CONTROLLERS & CONTROL ACTIONSGENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A CONTROL SYSTEM * Good regulator characteristics * Good servo characteristics Large loop-gain |GH|>>1 Accurate measuring device * Good parameter sens! On top of the above requirements, the following requirements must also be met in order to have a satisfactory control system. * Stability: When an input (i.e. reference or disturbance) of a system is changed, the controlled variable should settle to a steady-state value. * Accuracy (satisfactory steady-state response): The steady-state value of a controlled variable should be as close to the reference value as possible. * Satisfactory transient response: Transients should die out quickly without excessive oscillations. Some of these requirements conflict with each other. The parameters of the controllers should be selected to provide a convenient trade-off between them.CONTROLLERS AND CONTROL ACTIONS reference controlled input variable measuring de CONTROLLER INPUT * measure of the error in the * used to adjust the dynamics of controlled variable the plant through an actuator. * usually low-power level * usually high-power level * The manner in which the controller output is produced is termed as CONTROL ACTION or CONTROL LAW. * For the controllers with linear I/0 relationships (linear controllers), the following three basic control actions is very common: + Proportional Control Action (P) + Integral Control Action (1) + Derivative Control Action (D)CONTROLLERS AND CONTROL ACTIONS * Some combinations of the P, | and D control actions are used to form the following controller types: * Proportional Controller (P) * Integral Controller (1) * Porportional + Integral Controller (PI) * Proportional + Derivative Controller (PD) + Proportional + Integral + Derivative Controller (PID) * There exist other types of controllers with linear 1/0 relationships. They are commonly termed as COMPENSATORS. They have transfer functions as polynomial ratios. * There also exist some non-linear controllers. A typical example is an ON-OFF CONTROLLER. * Controllers may also be classified according to the kind of power employed in their operation as: * Pneumatic Controllers + Hydraulic Controllers * Electronic ControllersTWO-POSITION CONTROLLERS * The controller output has only two positions. + Relatively simple and inexpensive, therefore widely used in both industrial and domestic applications. + Inits simplest form: M, for e(t)>0 m(t) M, for e(t)<0 where M, and M, are constants + Ifthe minimum value (M,) is zero ==> ON-OFF CONTROL + IfM,;=M, BANG-BANG CONTROL * Real two-position controllers have a differential gap. mie) > | + differential gap=2 y To PY et)THERMOSTAT WITH BIMETALLIC STRIP Wire Wire Bimetallic Strip ©2001 HowStuffWorksLIQUID LEVEL CONTROL solenoid 4 switch | v Gn vane, | float 7 k * Since the transfer function between q,,(¢) and h(0) is with no control action are: areaA AO FILLING cURVE —" nl 9=Q for 20 Ginlt _{Q,(constant) when the valve is open )=! Qo 0 when the valve is closed H(s)__R aT D, (5) aRseT Filling and emptying curves no) hy EMPTYING CURVE Gq(t)=0 for t20 0 tLIQUID LEVEL CONTROL + By using ON-OFF controller, itis possible to control h(¢) around a desired value h, where 0 corrective action is small ‘> may result ina SLUGGISH system. IfKpis large ==> corrective action is high > may result in an UNSTABLE system.EXAMPLE CHYDRAULIC) Recall the hydraulic servomecharitm comps given for block diagram 9 at C kacya ay the transfir function betwen mand © is given by ae ey FO 4 Inder _corma_operdliing wnditions | Ka/etantn| >> 4 thas. Mz bok, ee E ote lite a Poconbuler Fa exam (PNeumaTic) a NOL RAPPER type he following figure shaos rinporkona Comralier? Let e=0 correspond to ty rome flopper aislarce ond To. py conbot prtnnare. Any serail ehenge. Mackuokngverror €. from tks wan “produces "a. Smal Je \oppee antares Se a fais Spite Safa ation gordi CPrpactonal contol)ExAmPLe (EeLecneonic) The earl of the TONAL AMPLIFHeER, vischorie combollers is the OPmea— whieh fo a De. Somplifier ey wiry Wigh i and oh ah ampedanee, Kame a sina 120, yet, me Merwe _ ond at = KG or large values ef & in proce IF _adPy, Onis Misuship betomes Foportonae Controller ve Kp may be adjusted ty changing Ra oni &y wally Ry YeINTEGRAL CONTROL ACTION AND I-CONTROLLERS The output of the controller m(t) is changed at a rate proportional to the actuating error e(t) (i.e. the controller output is proportional to the integral of the error signal) m(t)=K, f e(t)at + E(s) M(s where; K; is termed as the INTEGRAL GAIN. In general, the I-control improves the accuracy of a control system. As the controller output will be proportional to the area under actuating error vs. time curve, even a small error can be detected. m(o) K, T m(e) e() D1 0 t 0 t I-CONTROL HAS A MEMORY ! m(t) may continue to be non-zero even if e(t) becomes zero due to accumulation of past error: The memory may lead to oscillations or even instability.EXAMPLE (HYDRAULICS Recall hydraulic servorotor example Ee) [e/a Moy Ss TKOMAPLE : CELecTRoNIe) _st% ‘uqleett MaMele + CevEcTEONIC) Mi EO MO yt Ee RCS 4 Te Res g Ree for \Res|y>4DERIVATIVE CONTROL ACTION The output of the controller m(t) is changed proportional to the time rate of the actuating error e(¢) de(t) m(t)=K dt where; Kp is termed as the DERIVATIVE GAIN. * This type of controller has the anticipating ability. IT TELLS YOU THE FUTURE ! * Produces a corrective action proportional to the slope of the actuating error vs. time curve. + In general, the D-control is effective in reducing oscillations.DERIVATIVE CONTROL ACTION The major problems of D-control action are: Problem: It is insensitive to constant errors. Solution: It is always used in combination with P or PI actions. Problem: It amplifies the noise signals coming with e(t). Solution: This problem can be handled by filtering the control signal before being fed to the actuator. Problem: Cannot be used with non-differentiable references (e.g, corners, discontinuities etc.) Solution: Use rate feedback. Where, the output of the controller is proportional to the derivative of the feedback instead of the derivative of the error. It requires the time derivative of the feedback information or the measurement of the time derivative of the controlled variable.PROPORTIONAL + INTEGRAL (PI) CONTROLLERS m(=Kpe(t)+A2 f ele)at K,=3t 1 where; Kp= proportional gain (affects both P and | actions) T;= integral time, __1/T;= reset rate K;= integral gainEXAMPLE : (SYORULIC) Recall the hydro ie Servomechamism example n® 2h For the walking beam: Wij 9 ea) cs 5) ae EG) ) a For the cervomotor + mia = K wesy fora balan fer tha spring/damper Combination ¢ c[sMe) —sZ@T = k 26s) Here Wis assumed That te foress applied through. the walling beam ave at very low levels).The last equation can be wiitten ae Cheese) 26> = cs Me Than the ouerail lock diagram of Phe system batomes GE a aab Text The tronsfer funelion behwen, m ond @ ton be Oblained from the Bleck diagram as follows: _. K Me ats 'O~ ps E eS Stal a Th such a controller, undar norma operation, | Ket /cascres| o> 4 ity Une result that Me 4 Ba 7 ROCs where and T;= Tae tke controller products PI - action.PROPORTIONAL + DERIVATIVE (PD) CONTROLLERS m(t)=K pe(t)+K pT pé(t) Ky=KpT > M(s) _ EG) p(1+T,s) Rs) E(s) M(s) where; Kp= proportional gain (affects both P and D actions) 9 t Tp = derivative time (action time) Kp = derivative gainEXAMPLE: (PNEUMATIC) eo Lows, Stiffness ik Aven +A Flexibitihy of the. bellows ds well os the Com pressi_- bility of The pressurized In proportional tenbyllers seckom, ‘it was given that pW= Kaw Similac to He walking beam case in hydraulic ervomolor exam pia: b 2i)= ect) —9_ yt aye a Forea balance fir the lxllows gives kyth= RA ae Te ote Note that ¢ includes RO= RO- Rew But 7 Qay=c RSFrom last vo equations + Paes, 4 PG). RES Thon, the block diagram of the system betomes: Ru Re {> The transfer furction betwen QB and e be obtained from the lock diagram as follows: won » Re K t+ ase k Reese Tn such a controller, the loop gain [Kad /CeasykCecs+1>} | is normally very much greater than uni the transfer findtion simphfied to gre fy. Thus etweus Band e ~an be Ra ES = Kp liste) chore bk = Kp= BK ond Ta= RePROPORTIONAL + INTEGRAL + DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROLLERS m}=K pele) +K pT Ae f e(s)at 10 M(s)_ le zt) » (147, s+——) + Els) M(s) moO KT]CONTROL ACTIONS CASE STUDY controlled input u(t): voltage applied to the motor uncontrolled input Tp(e) : disturbance torque utput ible controlled variable: (6): angular position of the load c(t) : angular velocity of the load * The torque generated by the motor is given as: T(t)=Ku(t)—K,,o(t) * The differential equation describing the dynamic behavior of the system is; 422K u(0)-K (047 (0) 42D 4K (t)=K,ul#T 0) oR J OO) 1K ulejer ple * In Laplace domain: (Us+K,,)Q(s)=K,U(s)+T p(s) OR (Us?*+K,,s)O(s)=K,U(s)+T7 p(s)SPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (P-CONTROL) * Laplace transform of the dynamic equation in which the output is 2(s): (Ust+K,,)Q(s)=K,U(s)+7 p(s) @ * ASSUMPTION !!! Measuring devices are perfect (i.e. no dynamics, no noise) ==> —_H(s)=1 (unity feedback) 1, Proportional (P) Control: T,(s) 2(s) + E(s s Qs) u(t)=K Lo, (e)—o(¢)] U(s)=K,[2,(s)-Q(s)]_ (2) substitute (2) in (1): (Jst+K,,)2(s)=K,K p[@,(s)-2(s)]+7,(s) [Js+(K,+K,K p)]Q(s)=K,Kp@,(s)+T p(s)SPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (P-CONTROL) 1.1 Servo characteristics: (T,=0) [Us+(K,,+K,Kp)|Q(s)=K,KpQ2,(s) > E(s)=@,(s)-Q(s) > E(s K,Kp Js+(K,+K, Kp) For a step reference input: o,(t)=o, h(t) 0 t Final Value Theorem (co)=lim{s F(s)] can be applied to find the steady state érror es v, OK = e,,=lim|[s E(s)]=lim s——+Ka _@r_|_ Bo bag K 6 wo) JS4(K,+K,Kp) 8 [K+K,K,| zZ a This constant steady-state error is termed OFFSETSPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (P-CONTROL) Final Value Theorem f(cc)=lim |s F(s)] can also be applied 30 to find the steady-state value of the output a., oO tole) KK K,Kp fs @,,=lim |s Q(s)]=lim s——* 25 tn ng ey We 0 so Js#(K,+K,Kp) s K,+K,Kp Note that w,, # w, but w,, converges to w, for large values of Kp Fora ramp reference input: o,(t)=a,th(e) 2,(s)= #8, 7 IstK, —_& ==lim|s £(s)|=lim °Ts4(K,+K,Kp) 3 For the ramp reference input, P-control is USELESSSPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (P-CONTROL) 1.2 Regulator characteri: @,=0) ; 1 [Js+(K,+K,Kp)]Q(s)=T p(s) > 29) KK) 4) E(s)=2Xg)-2(s)=-Q(s) > 59)= RK)" »(s) For step disturbance T,(t)=DAlt) 7,(s)=2 im|s E(s)|=' tim — 190 Jst(K,+K,Kp) 8 |K,+K,Kp Finite error !!!__as K,, goes to 0, e, approaches zeroSPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (I-CONTROL) * Laplace transform of the dynamic equation in which the output is Q(s): (Js+K,,)Q(s)=K,U(s)+T p(s) a * ASSUMPTION !!! Measuring devices are perfect (i.e. no dynamics, no noise) ==> —_‘H(s)=1 (unity feedback) 2. Integral (1) Control: u(t)=K, J) [o,(t)-a(t)]at substitute (2) in (1): increased order (Js+K,,)Q(s) [2,(s)-2(s)]#T p(s) (JK, s#K, K,]O(s)=K,K,2,(s)+s7 (8)SPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (I-CONTROL) 2.1 Servo characteristic T)=0) [Us'+K,,stK,K,]Q(s)=K,K,Q,(s) > KK, Is +K,stK,K; E(s)=2,(s)-Q(s) % E(s) For a step reference input: o,{t)=,Alt) Q,(s) e,,=lim[s E(s)|=lim s "30 0 Fora ramp reference input: lim[s E(s)J=lim s o,(t)}=a,th(t) Q,(s)= Finite error !!! as K, goes to ©, e, approaches zeroSPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (I-CONTROL) 2.2 Regulator characteristics: («,=0) [Us +K,stK,K,]Q(s)=sT p(s) > Q(s) T,(s) JS+K 8tK,K, E(s)=2g)-2(s)=-@(s) % E(s)>=———*——T,,(s) (s}-BHa)- 2s ts) oe tK,stK,K, ols For step disturbance Tp(t)=Dalt) e,=lim[s £(s)|=lim At steady-state, a constant disturbance is completely rejected !!!SPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (I-CONTROL) 2.3 Dynamic behavior: damping ratio undamped natural frequency Characteristic equation: Js*+K,,8+K,K,=0 > 0) 0<¢<1 — underdamped system (oscillating system) ¢=1 critically damped system 4 n v overdamped system overdai 0 underdamped critically damped mped 0 @, and Care: As K, goes to co, approaches zero (dynamic behavior gets worse !!!)SPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (PI-CONTROL) * Laplace transform of the dynamic equation in which the output is Q(s): (Jst+K,,)@(s)=K,U(s}#T p(s) @ * ASSUMPTION !!! Measuring devices are perfect (i.e. no dynamics, no noise) ==> ——_H(s)=1 (unity feedback) 3. Proportional + Integral (PI) Control: Ts) Q,(s) + s) s Q(s) ult}=K,[o,(t)-a(t)|+K, J’ [o,(t)-e(¢)]ae U(s)=(KrH[0,(s)-2(s)] @) substitute (2) in (1): : KK, (Js+K,,)Q(s)=(K,K p+ y )2,(s)-2(s)]#7 p(s) [Us+(K,,+K, Kp) s+K, K,]Q(s)=(K,KpstK, K,)@,(s)#sT p(s)SPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (PI-CONTROL) 3.1 Servo characteristic T)=0) K,K ps+K,K, [Us°4+(K,,+K,Kp)s+K,K,|Q(s)=(K,KpstK,K,)Q,(s) > 9s)" ek Kerk, 2s) E(s)=2,(s)-Q(s) KK ps+K,K, +(K,+K,Kp)s+K,K, For a step reference input: 0,()=0, h(t) e,=lim|[s £(s)|=lim s ———25 +Kws __ 7 10 sso Is +(K,+K,K,)s+K,K, Fora ramp reference input: IS+K,s 7 =lim[s E(s)}=lim s———S* «5 ___ o(=a,th(t) — @,(s) aes lim|s ee) Ie +(K,+K, Kp) s*K, Ky * Note that, the behavior of the system response is identical to that of I-control case ! * When I-control is used in combination with others, the steady-state behavior of the system is dictated only by the I-control action !!!SPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (PI-CONTROL) 3.2 Regulator characteristics: («,=0) s Js*+(K,,+K,Kp)s+K, K,]Q(s)=sT p(s > &3)= > [Js?4(K,+K, Kp) s+K,K ,]Q(s)=sT p(s) (s) Walk rK. Kar, T,(s) =) 7 =— -—_—s E(s)=2¢)-2(s)=-2(s) > E(s) Falk K KKK, ) For step disturbance Tp(t}=Dh(t) e,=lim[s E(s)|=lim —— 590 soo Js 4(K,+K,Kp)stK,K, 8 Same as the I-control caseSPEED CONTROL OF THE LOAD (PI-CONTROL) 3.3 Dynamic behavior: 2 Characteristic equation: Js’+(K,,+K,K »)s+K,K,=0 > s'+26o,s+02=0 2, Kot K, Kp KK, If the characteristic equation is written as s°+—*—*—* 54+—* 0 w, and ¢ are: 2VK,K,J + Similar to the I-control case, as K, goes to o, ¢ approaches zero (dynamic behavior gets worse ! + However; ¢ can be adjusted by properly selecting Kp + For a specific application, suitable values for Kp and K, should be selected such that oscillations and dynamic error in ramp response can be kept within tolerable limits.