gradient that cause photons to move out of the
thylakoids and down the ATP synthase channels
 this event activates ATP synthase to synthesis ATP
o meanwhile, photosystem I reaction center, being hit by light, loses energetic
electrons and triggers redox reactions at ferredoxin and NADP reductase that
ultimately reduces NADP
 o End products of light reaction are is ATP and NADP and are then used to power the
reduction of CO2 into sugars during Calvin cycle
o 3 main steps of light reaction
 Photoexcitation (and photolysis)
 ATP synthesis
 NADP reduction
 Calvin cycle (C3 photosynthesis)- fixation of CO2 into CHO molecules using electrons
from NADP and energy ATP

o 3 Stages
 Carbon Fixation
 Reduction of PGA to G3P
 Regeneration (RuBP)
o Occurs in stroma
o Main events are the assimilation and reduction of gaseous CO2 into carbohydrates
and sugars
o Carbon Fixation- CO2 is combined with a CO2 capturing called RuBP (iburus
biphosphate) by the enzyme at rubisco
o Reduction- resulting molecule of carbon fixation which is phosphoglyceric
acid/phosphoglycerate (PGA) and is then reduced by NADP and phosphorylated by
ATP to reduce it into 3 carbon sugars called glyceraldehyde triphosphate (G3P)
 G3P are then used to combine into other molecules of sugar like glucose
o Regeneration- when some G3P are used to regenerate RuBP so that the entire
reactions of Calvin cycle can be repeated again for other CO2
 Variations/adaptations of C3 cycle
o C4 cycle (sunny and hot environments)- spatial separations of light and dark
reactions
 Carbon fixation (mesophyll cells) and CO2 reduction (bundle-sheath cells)
  Carbon fixation: PEP and RuBP, and enzymes (PEP carboxylase and
rubisco) (e.g., corn, sugarcane, grass)

Cellular Respiration
 Cellular respiration and fermentation
o Major metabolic strategies that extract energy from food fuel molecules and store
this energy in ATP
o Extraction of energy involves elaborate sets of chemical reactions that is shared by
most organisms
 Differentiated living organisms into 3 main groups based on oxygen requirements
o Strict aerobes- organisms that can only carry out metabolism in the presence of
oxygen
o Obligate anaerobes- can only metabolize in the absence of oxygen
o Facultative anaerobes- can metabolize with or without oxygen
 Cellular respiration- main ATP-synthesizing catabolic metabolism of most aerobic
organisms but can also rely on fermentation at a limited period of time
o Highly compartmentalized
o The different sets of chemical reactions are catalyzed by different sets of enzymes at
different locations in and outside the mitochondrion
 Fermentation- the main metabolism of facultative anaerobes at conditions without oxygen
but can also carry out cellular respiration when oxygen is present
o Also carried out by strict anaerobes
 Characteristic reactions in Cellular Respiration
o Oxidation- strips an electron away from an atom in a molecule
o Reduction- adds an electron to a molecules
o Substrate-level phosphorylation- adds a phosphate directly to a molecule
(substrate)
o Oxidative phosphorylation- phosphorylation of ADP out of proton concentration
gradient established by the oxidation of high-energy molecules
 Main Metabolic Pathways
o Glycolysis (Cytoplasm)- Glycolysis operates only in CHO, converting glucose to
pyruvates
 Can occur with or without O2, while Krebs cycle and Oxidative
phosphorylation cannot
o Krebs Cycle (Mitochondrial Matrix)
o Oxidative Phosphorylation (Inner mitochondrial membrane)
 The different sets of chemical reactions are catalyzed by different sets of
enzymes at different locations in and outside the mitochondrion
 Glycolysis
o Involves 10 enzymatic reactions that partially catabolizes CHO
o First steps of reactions activate glucose with 2 substrate-level phosphorylation into
fructose-1,6-biphosphate
o Then glucose is split into 2 molecules of G-3-P that each proceeds in 2 identical sets
of oxidative reactions and dephosphorylations that ends up as 2 pyruvates
o From here on metabolic pathways for 1 glucose and byproducts are multiplied by 2
o by products: 2 ATP, 2 NADH+
o proceeds into 2 pathways depending on O2 availability
 Aerobic respiration- O2 is abundant
 Anaerobic (fermentation)- O2 is lacking
 Lactic acid fermentation- reduction of pyruvates by NADH+ into
lactic acid
 Alcohol fermentation- reduction of pyruvates by NADH+ into
alcohol
o Function: to oxidize NADH+ and make NAD available
again to continue glycolysis
 Whole point of fermentation is to unload electrons from the
electron escorts of NAD and make them available again as
electron escorts for other glucose molecules that are being broken
down
 Krebs Cycle (Tricarboxylic acid cycle, citric acid cycle)
o Venue: Mitochondrial matrix
o Primary molecule: Acetyl CoA
 Prior to its entry into the Krebs cycle, pyruvates from glycolysis is first
decarboxylated and oxidized by NAD into Acetates which binds with
coenzyme A to form acetyl-coenzyme A
 CoA then shuttles acetate of glucose into the Kreb’s cycle
o Acceptor molecule: Oxaloacetate
 The acetate of glucose then binds with the acceptor molecule:
Oxaloacetate forming Citric acid.
o 1st product: Citrate
o Then citric acid undergoes oxidations, dephosphorylations and decarboxylation that
yield 3 NADH+, 1 FADH+, 1 ATP and 2 CO2 before it is transformed back to
Oxaloacetate, thus proceeding as a cycle
o End-product: Oxaloacetate
o Byproducts: 3 NADH+, 1 FADH+, 1 ATP, 2 CO2
o Can utilize metabolites from breakdown of other CHO, proteins & fats to form ATP,
CO2 and H+.
o Nothing is left of glucose by the end of Krebs cycle
 Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
o Involves electron carriers embedded in inner mitochondrial membrane called
cytochromes.
o Last step of cell respiration where electron carriers: NADH+ & FADH+ from glycolysis
& Krebs cycle unload electrons and H+ at the cytochromes of the electron transport
chain
o As electrons pass along the cytochromes, H+ are pumped across the inner
mitochondrial membrane, establishing H+ gradients (chemiosmosis)
o H+ to diffuse back to the inner mitochondrial compartment or matrix along the ATP-
synthase-H+ channels activating the ATP synthase enzyme to phosphorylate ADP
molecules -→ ATP
o This is known as oxidative phosphorylation.
 yields the greatest amount of ATP
o Oxygen (O2) acts as final electron acceptor.
o O2 binds with H+ to form metabolic H2O
 It’s called metabolic water because the formation of water involves
several metabolic reactions.

Inputs Outputs
1 glucose 2 pyruvates
Glycolysis 2 ATP
2 NADH
2 pyruvates 2 Acetyl CoA
Pyruvate decarboxylation 2 CO2
2 NADH
2 Acetyl CoA 4 CO2
Citric acid cycle 2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Oxidative phosphorylation 10 NADH 30-34 ATP
2 FADH2
Total 30-38 ATP

 ATP yields of Pathways in Cellular Respiration of Glucose

 o During respiration, most energy flows in this sequence: glucose > NADH > electron
transport chain > proton motive force > ATP.
o The diagram that greatest energy productivity is not the direct substrate-level
phosphorylations of ADP to ATP, but rather the redox reactions between glucose
intermediates and electron carriers NAD and FAD.
o If we calculate the ATP profit when cellular respiration oxidizes a molecule of glucose
to six molecules of carbon dioxide, we would find that although the cell respiration of
one glucose molecule can lead to a theoretical yield of 38 ATPs, this ATP yield
would actually vary.
o 2 main reasons for these variations of ATP yield:
 (1) First – oxidative phosphorylation and redox reactions of NAD, FAD are
not directly coupled. So the yield of ATP to the electron and proton
unloading of NADH and FADH is not a 1:1 ratio.
 (2) Second – the transfer mechanism of electrons and protons from NAD
and FAD of glycolysis and Krebs cycle to the electron transport chain are
not the same. NADH from glycolysis is not permeable to the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
 The 2 electrons of NADH captured in glycolysis must be conveyed
into the mitochondrion by one of several electron shuttle systems.
Depending on the kind of shuttle in a particular cell type, the
electrons are passed either to NAD+ or to FAD in the
mitochondrial matrix. The proton gradient may also be used for
powering other metabolic pathways other than cellular respiration,
glycosis, and krebs cycle, resulting to variations of ATP products.
 Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are catabolized in cell respiration of both animals and
plants
 o Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can all be used as fuel for cellular respiration.
 Monomers of these molecules enter glycolysis or the citric acid cycle at
various points.
o Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are catabolic funnels through which electrons
from all kinds of organic molecules flow on their exergonic fall to oxygen.
o Proteins for example when removed of its amine (a process called deamination) may
enter at the formation point of pyruvates or at krebs cycle before their electrons are
passed on to oxidative phosphylation.
o Glycogen may first be catabolize to glucose before entering glycolysis.
o Fats, too, can enter cellular respiration via glycolysis and at the point of Acetyl-Co-A
formation.
o Several points of cellular respiration also yields monomers or intermediate products
that may be used to synthesize the major organic compounds of proteins, glycogen
and fats.
 In other words, cellular respiration is not only a catabolic process of
breaking down organic molecules for the synthesis of ATP, cellular
respiration may also provide intermediate products that may be used for
the synthesis of various important organic compounds such as proteins,
glycogen and fats.
 Additional biosynthetic role of cellular respiration in plants

o Aside from synthesizing substantial amounts of ATP molecules, one other major
function of cellular respiration is that it plays a central role in the biosynthesis of
important plant molecules.
o In the figure, glycolysis and citric acid cycle yield building blocks for the synthesis of
many types of molecules.
 All 20 amino acids, for example, are synthesized from the intermediate
products of cellular respiration.
Alternative Respiratory Pathways in Plants
 Pentose Phosphate Pathway
o Begins with glucose-6-phosphate from glycolysis
 instead of proceeding to form pyruvates, glucose-6-phosphate is
converted to ribulose-5- phosphate that yields either 4-C erythrose or 5-C
ribose sugars. The 4-C erythrose are important precursors to the
synthesis of lignin, anthocyanin and amino acids. While the 5-C ribose
are important precursors to nucleotides or nucleic acids. Besides theses,
pentose phosphate pathways also reduce NADP which are important
reductants of nitrates to amino acids.
o Functions:
 gives off carbon dioxide
 Reduce NADP to NADPH
 Transform glucose to 4-C erythrose & 5-C ribose
 4-C erythrose are precursors to lignin, anthocyanin & amino acids
 5-C sugars yield precursors for nucleic acid synthesis
 Thermogenic Respiration
o Electron transport chain contain alternative oxidases (AOX)
 These mitochondrial oxidases allow electrons to flow along the electron
transport chain without synthesizing ATP
 Oxidizes NADH+
 AOX do not generate ATP; no chemiosmosis
o Thermogenic respiration
o Also known as cyanide-resistant respiration
o Energy in electron carriers, NADH, is converted entirely to heat
o Thermogenic respiration is useful to certain plants covered in snow during winter,
such as the skunk cabbage.
 Generating heat by thermogenic respiration allows these plants to melt
snow and expose their flowers to pollinators even during winter
 been formerly called cyanide-resistant respiration because such poisons
as cyanide do not affect plant tissues having these electron pathways
 Photorespiration
o Photorespiration is a process closely associated photosynthesis
 Mentioned by Mauseth as an alternative respiratory pathway because it
involves oxygen-binding of RuBP
 involves enzymes in the mitochondrion that are part of cellular respiration
o C2 glycolate cycle, also known as the photosynthetic carbon oxidation (PCO) cycle
o An alternative respiratory pathway
o Glycolate is shuttled between 3 organelles:
 Chloroplast
 Peroxisome
 Mitochondrion
o Glycine →CO + H2O
o No energy conserved in ATP/NAD
o End-result similar to thermogenic respiration
 Summary
o ATP production in Cellular respiration involves oxidation-reduction, substrate-level
and oxidative phosphorylation to extract energy from substrates like glucose
o Metabolic pathways of cellular respiration can directly yield ATP but its greatest ATP
yield results from electrons & protons from oxidation-reductions of between
substrates and electron carriers NAD and FAD
o ATP yield varies due to lack of direct coupling between redox reactions and oxidative
phosphorylation as well as due to variety of energy extracted at different stages of
cellular respiration.
o Apart from carbohydrates, other macromolecules such as protein and lipids can also
yield intermediate products that can join various points of cell repiration to yield
energetic electrons and protons for ATP synthesis.
 o Cellular respiration produces intermediate products that serve as building blocks or
precursors for the synthesis of other plant molecules such as nucleic acids and
chlorophyll pigments
o Cellular respiration is also closely associated with other metabolic pathways, called
alternative respiratory pathways

Membrane-based Energy Harvest in the Mitochondrion and Chloroplast