Application of permeable pavements in

highways for stormwater runoff management

and pollution prevention
ABSTRACT: In the future, permeable pavements including the full depth
permeable pavement (FDPP) will be part of an integrated sustainable
transportation program. When designed properly, FDPP can be used as an
alternative best management practice (BMP) for stormwater
runoff management. From a practical point of view, FDPP must maintain
specific characteristics throughout the life of the pavements: (1) have
adequate subgrade reservoir capacity to capture runoff volume, (2) surface
pavement remain highly permeable and unclogged, (3) allowing minimum
permeability of subgrade soil to infiltrate the captured runoff, and (4) assuring
no adverse impact on underground water. During the past ten years the
University of California Pavement Research Center (UCPRC) conducted
numerous research studies to address some of the above critical questions
related to the application of permeable pavement with respect to the highway
stormwater runoff management. The focus of this paper is to discuss and
summarize the major findings of these collective studies related to: (1)
hydraulic performance evaluation of permeable pavement, (2) permeability
measurement of porous asphalt and pervious concrete paved surfaces, (3)
clogging evaluation of permeable pavement surfaces, and (4) water quality
and pollution control issues.

Introduction
In many parts of the world, direct discharge of stormwater runoff generated
from urban roads and highways into natural water bodies is prohibited in
order to protect their quality. For this reason, the municipalities including the
transportation agencies are obligated to use the “best management practices”
(BMPs) to collect the road runoff and treat it before discharging it into the
environment. The implementation of commonly available BMPs on urban
highways is challenging and sometimes impractical due to the lack of adequate
right-of-way land availability. Even when space is available, collecting and
treating large volumes of polluted runoff generated from impermeable urban
highways is often cost prohibitive. Hence, the current conventional
stormwater runoff management in urban areas will not be practical or
sustainable. In addition, with more stringent environmental regulations in the
future, many municipalities in urban areas may be forced or encouraged to
switch from the current impermeable paved surfaces to a greener urban
surface evolution through the implementation of permeable paved surfaces
(Weiss et al., 2017). Compared to conventional impermeable paved surfaces,
permeable pavements (particularly full depth permeable pavement) provide
multiple sustainability benefits including environmental, socioeconomic, and
human health benefits

Clogging evaluation of open graded friction

course pavements tested under rainfall and
heavy vehicle simulators
ABSTRACT: In this study a new procedure is developed to obtain core samples
from field sections to assess clogging mechanisms of open graded friction
course (OGFC) pavements using X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging.
The approach compared X-ray computed tomography (CT) images taken
before and after: (1) rainfall simulations without trafficking to investigate
particle-related clogging and (2) full-scale accelerated pavement rutting tests
(APT) to investigate deformation related clogging of OGFC layers. Rainfall
simulations were performed with runoff water of known total suspended
solids (TSS) and particle size distributions (PSDs). Full-scale accelerated
rutting tests were performed under controlled temperature and loads. Both
investigations were performed for three different OGFC pavements with
different layer thicknesses and mix types. The clogging of rutting test sections
were also evaluated by comparing the surface permeability measurements
performed before and after APT testing.
The results of X-ray CT image processing revealed a significant reduction in
air-void content of core samples after APT rutting tests. The highest air-void
reduction was concentrated at the bottom of the OGFC layers. Permeability
measurements also showed a 40%–90% reduction in permeability after APT
trafficking. X-ray CT image processing of core samples tested under simulated
rainfall showed that air void content reduction is concentrated in the lower
part (2–6 mm from the bottom) of the OGFC layers as a result of particle
accumulation. Small changes in air void contents were observed in the upper
part of the OGFC layers (10–15 mm) while these reductions in air void
contents were not significant to cause surface overflow and hence it is
expected that the tested OGFC pavements will have sufficient permeability to
infiltrate water during most average storm events.

Highlights
 We investigated OGFC clogging under HVS and rainfall simulations.

 We developed a new procedure to core pavement samples for X-ray CT

image evaluation.

 Air void content (AVC) of OGFCs reduced by 22–35% due to permanent

deformation.
  Particle related clogging did not affect the infiltration functionality.

 Majority of the permeability reduction in OGFC was related to rutting.

Review of environmental performance of

permeable pavement systems: state of the
knowledge
ABSTRACT: ermeable pavement (PP) systems provide opportunities to mitigate the impacts of
urbanization on receiving water systems by providing at source treatment and management of
stormwater. However, they do not receive mainstream use throughout much of Canada and the
USA because of a lack of local guidance documents, demonstration projects and performance
data. Studies have repeatedly shown that PPs attenuate stormwater flows by reducing volume
and frequency of stormwater flows, reducing and delaying peak flow rates, and increasing flow
durations. PP systems have been shown to improve stormwater quality by reducing stormwater
temperature, pollutant concentrations and pollutant loadings of suspended solids, heavy metals,
polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and some nutrients. This review is intended as a comprehensive
summary of the current state of knowledge of the environmental performance of PP systems.
Published research is synthesized to examine the hydrologic performance, impacts to water
quality, longevity and functionality and maintenance needs of PP systems. Where appropriate,
the limitations of current knowledge are discussed and emerging and future research needs are
presented. The intent of this review is to provide stakeholders in stormwater management with
the critical information that is needed to foster acceptance of PPs as a viable alternative to
traditional systems.

Microbial Community Structure and Activity

under Various Pervious Pavements
ABSTRACT: : The research reported in this paper compares the soil characteristics in terms of their
microbial structures and activities under several pervious pavements. Due to differences in texture,
construction, and permeable characteristics among these pavements, diverse microbes flourish in
the underlying soil. The writers hypothesized that the soil structure under the JW pavement, a high-
load-bearing water-permeable pavement, allows colonization of abundant and diverse microbes,
thus supporting active and versatile microbial metabolism. The writers collected two soil layers, (1)
aggregate and (2) soil bases, under the JW and three other pervious pavements, (1) asphalt, (2)
concrete brick, and (3) concrete-glass block, installed side-by-side on a university campus in Taiwan.
The writers analyzed the granulometry, water content, soil pH, total organic carbon, total nitrogen
content, enzymatic activities, community-level physiological profiles, and phylogenetic bacterial
diversity, and performed a microbiological assay. Results revealed that the activation and versatility
of microbial activities, and the abundance and diversity of bacterial communities, were mainly
related to the total organic carbon content among the pavements. The microbial compositions and
their activities under the JW pavement were both superior to those under the other pervious
pavements, except for the abundances of fungi and actinobacteria. Bacterial communities under the
JW pavement were more abundant and diverse. The soil under the JW pavement also reflected
more-activated and more-versatile microbial metabolism in all substrates and for specific types of
functional guilds. These results were due to the characteristics of a looser structure, higher
moisture, and a higher total organic carbon content. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000798. ©
2013 American Society of Civil Engineers

Permeable pavement and stormwater

management systems: a review
ABSTRACT: Uncontrolled stormwater runoff not only creates drainage problems
and flash floods but also presents a considerable threat to water quality and
the environment. These problems can, to a large extent, be reduced by a type
of stormwater management approach employing permeable pavement
systems (PPS) in urban, industrial and commercial areas, where frequent
problems are caused by intense undrained stormwater. PPS could be an
efficient solution for sustainable drainage systems, and control water security
as well as renewable energy in certain cases. Considerable research has
been conducted on the function of PPS and their improvement to ensure
sustainable drainage systems and water quality. This paper presents a review
of the use of permeable pavement for different purposes. The paper focuses
on drainage systems and stormwater runoff quality from roads, driveways,
rooftops and parking lots. PPS are very effective for stormwater management
and water reuse. Moreover, geotextiles provide additional facilities to reduce
the pollutants from infiltrate runoff into the ground, creating a suitable
environment for the biodegradation process. Furthermore, recently, ground
source heat pumps and PPS have been found to be an excellent combination
for sustainable renewable energy. In addition, this study has identified several
gaps in the present state of knowledge on PPS and indicates some research
needs for future consideration.
 Laboratory Testing and Modeling for Structural
Performance of Fully Permeable Pavements:
ABSTRACT: This report presents a summary of the results of laboratory
testing, computer performance modeling, and life-cycle cost analysis of
fully permeable pavements. This report provides a preliminary design
procedure and an example set of catalogue-type design tables that can be
used to design a fully permeable pavement pilot and experimental test
sections in California. Results indicate that fully permeable pavements
could be a cost-effective stormwater best management practice (BMP)
alternative as a shoulder retrofit on highways, and for maintenance yards,
parking lots, and other areas with slow moving truck traffic.
Recommendations for implementation as a BMP will require full-scale field
experiments and pilot studies.

Toxicity of urban highway runoff with

respect to storm duration
ABSTRACT:The toxicity of stormwater runoff during various time-based stages
was measured in both grab and composite samples collected from three
highly urbanized highway sites in Los Angeles, California between 2002
and 2005. Stormwater runoff samples were tested for toxicity using three
freshwater species (the water flea Ceriodaphnia dubia, the fathead
minnow Pimephales promelas, and the green algae Pseudokirchneriella
subcapitatum) and two marine species (the purple sea
urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, and the luminescent
bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum using Microtox™). Toxicity results
varied substantially throughout the storm events for both freshwater and
marine species toxicity tests. In general, however, the first few samples
were found to be more toxic compared with those collected during later
stages of each storm event. In most cases, more than 40% of the toxicity
was associated with the first 20% of discharged runoff volume.
Furthermore, on average, 90% of the toxicity was observed during the first
30% of storm duration. Toxicity identification evaluation results found
copper and zinc to be the primary cause of toxicity in about 90% of the
 samples evaluated with these procedures. Surfactants were also found to be
the cause of toxicity in less than 10% of the samples.

Comparative field permeability measurement

of permeable pavements using ASTM C1701
and NCAT permeameter methods
ABSTRACT: Fully permeable pavement is gradually gaining support as an
alternative best management practice (BMP) for stormwater
runoff management. As the use of these pavements increases, a definitive
test method is needed to measure hydraulic performance and to evaluate
clogging, both for performance studies and for assessment of permeability
for construction quality assurance and maintenance needs assessment.
Two of the most commonly used permeability measurement tests
for porous asphalt and pervious concrete are the National Center for
Asphalt Technology (NCAT) permeameter and ASTM C1701, respectively.
This study was undertaken to compare measured values for both methods
in the field on a variety of permeable pavements used in current practice.
The field measurements were performed using six experimental section
designs with different permeable pavement surface types including
pervious concrete, porous asphalt and permeable interlocking concrete
pavers. Multiple measurements were performed at five locations on each
pavement test section. The results showed that: (i) silicone gel is a superior
sealing material to prevent water leakage compared with conventional
plumbing putty; (ii) both methods (NCAT and ASTM) can effectively be
used to measure the permeability of all pavement types and the surface
material type will not impact the measurement precision; (iii) the
permeability values measured with the ASTM method were 50–90% (75%
on average) lower than those measured with the NCAT method; (iv) the
larger permeameter cylinder diameter used in the ASTM method improved
the reliability and reduced the variability of the measured permeability.

Highlights
► This study compares the permeability measured by ASTM C1701 and NCAT
methods. ► Mix design and binder type did not significantly impact the measurement
precision. ► Strong correlation (R2 > 0.72) was observed between the two
measurement methods. ► Permeability values measured by the ASTM were generally
50–90% lower than the NCAT method. ► Larger permeameter diameter used in the
ASTM reduced the measurement variability.

Development of Mechanistic–Empirical Design Procedure for Fully

Permeable Pavement under Heavy Traffic
ABSTRACT: Fully permeable pavements are those in which all layers are intended to be
permeable and the pavement structure serves as a reservoir to store water during storm
periods to minimize the adverse effects of stormwater runoff. Fully permeable pavements
are currently used primarily for light traffic (e.g., parking lots that only allow cars, not trucks).
The development of fully permeable pavement designs as a potential best management
practice for stormwater management in areas that carry heavy truck traffic is of significant
interest. Results are presented from one phase of a project to develop mechanistic–
empirical design procedures for fully permeable pavement designs that will carry heavy
vehicles operating primarily at slow speeds (e.g., in maintenance yards, parking lots, streets,
and highway shoulders). Mechanistic–empirical computer modeling of the structural designs
was performed for three types of surface material (open-graded asphalt, open-graded
concrete, and concrete slabs with cast drainage), considering different traffic loading based
on typical California highway truck traffic, different traffic speeds, and several typical
California climate regions, as well as materials properties developed from laboratory testing.
A preliminary design method and preliminary design charts that considered both hydraulic
and structural performance were developed; some examples of their use are provided. The
mechanistic–empirical approach used in this project for the development of fully permeable
pavement designs could increase the speed of development and implementation of this
technology.

The use of reflective and permeable

pavements as a potential practice for
stormwater management.
ABSTRACT: To help address the built environmental issues of both heat island and stormwater
runoff, strategies that make pavements cooler and permeable have been investigated through
measurements and modeling of a set of pavement test sections. The investigation included
the hydraulic and thermal performance of the pavements. The permeability results showed
that permeable interlocking concrete pavers have the highest permeability (or infiltration rate,
∼0.5 cm s−1). The two permeable asphalt pavements showed the lowest permeability, but still
had an infiltration rate of ∼0.1 cm s−1, which is adequate to drain rainwater without
generating surface runoff during most typical rain events in central California. An increase in
albedo can significantly reduce the daytime high surface temperature in summer. Permeable
pavements under wet conditions could give lower surface temperatures than impermeable
pavements. The cooling effect highly depends on the availability of moisture near the surface
layer and the evaporation rate. The peak cooling effect of watering for the test sections was
approximately 15–35 °C on the pavement surface temperature in the early afternoon during
summer in central California. The evaporative cooling effect on the pavement surface
temperature at 4:00 pm on the third day (25 h after watering) was still 2–7 °C lower compared
to that on the second day, without considering the higher air temperature on the third day. A
separate and related simulation study performed by UCPRC showed that full depth permeable
pavements, if designed properly, can carry both light-duty traffic and certain heavy-duty
vehicles while retaining the runoff volume captured from an average California storm event.
These preliminarily results indicated the technical feasibility of combined reflective and
permeable pavements for addressing the built environment issues related to both heat island
mitigation and stormwater runoff management.

Hydraulic Performance of Fully

Permeable Highway Shoulder for Storm
Water Runoff Management
ABSTRACT: This paper summarizes the results of numerous simulations to assess the hydraulic
performance of fully permeable highway shoulder retrofits designed to capture all the rainfall runoff
falling onto conventional highway surface pavements. The simulations were performed using
commercially available HYDRUS software that uses unsaturated flow theory. The hydraulic properties
of subgrade soil and pavement materials were measured in the laboratory and used as input for
numerical simulation. The simulations were performed for three rainfall regions in California
representing high, medium, and low annual rainfall events. The simulations were performed based on
24-h actual rainfall data using 2-, 50-, and 100-year storm recurrences to determine the critical
thickness of aggregate needed to capture the highway runoff volume without surface ponding and/or
overflow. Sensitivity analyses were performed to evaluate the influence of material, hydrologic, and
geometric factors on the critical aggregate base thickness. Results indicated that an aggregate depth of
about 1.5 m was adequate for most California areas with two-lane highways. Sensitivity analyses also
revealed that the saturated hydraulic conductivity (KsKs) of the subgrade soil is the most important
parameter to be considered in the design of fully permeable pavements, with a minimum effective
allowable value of approximately 10−5  cm/s10-5  cm/s.

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pavement on reducing flood risk
ABSTRACT: Permeable pavement is part of the low impact
development (LID) measurement, which can decrease urban
surface runoff coefficient and flood peak flow. In this paper, a
two-way, six-lane road in Nanjing was selected as the study area.
Storm water management model (SWMM) was used to simulate
the effect of different pavement structures (drainage surface,
permeable pavement and permeable road) under different
rainfall conditions on reducing surface runoff and controlling
urban stormwater. The simulation results show that the drainage
surface can reduce part of surface runoff, but it has no influence
on the reduction and hysteresis of flood peak. The permeable
pavement can reduce part of surface runoff and flood peak and
can delay peak time. The permeable road has better effect on
reducing runoff coefficient and flood peak, which can effectively
reduce the pressure of urban drainage and reduce the risk of
stormwater flood.

INTRODUCTION

According to China’s National Bureau of Statistics, the urbanization rate of

China reached 57.35 percent in 2016. The underlying surface condition in
urban area has changed a lot as the urbanization process is accelerating.
Impervious surfaces such as concrete structures and hardened roads have
increased considerably, which increases the surface runoff and the risk of
urban floods. In addition, groundwater has not been effectively supplied due
to the lack of rainwater drainage. Many cities are therefore faced with severe
water shortage and drought. Developed countries such as United States, UK,
Australia began to pay attention to such problems decades ago. They
developed a series of techniques to control urban runoff and introduced a
series of stormwater management plans and guidelines. These techniques and
guidelines have been applied systematically. Since October 2014, China has
proposed a “sponge city” strategy for the development of urbanization based
on the summary of urban stormwater control concepts in foreign countries. A
series of policy and technical guidelines were issued thereby.
The design of city road should adjust timely, as city road is a very important
part of city development, such as creating ecological grass ditches, sunken
lawns, rain gardens and permeable pavement. Zhang (2009) used SWMM to
simulate the surface runoff of a residential area in Nanjing which was
reconstructed with sunken lawn and permeable pavement. Jin et al.
(2010) used SWMM to study the variation of the flood peak of the drainage
pipeline in the area covered by permeable brick and sunken lawn in
Beijing. Zhenci and Guo (2017) studied the relationship between rainfall and
runoff in the area under four different underlying conditions by distributed
water stability model. Zhou (2017) established the runoff model and studied
the ability of the sunken lawn to store rainfall, when it was under the
conditions of different rainfall frequency and different proportion of green
area. Cai et al. (2017) used SWMM to simulate the runoff and drainage
condition under different rainfall conditions in Guangzhou. Palla used SWMM
to simulate the hydrologic response of a small urban catchment which was
covered by green roofs and permeable pavements. Guan et al.
(2015) quantifies the effects of common stormwater management techniques
on urban runoff generation, such as green roofs and permeable pavements.
Tsihrintzis tested the applicability of SWMM in small subtropical urban
catchments and provided modellers with a way to select appropriate input
parameters to be used in planning studies. Park used SWMM to simulate and
investigate changes in runoff and peak runoff with LID plans. Do-Hyson
(2005) used SWMM to investigate and analyze the runoff characteristics of
non-point source pollutions in the municipal area of Jeonju. Temprano
(2006) used SWMM to predict the pollution in rainy weather in a
combined sewer system catchment in Santander, Spain.
Researchers at home and abroad have carried out studies on the effect of
different kinds of LID measures on the control of surface runoff. Permeable
pavement can be divided into drainage surface, permeable pavement and
permeable road, based on the flow path of surface runoff. However, the
influence of different kinds of permeable pavement structures on urban
surface runoff has not been reported. In this paper, a two-way, six-lane road in
Nanjing was selected as the study area, and SWMM was used to simulate the
effect of different pavement structures under different rainfall conditions on
reducing surface runoff and controlling urban stormwater. The objective of
this study is to provide theoretical support for the “sponge city”.

Simulation of control efficiency of low impact

development measures for urban stormwater
ABSTRACT: A storm water management model(SWMM)was set up in this study to
simulate runoff generation and drainage with different types of precipitation in a
residential area in Guangzhou City, based on real-time observed rainfall-runoff data
and the current drainage network. Combined with the low impact
 development(LID)module, the influences of permeable pavement, sunken lawns, rain
gardens, and combined LID appliances on urban storm water were simulated and
analyzed. The results show that both peak flow and the runoff coefficient decreased
significantly through application of permeable pavement, sunken lawns, rain
gardens, and LID appliances, which was conducive to the drainage of municipal pipe
network. The effect of storm water control and utilization was more significant
during low-return periods. The decreases of peak flow and the runoff coefficient
were more significant when rain gardens were used. The combined LID appliances
had more significant effects in reducing peak flow and postponing the time of peak
flow. The effect of storm water control and utilization was not significant when
permeable pavement and sunken lawns were used.

Principle analysis and application of storm water

management model on stimulating
rainfallrunoff
ABSTRACT: Through the analysis of parameters and structure, it was found that the
description of storm water management model(SWMM) on the process of rainfall-
runoff formation in urban areas is consistent with urban runoff yield and
concentration rule. The physical concept of SWMM is clear because the runoff yield
analytical methods are based on hydrology, and concentration analytical methods
are based on hydraulics. The parameters of SWMM almost have geometric or
physical meanings, but there are some complementary(or dependency) relationships
among some parameters. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the influence of the
equifinality for different parameters on parameter calibration. The composition of
the process of rainfall-runoff formation in catchment area exit using the method of
simultaneous summation shows that the interference between stormflows from
different areas is neglected.

Runoff quality prediction from small

urban catchments using SWMM
ABSTRACTl The RUNOFF block of EPA's storm water management model (SWMM) was
used to simulate the quantity and quality of urban storm water runoff from four relatively
small sites (i.e. 5·97–23·56 ha) in South Florida, each with a specific predominant land use
(i.e. low density residential, high density residential, highway and commercial). The
objectives of the study were to test the applicability of this model in small subtropical urban
 catchments and provide modellers with a way to select appropriate input parameters to be
used in planning studies. A total of 58 storm events, measured by the US Geological Survey
(USGS), provided hyetographs, hydrographs and pollutant loadings for biological oxygen
demand (BOD5), total suspended solids (TSS), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and lead (Pb),
and were used for calibration of the model. Several other catchment characteristics, also
measured or estimated by USGS, were used in model input preparation. Application of the
model was done using the Green–Ampt equation for infiltration loss computation, a pollutant
accumulation equation using a power build-up equation dependent on the number of dry
days, and a power wash-off equation dependent on the predicted runoff rate. Calibrated
quantity input parameters are presented and compared with suggested values in the
literature. The impervious depression storage was generally found to be the most sensitive
calibration parameter, followed by the Manning's roughness coefficients of conduit and
overland flow, the Green–Ampt infiltration parameters and, finally, the pervious depression
storage. Calibrated quality input parameters are presented in the form of regression
equations, as a function of rainfall depth and the number of antecedent dry days. A total of
16 independent rainfall events were used for verification of the model, which showed a good
comparison with observed data for both hydrographs and pollutant loadings. Average model
predictions for the four constituent concentrations from the verification runs also showed
good agreement with NURP published values in Florida and US sites. © 1998 John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd.

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