SLM - 309 Film Appreciation

Film Appreciation Table of Contents
___________________________________________________________________
Table of Contents
___________________________________________________________________
UNIT 1 Film as a Language
LESSON-1 Film as a Medium of Communication: Concept, Strengths & Limitations 01
LESSON-2 Components of Film: Script, Light, Sound, Camera, Acting, Music, Editing 11
LESSON-3 Visual Language: Shot, Scene, Sequence, Montage,

Mise-En-Scene and Continuity 27
UNIT 2 Landmarks in Cinema
LESSON-1 Various Movements in Cinema: Expressionism, Italian Neo Realism and

French New Wave 37
LESSON-2 Milestones and landmarks in World Cinema: Alfred Hitchcock,

Dziga Vertov, Vittorio De Sica, Akira Kurosawa and Satyajit Ray 44
LESSON-3 Landmarks of Indian Cinema: Silent Era (Raja Harishchandra),

Socials (Mother India), Parallel Cinema (Ankur), Diaspora (Namesake) 53
UNIT 3 Trends and Debates in Indian Cinema
LESSON-1 Emerging Trends in Contemporary Indian Cinema:

Computer Generated Imagery (CGI), Crossover and Experimental Cinema 68
LESSON-2 Censorship: Need and CBFC standards 77
LESSON-3 An Overview of Contemporary Indian Film Industry:

Multiplex culture, Piracy and Statistics 88
UNIT 4 Film Appreciation
LESSON-1 Film Appreciation: concept, need, elements and Cinematic Language 104
LESSON-2 Film Review: Critical Appreciation of Cinema as a text,

Discourse and Narrative 116
LESSON-3 Job Profile and Responsibilities of a Film Reviewer 127

Unit 1, Syllabus Film Appreciation
___________________________________________________________________
UNIT 1 BA (JMC) 309 L: 12

___________________________________________________________________
Film as a Language
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 01
Film as a Medium of Communication: Concept, Strengths & Limitations
LESSON 2 11
Components of Film: Script, Light, Sound, Camera, Acting,
Music, Editing
LESSON 3 27
Visual Language: Shot, Scene, Sequence, Montage,
Mise-En-Scene and Continuity
BA (JMC) 309 1
Film Appreciation Unit 1, Lesson 1
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 Film as a Medium of Communication:
Concept, Strengths & Limitations
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Film
1.3 Film as a Medium of Mass Communication
1.4 Film as Medium of Art Form
1.5 Strengths of Film
1.6 Limitations of Film
1.7 Summing up
1.8 Assignments
1.9 Self-check questions
1.10 Terminal questions
1.11 Possible answers of self-check questions
1.12 Keywords
1.13 Suggested further readings
2 BA (JMC) 309
Unit 1, Lesson 1 Film Appreciation
1. Film as a Medium of Communication:

Concept, Strengths & Limitations
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In Unit 1 of the course ‘Film Appreciation’ we shall consider the film as a language. In
this unit we will discuss film as a medium of communication, concept of film and
strengths and limitations of film; components of film i.e. script, light, sound camera,
acting, music, editing etc.; visual language of film i.e. shot, scene, sequence, montage,
mise-en-scene and continuity.
In the present lesson we shall discuss the film as a medium of communication and
concept, strengths and limitations of film.
___________________________________________________________________
1.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you would be able to:
• describe film as a medium of communication

• describe the concept of film
• discuss strengths and limitations of film
___________________________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction
The film as a medium of mass communication is universal which crosses all
boundaries. Film has been influenced by various artists, countries, innovators,
art forms, businesses and the coming together of these forces creates
something unique which is film as we know it today. Understanding these
contributions makes the study of film more interesting and valuable.
1.2 Concept of Film

Film is a form of entertainment, information and education composed of such a
sequence of images and shown in a cinema hall etc. Film is a continuous strip
of exposed celluloid. Celluloid is composed of several reels. Reels have several
shots. Shots have several frames. Frames have only images which are static
and do not move. So film is only a sequence of static images, recorded by the
camera. These images move and come to life through projectors, running one
after the other at the end of each reel.
BA (JMC) 309 3
Actually there is no real movement of images when the projectors project them
on the cinema screen. It is only an optical illusion of movement of images. This
illusion of movement is made possible by the property of quality of the viewer’s
eye. We humans have in our eyes the faculty called persistence of vision.
Persistence of vision is the ability of the retina of our eye to retain the image
due to the stimulus of light. So film strip contain only static, frozen movement
and action. Fast projection on the images on the screen gives an illusion of
movement and action to the eye which has persistence of vision.
In technical term film is a thin flexible strip of cellulose coated with a

photographic emulsion, used to make negatives and transparencies. A strip of
film wound on a spool, usually 8, 16, or 35 millimetres wide, up to several
hundred metres long, and having one or two lines of sprocket holes along its
length enabling it to be used in a cine camera.
The conditions under which a film is screened and is received by the cine-goers
in a cinema house demand concentration of different sections of society, sitting
together in the same hall and constituting the audience.
There are different types of films such as Feature films, Short films and
Documentaries. Short films and feature films are fictional. In Documentaries,
we have the depiction of reality. Various socio political issues are portrayed.
Film making has become popular of late with the arrival of smart phones and
falling costs of cameras and other editing tools.
1.3 Film as a Medium of Communication

Film is one of the most popular media of communication. Through film, the
director communicates with the audience. The images, the words, the music,
the sound effects are skilfully integrated for the entertainment of the audience.
Audience is equally important in this process of communication. The action on
the screen does not take place between actors of a film; rather the action takes
place among the actors and the audience.
Film is an audio-visual medium and uses images, sound and editing to

communicate. It is a combination of several arts like, literature (story, poetry),
painting, music, architecture, sculpture, photography, dance, costume,
techniques etc. Merging of several arts makes film more complex as well as an
effective medium of communication. Even illiterate people can understand what
is happening on the screen.
Film does not tell, it shows. Film has a magnetic hold on the mind of the
audience. Film is also a medium of non-verbal communication. In other words,
film speaks through silence, facial expression, body language etc. Film shows
the anger on the face without the use of verbal language. For example, Gulzar’s
Koshish is about a deaf and dumb couple. They live in society like normal
4 BA (JMC) 309
human beings. They communicate through hand movements, facial

expression, gesture etc. Facial expressions make cinema more effective.
Film is a very powerful medium of mass communication. Through this medium,

a big team like producer, director, story or scriptwriter, songwriter, music
director, set designer, costume designer, choreographer, character performers,
art director, fight director, camera man, lights man, costume man, make-up
man, scene designer, sound man, clapper boy and lot many technical crew
work together to make a film and want to communicate with the masses. After
a film has been made, the financier, the distributor, the exhibitors etc. work
together to make it available to the common people.
It is a collaborative medium. Filmmakers produce films for masses not for

individuals. It has the potential to reach the heterogeneous audience. Millions
of cine-goers watch the movie in a country. Although in a cinema hall thousands
of people can watch a film at one time, it can be shown in many cities, towns
and villages at the same time. Today there are immense opportunities to get
and watch a movie. Internet, Film festivals and technical knowhow and interest
of the people have made film as one of the most popular mass medium
nowadays.
Film is an effective medium for development also. Films can contribute to

modernizing the traditional society by helping to change the attitudes of people.
For example, a change in attitudes relating to work, sex, religion, customs,
communities, beliefs etc. can be brought about by films. Films can promote
national and emotional integration. They can bring about a creative
understanding between different regions and their people. Films can be a
medium for educating the people against superstitions and for promoting
scientific, modern ideas.
1.4 Film as a Medium of Art Form

Film, the fusion of several arts including painting, dance, drama, music, poetry,
sculpture, architecture, photography, editing etc, is a unique art. Devices like
montage, double exposure have made it very artistic. What makes film unique
is its life like quality.
People on the screen can be seen walking, talking, laughing, weeping, dancing,
singing, sleeping, driving etc. as it happens in real life. Although the actions of
a film do not take place in real time or in real life, yet it is believable. What
distinguishes film from other arts is its ‘movement.’ The ‘movement’ makes film
life like. Film does not look artificial. Through frontal shot, a director can make
a character to ‘talk’ to the audience. No doubt, it is one-way communication.
However, the audience becomes the part of the action that takes place on the
BA (JMC) 309 5
screen. A house cannot move. Painting cannot move. The tree on a canvas
cannot move. The photograph cannot move. Each image or frame is static.
When twenty-four frames/photos per second are projected on a screen at a

particular speed, the images appear to be moving. There is no physical
movement on the screen; it is an ‘illusion of movement.’ What gives movement
to cinema is the concept of ‘persistence of vision.’
Life consists in movement. A dead body cannot move. Any person in deep
sleep also has some kind of movement. When any person breathes, s/he
moves. Therefore, it is the motion of events, which gives the film a unique
identity of being life like. The nature of film to record the undirected objects also
distinguishes it from other arts. For example, sun cannot be directed to set or
rise in a particular way. The director cannot direct a falling leaf in a particular
desired way. Some undirected objects are also recorded when the director
shoots a film. When the action is being recorded and a leaf falls, the camera
records the natural movement of the leaf.
Rudolf Arnheim says that film, “…reproduces motion and events as accurately
as it does the shape of things…the arts are greatly concerned from the
beginning with things in action: hunting scenes, war, triumphal processions and
funerals, dances and feasts.”
Film makes people laugh and cry, sad and happy etc. Today good quality
literature is being translated into cinematic narratives. The director taken for the
current study, Gulzar bases most of his films on literary stories. For example,
he bases his film Khushboo on a story by Saratchandra Chattopadhyay.
1.5 Strengths of Film
Film has been a cardinal means of mass communication. It is a reliable and

meaningful means of information and entertainment. In popularity and appeal,
it is far ahead of other available media of mass communication. Like literature,
it is a reflection of society, customs, values, culture and diverse socio-economic
propositions and has a great impact on the successive generations of society
in multiple ways.
Like other work of arts, film is the reflection of the hopes, aspirations,
happiness, dejections, frustrations and contradictions of the society in which it
is conceived and created. With the passage of time and changing socio-
economic conditions the objectives and values of film have undergone dramatic
changes, which have on the one side, brought the betterment of the society
while on the other hand, given birth to a set of social evils and complicated
issues.
6 BA (JMC) 309
Making of film generally is based on transmitting good amount of message for

society, as it highlights the ills and ingrained socio-economic and cultural
problems concentrated in our society. It is a mirror of society as it displays the
plight of women, who are impoverished, underprivileged, oppressed and
marginalised and it is quite visible in every comer of the society. It brings diverse
social issues to the fore and gives ideas to the society to either curb or eliminate
every menace through it too. Film helps society in general and individual in
particular in bringing happiness, peace and tranquillity, prosperity, harmony and
creating cordial ambience to live amicably. Film helps people of diverse races,
castes, creeds, cultures, communities and religions coming from diverse
corners of the world to peacefully coexist by understanding their customs,
religions, social behaviours, cultures, values and languages.
Film can be instrumental in curbing menace, like terrorism, naxalism, money

laundering, rape, and eve-teasing by appealing to the conscience of various
stakeholders of the society such as citizens, government, NGOs, lawyers, and
intellectuals, Film helps in creating awareness about different problems and ills
and their associated ramification and repercussions for the society.
Film helps connect one society to other society, one social group to other, one
culture to other culture, one religion to other religion one geographical location
to other locations. It is not only effective in entertaining people but it also
facilities various ways and means for the people and groups to highlight their
issues and problems.
Films also help in promoting solidarity among people, mutual co-operation, as

well as mutual harmony and patriotism. Through films the film makers try to
attack the social evils such as child marriage, un-touch ability, discrimination,
sexual abuse, corruption and female foeticide. Today, films are widely being
produced not merely to entertain people, but to bring various issues to the
notice of society by touching issues of every area ranging from society,
education, politics, terrorism, naxalism and administration.
Film can also propagate substantial amount of salubrious message to the

society in guiding people and helping them to lead life amicably. It can teach
people about various components of life like social and moral values, ethics,
affection, decency, nobility, religious tolerance, austerity, high thinking, regard
for the elderly and women, advantages of joint family system etc.
1.6 Limitations of Film
BA (JMC) 309 7
Film is a product of interaction between machines and artistic and technical

persons. Therefore, film has a few limitations also. The production of a film is a
very complex, time taking and long process. Film is highly a mechanical
medium. It uses many mechanical devices like cameras, microphones, dubbing
machines, editing machines, several lenses for cameras, projectors, mixers,
sound tracks, trollies to mount the cameras, celluloid, laboratory equipments
etc.
Film is an expensive medium as it involves a strong team work such as

producers, directors, financers, music composers, singers, choreographers, set
designers, costume designers, performers, technical crews, marketing team
and projection theatres etc. These all needs a huge amount of money. Apart,
the emphasis on super star culture, box office hits, multinational corporates
often detract from the aesthetics, beauty and scope of this powerful medium.
Like two sides of a coin, film also brings with it certain disadvantages, Film
earlier was produced with clear intention to highlight the issues and suffering of
society but now we experience the diminishing values and obnoxious
ramifications on society in general and people in particular. Nowadays films
are made that are full of indecent scenes, violence, sexual abuse, crimes and
indecent exposure. In film, obscene scenes are being shot and obscene
language and gestures are overtly being used which have polluted and
frustrated the minds of not only adults but teenagers and little kids also. The
scenes of violence, crime, sex, communication, untouchability and
discrimination what film produces these days cause abhorrence, anger,
frustration and lead to abnormal social behaviour in adults as well as small kids.
With growing consumerism, film has been replaced by commercialism and lost
its value and purpose as well. To make film a grand success, film-makers are
inserting various low-value components like sex, violence, obscene scenes and
communalism to ensure success of films at box office. Majority of the movies
that they are producing are stuffed with vulgar scenes, lewd comments, and
abusive language. They are completely devoid of any social purpose, message,
relevance and significance. Film has greatly damaged the social values and
undermines social fabric too. Adolescents are seen copying those indecent
and silly acts portrayed in the films and they indulge in rape, eve-teasing,
passing lewd comments, teasing girls and outraging their modesty. Film has
had a role in deforming the image of society and women in particular. The films,
today, are characterised by the excessive portrayal of women. Women are
used as decorative item to sensationalise and lure more viewership. All this has
had to the degradation of their image, identity, status, nobility and persona.
Therefore, deviation of Indian film from social responsibilities is a matter of

grave concern. The growing tendency of the film industry to exploit sex, women,
8 BA (JMC) 309
violence and vulgar scenes must be firmly contained. It should primarily be used
to educate and inform the people and to disseminate significant and relevant
message to the society so that it could be used as a tool to purge all existing
social evils and solidify social fabric.
1.7 Summing up
Film is a form of entertainment, information and education composed of such a
sequence of images and shown in a cinema hall etc. Film is a continuous strip
of exposed celluloid. Celluloid is composed of several reels. Reels have several
shots. Shots have several frames. Frames have only images which are static
and do not move. So film is only a sequence of static images, recorded by the
camera. These images move and come to life through projectors, running one
after the other at the end of each reel.
Film uses images, sound and editing to communicate. It is a combination of

several arts like, literature (story, poetry), painting, music, architecture,
sculpture, photography, dance, costume, techniques etc.
Film is one of the most popular media of communication. Through film, the
director communicates with the audience. The images, the words, the music,
the sound effects are skilfully integrated for the entertainment of the audience.
Film is a reflection of society, customs, values and culture and has a great
impact on the successive generations of society in multiple ways. Film helps
connect one society to other society, one social group to other, one culture to
other culture, one religion to other religion one geographical location to other
locations. Films also help in promoting solidarity among people, mutual co-
operation, as well as mutual harmony and patriotism.
1.8 Assignments
Class Assignment: What is the concept of film?
Home Assignment: Write a brief on strengths of film.

1. Different types of film are .................................., ..................................,
......................................., .........................................., ..................................
2. What gives movement to cinema is the concept of ‘..................................’
1.10 Terminal Questions

• Describe film as a medium of communication.
BA (JMC) 309 9
1. Feature film, Documentary film, Educational film, Short film etc.

2. ‘Persistence of vision’
1.12 Keywords
Film: Film is a continuous strip of exposed celluloid. Film is a form of
entertainment, information and education composed of such a sequence of
images and shown in a cinema hall.

1. J., Saldi, R., &Manjula, S. (New Delhi). Indian Cinema through the Century.
2. Gazetas, A. (2000). An Introduction to World Cinema. Jefferson, NC: McFarland
3. Garga, B.D. (2008). So Many Cinemas: The Motion Picture in India, Eminence Designs.
4. Nowell-Smith, G. (1995). The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford: Clarendon Press
5. Phillips, L. R., & Phillips, J. M. (1979). Film Appreciation. New York: Gordon Press.
10 BA (JMC) 309
__________________________________________________________________
LESSON 2 Components of Film: Script, Light, Sound, Camera,
Acting, Music, Editing
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Components of Film
2.2.1 Script (Screenplay)
2.2.2 Light
2.2.3 Sound
2.2.4 Camera
2.2.5 Acting
2.2.6 Music
2.2.7 Editing
2.3 Summing up
2.4 Assignments
2.8 Keywords
BA (JMC) 309 11
2. Components of Film: Script, Light, Sound,

Camera, Acting, Music, Editing
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the previous session we had studied the Lesson 1 Film as medium of mass
communication, concept, strengths and limitations of film.
In the present session we will study the various components of film i.e. script, light,
sound, camera, acting, music, editing.
___________________________________________________________________
2.0 Objectives
• Explain various components of film
___________________________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction
Films share many component as other forms of literature (theme, character,

setting, point of view, metaphors, symbols, foreshadowing techniques), but it
also has components specific to the genre i.e. script, light, sound, camera,
acting, music, editing.
2.2 Components of Film
2.2.1 Script (Screenplay)
The script, or screenplay, outlines all of the elements (audio, visual, behavior,
and dialogue) that are required to tell a story through movies. A script is almost
never the work of a single person. Instead, it will go through revisions and
rewrites, and ultimately will be interpreted by the producers, directors, and
actors.
Scripts and screenplays are interchangeable when the term refers to feature
films. While story is more or less what it sounds like: the plot, the characters,
the settings and tone. It differs from a script or screenplay only in that the dialog
often isn’t written out, and the overall action may be somewhat compressed. A
writer might be credited with the story for a movie, but not the screenplay, if he
12 BA (JMC) 309
wrote a treatment but not the final script. Usually, if one writer handles both
story and screenplay, he/she receives a more general ‘written by credit’.
The main difference between usage in the terms screenplay and script is the
function of the document. The actors use the script during filming is primarily
dialogue with minimal stage direction. This is similar to the 'spec scripts' given
to producers to generate interest in the work. The primary focus here is on
telling the story, the word and actions that convey the message. What sound
effects or lighting effects that are important to the actor's performance are
noted. But, anything not directly impacting the performance is generally left out.
The screenplay is the extra layer with everything that was left out of the script.
It may very well be the 'shooting script' in most cases, which is less of an actor's
tool and more of a director's tool. The screenplay includes those aspects of
filming that are outside the actor's purview, things like camera angles and cut
or fade instructions, effects that the audience will see but have no effect on the
actor's performance while on set. A screenplay includes dialogue as well as
stage direction and character actions and movement. Screenplays have a
specific format.
Screenplay Writing
In the most basic terms, a screenplay is a 120 page document written in Courier
12pt font on 8 1/2" x 11" bright white three-hole punched paper. Wondering why
Courier font is used? It's a timing issue. One formatted script page in Courier
font equals roughly one minute of screen time. That's why the average page
count of a screenplay should come in around 120 pages (2 hours).
A screenplay can be an original piece, or based on a true story or previously

written piece, like a novel, stage play, fictional story or real story. At its heart, a
screenplay is a blueprint for the film it will one day become. Professionals on
the set including the producer, director, set designer and actors all translate the
screenwriter's vision using their individual talents. Since the creation of a film is
ultimately a collaborative art, the screenwriter must be aware of each person's
role and as such, the script should reflect the writer's knowledge.
As a screenplay writer, you must show what's happening in a story, rather than
tell. A 2-page inner monologue may work well for a novel, but is the kiss of
death in a script. The very nature of screenwriting is based on how to show a
story on a screen, and pivotal moments can be conveyed through something
as simple as a look on an actor's face. Let's take a look at what a screenplay's
structure looks like.
(a) The First Page of a Screenplay
BA (JMC) 309 13
The top, bottom and right margins of a screenplay are 1". The left margin is
1.5". The extra half-inch of white space to the left of a script page allows for
binding. The entire document should be single-spaced. The very first item on
the first page should be the words FADE IN: Note: the first page is never
numbered. Subsequent page numbers appear in the upper right hand corner,
0.5" from the top of the page, flush right to the margin.
(b) Screenplay Elements
Below is a list of items (with definitions) that make up the screenplay format,
along with indenting information.
(i) Scene Heading: A scene heading is a one-line description of the location

and time of day of a scene, also known as a "slugline." It should always
be in CAPS.
(ii) Subheader: When a new scene heading is not necessary, but some
distinction needs to be made in the action, you can use a subheader. A
good example is when there are a series of quick cuts between two
locations, you would use the term INTERCUT and the scene locations.
(iii) Action: The narrative description of the events of a scene, written in the
present tense. Remember, only things that can be seen and heard
should be included in the action.
(iv) Character: When a character is introduced, his name should be

capitalized within the action. A character's name is CAPPED and always
listed above his lines of dialogue. Minor characters may be listed without
names, for example "TAXI DRIVER" or "CUSTOMER."
(v) Dialogue: Lines of speech for each character. Dialogue format is used
anytime a character is heard speaking, even for off-screen and voice-
overs.
(vi) Parenthetical: A parenthetical is direction for the character, that is either

attitude or action-oriented.
(vii) Extension: Placed after the character's name, in parentheses. An

abbreviated technical note placed after the character's name to indicate
how the voice will be heard onscreen, for example, if the character is
speaking as a voice-over, it would appear as LIAM (V.O.).
(viii) Transition: Transitions are film editing instructions, and generally only
appear in a shooting script. Transition verbiage includes - CUT TO,
DISSOLVE TO, SMASH CUT, QUICK CUT, FADE TO etc. As a spec
script writer, narrator should avoid using a transition unless there is no
14 BA (JMC) 309
other way to indicate a story element. For example, you might need to
use DISSOLVE TO: to indicate that a large amount of time has passed.
(ix) Shot: A shot tells the reader the focal point within a scene has changed.
Like a transition, there's rarely a time when a spec screenwriter should
insert shot directions. Once again, that's the director's job. Examples of
shots are ANGLE ON, EXTREME CLOSE UP, PAN TO, Character’s
POV etc.
(x) Spec Script vs. Shooting Script: A "spec script" literally means that you
are writing a screenplay on speculation. That is, no one is paying you to
write the script. You are penning it in hopes of selling the script to a
buyer. Spec scripts should stick stringently to established screenwriting
rules. Once a script is purchased, it becomes a shooting script, also
called a production script. This is a version of the screenplay created for
film production. It will include technical instructions, like film editing
notes, shots, cuts and the like. All the scenes are numbered, and
revisions are marked with a colour-coded system. This is done so that
the production assistants and director can then arrange the order in
which the scenes will be shot for the most efficient use of stage, cast,
and location resources. A spec script should NEVER contain the
elements of shooting script.
(xi) Script Presentation and Binding: Just like the format of a script, there are
very specific rules for binding and presenting your script. The first page
is the title page, which should also be written in Courier 12pt font. No
graphics, no fancy pictures, only the title of your script, with “written by”
and your name in the center of the page. In the lower left-hand or right-
hand corner, enter your contact information. In the lower left-hand or
right-hand corner you can put Registered or a copyright notification,
though this is generally not a requirement.
2.2.2 Light
A camera captures an image when light reflects from an object and passes
through camera lens. How it finally appears depends on how the subject is
illuminated. The right amount of exposure gives the best picture and minimises
defects. Light is not only needed to expose the image but to it also strongly
affects the mood of the scene. The way the scene is lit also suggest the time of
the day and weather conditions of the location.
Lighting can be used to direct the eye of the viewer to a particular element in a
frame. Lighting is used to emphasize the area of action in a picture. But, when
used creatively, film Lighting can be an expressive tool for a filmmaker much
beyond mere illumination of action. A brightly lit area in a frame grabs our
BA (JMC) 309 15
attention while a dark area creates suspense. Lighting also creates depth and
articulate textures of objects in the frame.
According to Federico Fellini, Film Director, “Lighting expresses ideology,

emotion, colour, depth, style. It can efface, narrate, describe.”
One of the most important uses of Light is to create a sense of space and time.
Through the Light, a filmmaker can suggest the kind of space and the time of
the day of the scene.
Highlights and Shadows: Highlights are those areas in a frame that are
relatively brighter than other parts. Shadows are obviously the relatively darker
parts. Shadows are of two types- Attached Shadows & Cast shadows. Attached
shadows are those which the light fails to illuminate because of the shape of
the object. Cast shadows are shadows that are cast on a surface by an object
placed in front of the light source. Highlights and Shadows are used to create
contrast in the frame that makes the frame more interesting and dramatic.
Hard Lights and Soft Lights: The Quality of Lights affects the Highlight and
Shadows immensely. Quality is defined as the intensity of the light. Hard lighting
creates well-defined shadows and has high contrasts. It comes from a light
source that is smaller compared to the subject. Soft Lighting lowers the
contrast, blurs contours and textures and creates a more diffused illumination
where light is scattered. It comes from a light source that is much bigger than
the subject.
Natural Light and Artificial Light: Many filmmakers insist on using Natural
Light exclusively while others prefer Artificial Lighting to add more drama.
Documentary films mostly use Natural Lighting which makes it look more
realistic. In fictional films, however, Artificial Lighting is used extensively. You
might often notice Light Sources within the frame, eg- a tube light, a lamp, a
bulb, etc., but those are not the primary sources of Light. Based on these visible
sources Lighting setup will be done.
Key Lights and Fill Lights: Key Light is the most important & dominant Light
in the Setup which casts the strongest shadows and is highly directional. It can
be directed towards the subject at any angle. It generally corresponds to the
visible source of Light in the frame. If Key Light is not used, the subject will
appear as silhouette. Fill Light is less intense than the Key Light. It is used to
reduce the contrast in the frame by softening/eliminating the strong shadows
cast by the Key Light.
Three Point Lighting Technique: The most basic lighting in film is the three-
point lighting setup. Lighting from three directions shapes the subject and sets
them apart from their background. The combined effect of three lights placed in
16 BA (JMC) 309
right positions and set at right intensity and quality gives an optimum result.
This system is called three point lighting. All three lights are placed after it is
decided where the camera is going to be put to record the scene. Key light, fill
light and back light are the sources for three point lighting.
Key light: Key light or the main light is a hard light and the primary source of
illumination for the subject of the scene. The key light covers the entire set or
the subject, illuminating the whole set uniformly. A key light is usually placed to
the side and at a somewhat high angle. The main light usually cast strong
shadows. To make shadows softer the light should be diffused using diffusers
or net.
Fill Light: Fill light is used to fill in the shadow areas created by the key light.
The light source used for a fill light is diffused, soft and placed near a camera
since the main idea of fill is to reduce the shadows seen from the angle of the
camera. The fill light is always weaker than the key light. The position of fill light
often varies between 0 to 30 degrees from the camera lens and lies opposite
to the key light.
Back Light: Back light is used to make the subject distinct from the
background. This creates an illusion of depth. When a back light is not used the
subject tends to blend into the background reducing the depth of the scene.
The back light is also known as hair light because it brings out the colour and
texture of a person’s hair. The back light is a source of hard light, but it is smaller
than back light. It is usually placed behind a subject.
2.2.3 Sound
Film sound specifically refers to the sound track that accompanies the visual
images on a single continuous reel of motion picture film. Film is a motion
picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as
opposed to a silent film.
Sound in the cinema does not necessarily match the image, nor does it have to
be continuous. The sound bridge is used to ease the transition between shots
in the continuity style. Sound can also be used to reintroduce events from
earlier in the diegesis. Especially since the introduction of magnetic tape
recording the possibilities of sound manipulation and layering have increased
tremendously.
• Sound Bridge - Sound bridges can lead in or out of a scene. They can
occur at the beginning of one scene when the sound from the previous
scene carries over briefly before the sound from the new scene begins.
• Source - Most basically, this category refers to the place of a sound in
relation to the frame and to the world of the film. A sound can be on-
BA (JMC) 309 17
screen or off-screen, diegetic or non-diegetic (including voice over). It

can be recorded separately from the image or at the moment of filming.
Sound source depends on numerous technical, economic, and aesthetic
considerations, each of which can affect the final significance of a film.
• Diegetic/Non-Diegetic - Any voice, musical passage, or sound effect
presented as originating from a source within the film's world is diegetic.
If it originates outside the film (as most background music) then it is non-
diegetic.
• Stereo Variable Area - The most prevalent current method of recording
analogue sound on a film print is by stereo variable-area (SVA)
recording. A two-channel audio signal is recorded as a pair of lines
running parallel with the film's direction of travel through the projector.
The lines change area (grow broader or narrower) depending on the
magnitude of the signal.
• Sound Design - Sound design is a process of experimentation to create
an audio environment that supports the on-screen action and engages
the audience. The true sound designer is constantly listening, learning
and experimenting.
• Sound Effect - A sound effect (or audio effect) is an artificially created
or enhanced sound, or sound process used to emphasize artistic or other
content of films. In films apart from dialogue, music, sound effects
recordings are treated as separate elements. In the context of cinema,
sound effects refers to an entire hierarchy of sound elements, whose
production encompasses many different disciplines, including:
o Hard sound effects are common sounds that appear on screen,
such as door alarms, weapons firing, and cars driving by.
o Background (or BG) sound effects are sounds that do not
explicitly synchronize with the picture, but indicate setting to the
audience, such as forest sounds, the buzzing of fluorescent lights,
and car interiors. The sound of people talking in the background
is also considered a "BG". These background noises are also
called ambience or atmos ("atmosphere").
o Foley sound effects are sounds that synchronize on screen, and
require the expertise of a foley artist to record properly. Footsteps,
the movement of hand props (e.g., a tea cup and saucer), and the
rustling of cloth are common foley units.
o Some pieces of music also use as sound effects that are made
by a musical instrument or by other means.
o Design sound effects are sounds that do not normally occur in
nature, or are impossible to record in nature. These sounds are
18 BA (JMC) 309
used to suggest futuristic technology in a science fiction film, or

are used in a musical fashion to create an emotional mood.
2.2.4 Camera (Cinematography)
Cinematography is the art of visual storytelling. Anyone can set a camera on a

tripod and hit record, but the artistry of cinematography comes in controlling
what the viewer sees and how the image is presented. Cinematography, of the
French "cinématographie", is the discipline of making lighting and camera
choices when recording photographic images for the cinema. In the film
industry, the cinematographer is responsible for the technical aspects of the
images (lighting, lens choices, composition, exposure, filtration, film selection).
Film is a visual medium, and the best-shot films are ones where you can tell
what’s going on without hearing any of the dialogue. With some basic
knowledge of composition and scene construction, anyone can plan scenes
using this visual language. Understanding these simple rules will help make the
films more thrilling and engaging.
Basic Rules of Composition
There are some simple cinematography techniques that will have a great
impact in making your videos look more professional.
The Rule of Thirds is a technique of dividing the frame up into a 3x3 grid,
splitting the frame into nine boxes. Our natural impulse is to put the subject
dead center, but a centered subject will look like they’re caught in a spotlight
and by dropping them in the center of the frame, it gives them nowhere to go.
Instead, by positioning your action in any of the four vertices where those nine
boxes meet, you create a balance in your composition that feels more natural.
Relatives of the rule of thirds are Head Room and Look Room (Nose Room).
Just as the rule of thirds splits up your frame to add balance, head room and
look room mean to give your subject a little extra room in wherever direction
they’re facing.
Varying your shots will keep your audience interested by giving them something
new to look at or an object presented in a new way.
Find unique ways to show everyday things. Observing a scene from the height
of your camera operator can get dull; one way to avoid over-reliance on this
point of view is to meet the subject on its own terms. If you are filming someone
setting down a glass, rather than show the person from the torso up setting the
small object on a table, make the glass your subject and position your camera
on the table, then watch as a giant drink fills the frame. Your audience will know
BA (JMC) 309 19
that because you took the time to focus on this object that it must be important
and helps keep the visual element of the story from growing stale.
Add depth to a composition. Rather than imagine the scene taking place on a
single plane, use the foreground, midground and background to create depth
in a scene. For example, a factory worker has entered his boss’s office to ask
for a raise. The subject of the scene, the worker, is in the midground, while the
large, looming figure of his boss occupies the foreground. Behind them, the
factory scene hums along with dozens of other workers. You have tied the three
key elements of the scene (the worker, the boss, the factory machines) together
in one visually rich composition.
These are just the simple rules, but they will do a lot for improving the look of
your compositions, and will help you to start thinking of the frame as a canvas
where you create your images.
Knowing what kinds of information these shots give your audience, think about
how each of them fit together to compose the scene. Using wide shots can
make scene feel distant and impersonal or grand and epic in scale. Moving in
very close to the action gets audience invested in the characters and what’s
happening to them, but at the cost of disorienting them in visual space
The Types of Camera Movements
The camera movements are used to heighten storytelling and affect the
emotions of the audience. The following are the different camera movements.
Such as -
Panning in which moving the camera lens from left to right is panning or vice
versa.
Tilting refers to moving the camera up or down while keeping its horizontal axis
constant like nodding your head up and down is tilting. Tilts are often employed
to reveal vertical objects like a building or a person.
Zooming involves changing the focal length of the lens to make the subject
appear closer or further away in the frame. Zoom-in transforms the lens into
telephoto, while zoom-out changes it into wide-angle. Zoom can convey a
connection of ideas from a wide view to a close up shot.
Dollying refers to the camera move along very much like railroad tracks. The
phrase dolly-in means step towards the subject with the camera, while dolly-out
means to step backwards with the camera, keeping the zoom the same.
Tracking like dollying, but it involves motion left or right. Truck-left means
moves the camera physically to the left while maintaining its perpendicular
20 BA (JMC) 309
relationship. A director can use truck-left to stay with a pedestrian as s/he walks
down a street.
(A) The Types of Camera Angles
Camera angles are used to position the viewer so that they can understand the
relationships between the characters. These are very important for shaping
meaning in film as well as in other visual texts.
The Bird's-Eye view: This shows a scene from directly overhead, a very
unnatural and strange angle. Familiar objects viewed from this angle might
seem totally un-recognisable at first (umbrellas in a crowd, dancers' legs). This
shot does, however, put the audience in a godlike position, looking down on the
action. People can be made to look insignificant, ant-like, part of a wider
scheme of things.
High angle: High angles help orient the viewer, because they show
relationships among all elements within the picture area and produce a
psychological effect by minimizing the apparent size or strength of the subject.
It is a camera angle that looks down upon a subject.
Low angle: A low camera angle is achieved when the camera angle is located
below the point of primary interest and pointed upward. Low angles tend to lend
strength and dominance to a subject and dramatize the subject. Low angle
shots are used when dramatic impact is desired. This type of shot is very useful
for separating the subject from the background for eliminating unwanted
foreground and background, and for creating the illusion of greater size and
speed
Eye level angle: This is the most common view, being the real-world angle that
we are all used to. It shows subjects as we would expect to see them in real
life. It is a fairly neutral shot. It puts the audience on an equal footing with the
character/s.
Slanted: Slanted is also known as a Dutch tilt, this is where the camera is
purposely tilted to one side so the horizon is on an angle. This creates an
interesting and dramatic effect and is used to demonstrate the confusion of a
character.
2.2.5 Acting
Acting is an activity in which a story is told by means of its enactment by an

actor or actress who adopts a character in theatre, television, film, radio, or any
other medium that makes use of the mimetic mode. Acting involves a broad
range of skills, including a well-developed imagination, emotional facility,
physical expressivity, vocal projection, clarity of speech, and the ability to
BA (JMC) 309 21
interpret drama. Acting also demands an ability to employ dialects, accents,

improvisation, observation and emulation, mime, and stage combat. Many
actors train at length in specialist programmes or colleges to develop these
skills. The vast majority of professional actors have undergone extensive
training. Actors and actresses will often have many instructors and teachers for
a full range of training involving singing, scene-work, audition techniques, and
acting for camera.
2.2.6 Music
Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in
time. The common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and
harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation),
dynamics (loudness and softness), and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture
(which are sometimes termed the "colour" of a musical sound). Different styles
or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these
elements.
Music is performed with a vast range of instruments and vocal techniques

ranging from singing to rapping; there are solely instrumental pieces, solely
vocal pieces (such as songs without instrumental accompaniment) and pieces
that combine singing and instruments. There are many types of music, including
popular music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious
ceremonies and work songs such as chanteys.
Music can serve several purposes that are either important on the emotional
side of the movie or help/enhance the storytelling. It is not only helpful but
essential for any director/producer to keep the music in mind when
planning/shooting the movie.
2.2.7 Editing
Film editing is the connecting of one or more shots together in a sequence. A

film editor is a person who practices film editing by assembling separate takes
into a coherent film. In making a film the editors play a dynamic and creative
role.
Film editing is part of the creative post-production process of filmmaking. The

term film editing is derived from the traditional process of working with film, but
now it increasingly involves the use of digital technology. The film editor works
with the raw footage, selecting shots and combining them into sequences to
create a finished motion picture.
22 BA (JMC) 309
Film editing is described as an art or skill, the only art that is unique to cinema,
separating filmmaking from other art forms that preceded it, although there are
close parallels to the editing process in other art forms like poetry or novel
writing. Film editing is often referred to as the "invisible art" because when it is
well-practiced, the viewer can become so engaged that he or she is not even
aware of the editor's work. On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art,
technique, and practice of assembling shots into a coherent sequence. The job
of an editor isn’t simply to mechanically put pieces of a film together, cut off film
slates, or edit dialogue scenes. A film editor must creatively work with the layers
of images, story, dialogue, music, pacing, as well as the actors' performances
to effectively "re-imagine" and even rewrite the film to craft a cohesive whole.
Editors usually play a dynamic role in the making of a film.
Film editing is an art that can be used in diverse ways. It can create sensually
provocative montages; become a laboratory for experimental cinema; bring out
the emotional truth in an actor's performance; create a point of view on
otherwise obtuse events; guide the telling and pace of a story; create an illusion
of danger where there is none; give emphasis to things that would not have
otherwise been noted; and even create a vital subconscious emotional
connection to the viewer, among many other possibilities.
Chronological editing - editing that follows the logic of a chronological

narrative, one event follows subsequently from another, and time and space
are logically and un-problematically represented.
Cross-cutting or parallel editing - the linking-up of two sets of action those

run concurrently and are interdependent within the narrative.
Continuity Editing is the predominant style of film editing in the post-

production process of filmmaking of narrative films. The purpose of continuity
editing is to smooth over the inherent discontinuity of the editing process and
to establish a logical coherence between shots. In most films, logical coherence
is achieved by cutting to continuity, which emphasizes smooth transition of time
and space. However, some films incorporate cutting to continuity into a more
complex classical cutting technique, one which also tries to show psychological
continuity of shots. The montage technique relies on symbolic association of
ideas between shots rather than association of simple physical action for its
continuity.
Continuity cuts - these are cuts take us seamlessly and logically from one
sequence or scene to another. This is an unobtrusive cut that serves to move
the narrative along.
Match cut - also called a graphic match (or in the French term, raccord), is a
cut in film editing between either two different objects, two different spaces, or
BA (JMC) 309 23
two different compositions in which an object in the two shots graphically match,
often helping to establish a strong continuity of action and linking the two shots
metaphorical
Jump cut - cut where there is no match between the two spliced shots. Within
a sequence, or more particularly a scene, jump cuts give the effect of bad
editing. The opposite of a match cut, the jump cut is an abrupt cut between two
shots that calls attention to itself because it does not match the shots
seamlessly. It marks a transition in time and space but is called jump cut
because it jars the sensibilities; it makes the spectator jump and wonder where
the narrative has got to.
The 30-degree rule is a basic film editing guideline that states the camera
should move at least 30 degrees between shots of the same subject occurring
in succession. If this rule isn't followed a jump cut occurs and there is a risk that
the audience starts focusing on the filming technique instead of the story that
is being narrated. The 30 degree change of perspective makes the shots
different enough to avoid a jump cut. Too much movement around the subject
may violate the 180-degree rule.
Following this rule may soften the effect of changing shot distance, such as
changing from a medium shot to a close-up or extreme close-up.
The 180-degree rule is a basic guideline regarding the on-screen spatial

relationship between a character and another character or object within a
scene. An imaginary line called the axis connects the characters and by
keeping the camera on one side of this axis for every shot in the scene, the first
character will always be frame right of the second character, who is then always
frame left of the first. If the camera passes over the axis, it is called jumping the
line or crossing the line.
2.3 Summing Up
Films share many component as other forms of literature (theme, character,

setting, point of view, metaphors, symbols, foreshadowing techniques), but it
also has components specific to the genre i.e. script, light, sound, camera,
acting, music, editing.
2.4 Assignments
Class Assignment: What is the difference between hard light and soft light?
Home Assignment: What are the various types of camera angles?
24 BA (JMC) 309
1. A scene heading is a ...................................of the location and time of day

of a scene.
2. ......................... are those areas in a frame that are relatively brighter than
other parts.
3. Key light, fill light and back light are the sources for ............................
• Explain the format of screenplay writing
1. One-line description
2. Highlights
3. Three point lighting
2.8 Keywords
• Script: The script, or screenplay, outlines all of the elements (audio, visual,
behaviour, and dialogue) that are required to tell a story through movies.
• Screenplay: The screenplay is the extra layer with everything that was left
out of the script. A screenplay includes dialogue as well as stage direction
and character actions and movement.
• Light: Lighting can be used to direct the eye of the viewer to a particular
element in a frame. Lighting is used to emphasize the area of action in a
picture.
• Silent: Film sound specifically refers to the sound track that accompanies
the visual images on a single continuous reel of motion picture film.
• Sound Effect: A sound effect (or audio effect) is an artificially created or

enhanced sound, or sound process used to emphasize artistic or other
content of films.
• Editing: Film editing is the connecting of one or more shots together in a

sequence. Film editing is part of the creative post-production process of
filmmaking.

BA (JMC) 309 25
26 BA (JMC) 309
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 3 Visual Language: Shot, Scene, Sequence,
Montage, Mise-En-Scene and Continuity
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Visual Language of Film
3.2.1 Shot
3.2.2 Scene
3.2.3 Sequence
3.2.4 Montage
3.2.5 Mise-en-scene
3.2.6 Continuity
3.3 Summing up
3.4 Assignments
3.8 Keywords
BA (JMC) 309 27
3. Visual Language: Shot, Scene,

Sequence, Montage, Mise-En-Scene and
Continuity
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed various components of film.

In the present lesson we shall discuss visual language of film i.e. shot, scene,
sequence, montage, mise-en-scene and continuity.
___________________________________________________________________
3.0 Objectives
• Describe the visual language of film
___________________________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction
A language is more than a collection of words, written or spoken, based on

region or ethnicity. In the broader sense, language is a system of terms,
symbols and syntax used to generate and communicate meaning. Visual
language allows us to record ideas in a way that is more universal than spoken
words. From ancient cave paintings to modern interactive games, humans have
excelled at visual storytelling.
Cinema is a relatively new media whose stories transcend geographical

boundaries. Since the dawn of moving pictures in the 1890s, cinema has
evolved as a language spoken across the globe. Fortunately, this universal
language is far easier to learn than a foreign dialect.
3.2 Visual Language of Film
3.2.1 Shots
A scene is made of a number of shots. Shot is referred as one image. If there's

a cut, you've changed shots. Shots can range from split seconds to several
28 BA (JMC) 309
minutes. Shots are generally chosen by the director although the writer can use
capital letters to suggest where the camera should be.
A shot can be defined as one continues recording by the camera. A shot when
recorded by the camera is called a take. A shot not only conveys information to
the audience but also manipulates their emotions and reactions. Broadly there
are three types of shots i.e. long shot, medium shot and close-up shot and these
shots can be further divided as extreme long shot, long shot, medium long shot,
medium shot, close-up and extreme close-up.
a) Extreme Long Shot: Typically used to show subjects of relatively massive

scale. Picture a mountain climber represented as a tiny speck against a vast
expanse of snow, the extreme long shot conveying the relative
insignificance of the character struggling against their environment. An
extreme long shot is typically used as an establishing shot that is the shot
in the beginning of a sequence, to depict the relationship between the
subject and location.
b) Long Shot: It is a shot in which a subject appears from head to toe and
small against the background. It is also known as full shot. The distance of
the camera from its subject also reflects an emotional distance. In a way, it
makes viewers a casual bystander, somewhat aloof to what’s happening.
Take a couple arguing, where the details of their argument are lost to the
viewer, and only the big blow-ups are able to catch our attention. Something
is happening, but we can’t be sure what it is.
c) Medium Long Shot: Falling between the long and close shots. This shot
may also known as nee shot. This is more informative than emotional. It is
too close for the epic scale of a long shot and too far to convey the intimacy
of a close up, making it emotionally neutral.
d) Medium Shot: This shot shows a human figure from the waist up. It is used
to focus the audience attention towards the action. This shot captures the
jesters and the body movements of an actor, although subtle variations in
facial expressions are not visible. The medium shot is where we are starting
to engage with the characters on a personal level. It is an approximation of
how close someone would be when having a casual conversation.
e) Close Up: It reveals the individual details of a scene. It draws attention

towards the reactions and emotions of an actor. A close-up shot also brings
the viewer closer to the actions in the scene. More intimate than the medium
shot, the expressions and emotions of an actor are more visible and
affecting and meant to engage the character in a direct and personal
manner. In this a viewer starting to lose visual information about the
BA (JMC) 309 29
character’s surroundings, but the character’s actions are more intimate and
impacting.
f) Extreme Close Up: It shows certain features of a subjects face such as

eyes, mouth etc. An extreme close-up shot creates a dramatic impact. For
amplifying emotional intensity, the extreme close-up puts the camera right
in the actor’s face, making even their smallest emotional cues huge and
raises the intensity of the problems behind them. This works for objects too:
the ticking hands of a clock, a bullet shell hitting the floor, the blinking cursor
of a computer terminal. What the extreme close up lacks in context, it makes
up for by taking a small event and making it enormous.
g) Split Screen Shot: The space of the frame is split into two, three, or
more frames each with their own subject. Usually the events shown in each
section of the split screen are simultaneous. But Split screen can also be
used to show flashbacks or other events. For example, two people are
talking on the phone. They're in different locations, but you wish to show the
reactions of both simultaneously. Split Screen is used prominently in 24 to
show simultaneous action and events unfolding.
3.2.2 Scene
Scene is a series of shots taken from different angles of an action on a single

location and continuous time.
Because of their frequent appearance in films, some types of scenes have

acquired names, such as love scene, rape scene, sex scene, nude scene,
dream scene, action scene, car chase scene, crash scene, emotional scene,
fight scene, tragedy scene etc. There is usually an opening scene and a closing
scene.
A scene is a part of a film, as well as an act, a sequence and a setting. While

the terms refer to a set sequence and continuity of observation, resulting from
the handling of the camera or by the editor, the term scene refers to the
continuity of the observed action - an association of time, place or characters.
The term may refer to the division of the film from the screenplay, from the
finished film, or it may only occur in the mind of the spectator who is trying to
close on a logic of action. For example, parts of an action film at the same
location that play at different times can also consist of several scenes.
The scene is important for the unity of the action of the film. The division of a
movie into scenes is usually done in the script. Some action scenes need to be
planned very carefully.
3.2.3 Sequence
30 BA (JMC) 309
Sequence is a series of shots or scenes at different locations and at different

time. A sequence shot is a long take that constitutes an entire scene. Such a
shot may involve sophisticated camera movement. The use of the sequence
shot allows for realistic or dramatically significant background and middle
ground activity. Actors range about the set transacting their business while the
camera shifts focus from one plane of depth to another and back again.
Significant off-frame action is often followed with a moving camera,
characteristically through a series of pans within a single continuous shot.
3.2.4 Montage
Montage is the technique by which separate pieces of film are selected, edited
and then pieced together to make a new section of film. Montage is a technique
in film editing in which a series of short shots are edited into a sequence to
condense space, time, and information. Montage is based on the theory that
conflict must be inherent in all visual aspects in film, the principles of which
include a rapid alteration between sets of shots whose signification occurs at
the point of their collision, fast editing and unusual camera angles; also used
for spectacular effect.
The term has been used in various contexts. It was introduced to cinema
primarily by Eisenstein and early Russian directors used it as a synonym for
creative editing. In France the word "montage" simply denotes cutting. The
montage sequence is usually used to suggest the passage of time, rather than
to create symbolic meaning as it does in Soviet montage theory. From the
1930s to the 1950s, montage sequences often combined numerous short shots
with special optical effects (fades, dissolves, split screens, double and triple
exposures) dance and music. They were usually assembled by someone other
than the director or the editor of the movie.
3.2.5 Mise-en-scene
Mise-en-scène is an expression used to describe the design aspects of a film

production, which essentially means "visual theme" or "telling a story" both in
visually artful ways through storyboarding, cinematography and stage design,
and in poetically artful ways through direction.
Mise-en-scène is a French term which means, literally, "put in the scene." For
film, it has a broader meaning and refers to almost everything that goes into the
composition of the shot, including the composition itself: framing, movement of
the camera and characters, sets, objects, props, costumes and general visual
environment, lighting and even sound as it helps elaborate the composition.
Mise-en-scène can be defined as the articulation of cinematic space, and it is
precisely space that it is about.
BA (JMC) 309 31
The “mise-en-scène”, along with the cinematography and editing of a film,

influence the verisimilitude of a film in the eyes of its viewers. The various
elements of design help express a film’s vision by generating a sense of time
and space, as well as setting a mood and sometimes suggesting a character’s
state of mind.
These are all the areas overseen by the director, and thus, in French film
credits, the director's title is metteur-en-scène, "placer on scene." Andre Bazin,
a well-known French film critic and film theorist, describes the mise-en-scene
aesthetic as emphasizing choreographed movement within the scene rather
than through editing.
3.2.6 Continuity
Film continuity is very much important in filmmaking. The basic purpose of

making films is connecting audience with the story. When you start telling
stories in films the audience gets connected to the content and they focus on
the continuity of the events. But there is a film continuity error, audience get
distracted and it takes a lot of time for them to connect back to the story which
no filmmaker wants.
When a feature film is shot, there is usually only one camera and the scene is
done many times. The director will usually want to shoot the scene a variety of
ways. Shooting a scene from various angles and shot sizes is known as
coverage. The more coverage, the more options the editor and director have
during the editing process. However, the more you shoot a scene, the greater
the risk is that you will have lapses in continuity.
Continuity can be break down into following four areas.
a) Acting continuity
b) Props Continuity
c) Costume Continuity
d) 180 Line
a) Acting continuity: Actors need to do the same action and say the same
line in different shots and different takes. For example, in a master shot the
actor may pick up the glass with the right hand and then wave with their left
hand. For maintaining continuity, in close-up shot the actor must picks up
the glass with the right hand and then waves with the left hand with same
speed and same action.
b) Props continuity: It is a very important to get prop continuity correct. When

you start shooting a scene, you may start with the master wide shot. At this
point take photos of the whole film set and exactly where everything is. Later
32 BA (JMC) 309
when you are shooting the close-ups, it may be necessary to move the table
and the props. Then at a later point you have to shoot another shot that
shows the table again in shot. You will have to put the table back exactly
where it was with the exact same props. This can be difficult if you have
forgotten to take a photo at the start of shooting the scene. Also, if there is
action such as a fight, props may be moved and then have to be replaced
for the next take.
c) Costume Continuity: Generally, the wardrobe department will keep tabs

and photos of all costumes worn by the actors. However, on a micro budget
film, the film maker may not have a wardrobe department. In this case,
director need to keep very good photos of the actor before you shoot the
first take in your scene. What this means is that you can refer to this photo
as you shoot the scene. If the actor goes to lunch and takes off his tie, it is
reasonably easy for the actor to forget to put the tie on for the afternoon
shoot. This can cause very bad continuity issues.
Also, when the next scene in screen time follows the previous scene,
continuity becomes very important. What if you are not shooting the next
scene for a week. Who is going to remember what the actor was wearing?
Often the actor will forget. However, if you have a photo of what the actor is
wearing, the correct costume can be found and the next scene can be shot
with the actor in the correct clothes rather than an embarrassing continuity
error.
d) 180 degree line: This is always a challenge for the emerging filmmaker.
Place the camera on the correct side of the line and you will never make the
worst continuity mistake of all continuity mistakes. Imagine there’s a line
between the two characters. Keep your camera on one side of that line. If
you’re filming someone moving, stay on the same side of the direction
they’re moving. If you cross the line then the shots may not fit together. Your
two characters will look as if they’re facing the same way, rather than facing
each other. If a person is looking to one side of the screen, make sure there
is looking space or ‘nose room’, This looks more natural, and it makes it
obvious that the characters are facing each other.
3.2.7 Continuity Editing
Continuity editing is the process, in film of combining more-or-less related

shots, or different components cut from a single shot, into a sequence so as to
direct the viewer's attention to a pre-existing consistency of story across both
time and physical location.
While continuity editing, the editor must keep in mind the following tips for
maintaining continuity:
BA (JMC) 309 33
a) Step between shot sizes: Whether you’re showing a place, people, or

action, your film will look more interesting if you shoot things with different
shot sizes. But don’t jump straight from, say, an extreme long shot to a big
close-up unless you really want to confuse people. You need to put
something like a long shot or mid shot between them so the viewer can see
the connection.
b) Change position as well as shot size: When you change shot size, you
should move the camera to a different position around the subject. If you
don’t, it may seem to ‘jump’ forwards or backwards. The 30 degree rule says
that you should move the camera at least 30 degrees between shots. So
these two will edit together better.
c) Shoot in opposite directions: You should normally shoot shot-reverse-

shot. You film in one direction, then more or less the opposite direction. This
lets you show a person and what they’re looking at – or two people together
– using close-ups for more impact. If you’re filming someone moving, shoot
some of the shots from in front and some from behind.
Two characters but only one camera? No problem. Shoot the scene several
times: once with both characters in the shot, then with mid shots and close-
ups of one character, then with mid shots or close-ups of the other person.
Then alternate between the characters when you edit.
d) Make sure they’re looking in the right place: Each person’s ‘gaze’ should
lines up with what they’re looking at, on the opposite side of the screen. This
is called eye-line match.
e) Try not to join two similar shots of the same thing together: Editing
between two close-ups of the same person will give an obvious jump.
Sometimes this is unavoidable if you’re editing dialogue or an interview. You
can avoid this by cutting to a master shot and then back. Or you can use a
cutaway like the reaction shot, which maintains shot-reverse-shot.
Alternatively you could insert a detail of the scene between two close-ups
of the same person.
3.3 Summing up

words. Since the dawn of moving pictures in the 1890s, cinema has evolved as
a language spoken across the globe. Visual language is film is includes various
type of shots, scenes, sequences, montage, mise-en-scene, continuity etc.
34 BA (JMC) 309
3.4 Assignments
Class Assignment: What are the various types of shots?

Home Assignment: What is montage?
• ..............................is an expression used to describe the design aspects

of a film production.
• Describe continuity editing

• Mise-en-scène
3.8 Keywords
• Shot: A shot can be defined as one continues recording by the camera.
A shot when recorded by the camera is called a take.
• Scene: Scene is a series of shots taken from different angles of an action
on a single location and continuous time.
• Sequence: Sequence is a series of shots or scenes at different locations
and at different time.
• Montage: Montage is a technique in film editing in which a series of short
shots are edited into a sequence to condense space, time, and
information.
• Continuity Editing: Continuity editing is the process, in film of combining
more-or-less related shots, or different components cut from a single
shot, into a sequence so as to direct the viewer's attention to a pre-
existing consistency of story across both time and physical location.

BA (JMC) 309 35
Film Appreciation Unit 2, Syllabus
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Landmarks in Cinema
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 37
Various Movements in Cinema: Expressionism,

Italian Neo Realism and French New Wave
LESSON 2 44
Milestones and landmarks in World Cinema: Alfred Hitchcock,
Dziga Vertov, Vittorio De Sica, Akira Kurosawa and Satyajit Ray
LESSON 3 53
Landmarks of Indian Cinema: Silent Era (Raja Harishchandra),
Socials (Mother India), Parallel Cinema (Ankur), Diaspora (Namesake)
36 BA (JMC) 309
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 Various Movements in Cinema: Expressionism,
Italian Neo Realism and French New Wave
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Various Movements in Cinema
1.2.1 Expressionism
1.2.2 Italian Neo-Realism
1.2.3 French New Wave
1.3 Summing up
1.4 Assignments
1.8 Keywords
BA (JMC) 309 37
1. Various Movements in Cinema:

Expressionism, Italian Neo Realism and
French New Wave
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In Unit II of the course ‘Film Appreciation’ we shall discuss the various movements in
cinema i.e. Expressionism, Italian Neo Realism and French New Wave; milestones
and landmarks in world cinema i.e. Alfred Hitchcock, Dziga Vertov, Vittorio De Sica,
Akira Kurosawa and Satyajit Ray; and landmarks of Indian cinema i.e. Era (Raja
Harishchandra), Socials (Mother India), Parallel Cinema (Ankur), Diaspora
(Namesake).
In the present lesson we shall discuss the various movements in cinema.
___________________________________________________________________
1.0 Objectives
• describe various movements of cinema i.e. Expressionism, Italian Neo

Realism and French New Wave.
___________________________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction
Throughout the short-lived history of cinema, directors and artists have used
this art to create their own visual language that would have their own
characteristics, forming movements that have influenced cinema in one way or
another. There was no stopping and cinema art continued to develop in terms
of technology.
However, cinema achieved another milestone when changes with respect to
the content surfaced as a result of the socio-political scenario of the society.
This cinematic evolution in the context of the sociological and psychological
makeup of a region is what we term as film movements. They are directly
influenced by social issues, political systems, tragedies and disasters and the
popular culture prevalent.
38 BA (JMC) 309
1.2 Various Movements in Cinema
Some of the most famous and powerful film movements have played a
significant role in developing world cinema. Here are some of them that cinema
lovers ought to know:
1.2.1 Expressionism
Expressionism is an artistic style that departs from the conventions of realism

and naturalism and seeks to convey inner experience by distorting rather than
directly representing natural images. Expressionism was a modernist
movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany at the
beginning of the 20th century. Its’ typical trait is to present the world solely from
a subjective perspective, distorting it radically for emotional effect in order to
evoke moods or ideas. Expressionist artists sought to express the meaning of
emotional experience rather than physical reality.
More generally, the term expressionism can be used to describe cinematic

styles of great artifice, such as the techni-colour melodramas of Douglas Sirk
or the sound and visual design of David Lynch's films. Expressionist films have
many tactics for blending the elements of the shot. They employed stylized
surfaces, symmetry, distortion and exaggeration and the juxtaposition of similar
shapes. Perhaps the most obvious and pervasive trait of expressionism is the
use of distortion and exaggeration. In such films houses are often pointed and
twisted, chairs are tall, and staircases are crooked and uneven.
Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World

War. The style extended to a wide range of the arts, including expressionist
architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film and music. Expressionist
films were initially born out of Germany's relative isolation during the 1910s,
and quickly generated high demand due to the government's ban on foreign
films.
Besides the films' popularity within Germany, by 1922 the international

audience had begun to appreciate German cinema, in part due to a decreasing
anti-German sentiment following the end of World War I. A number of artists
and craftsmen working in the Berlin Theatre brought the Expressionist visual
style to the design of stage sets. This, in turn, had an eventual influence on
films dealing with fantasy and horror.
There was an Expressionist style in the cinema, important examples of which

are Robert Wiene's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), The Golem: How He
Came Into the World (1920), Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) and F. W. Murnau's
Nosferatu, a Symphony of Horror (1922) and The Last Laugh (1924).
BA (JMC) 309 39
1.2.2 Italian Neo-Realism
Italian Neo-realism is a national film movement characterized by stories set

amongst the poor and the working class, filmed on location, frequently using
non-professional actors. Italian Neo-realist films mostly contend with the difficult
economic and moral conditions of post-World War II Italy, representing changes
in the Italian psyche and conditions of everyday life, including poverty,
oppression, injustice and desperation.
Italian Neo-realism came about as World War II ended in 1945 and Benito
Mussolini's government fell, causing the Italian film industry to lose its center.
Neo-realism was a sign of cultural change and social progress in Italy. Its films
presented contemporary stories and ideas, and were often shot in the streets
because the film studios had been damaged significantly during the war.
In the spring of 1945, Mussolini was executed and Italy was liberated from
German occupation. This period, known as the "Italian Spring," was a break
from old ways and an entrance to a more realistic approach when making films.
Italian cinema went from utilizing elaborate studio sets to shooting on location
in the countryside and city streets in the realist style. Neo-realism became
famous globally in 1946 with Roberto Rossellini's Rome, Open City, when it
won the Grand Prize at the Cannes Film Festival as the first major film produced
in Italy after the war. Italian Neo-realism rapidly declined in the early 1950s.
Neorealist movies are generally filmed with nonprofessional actors. They are
shot almost exclusively on location, mostly in run-down cities as well as rural
areas due to its forming during the post-war era. The topic involves the idea of
what it is like to live among the poor and the lower working class. The focus is
on a simple social order of survival in rural, everyday life. Neorealist films often
feature children in major roles, though their characters are frequently more
observational than participatory. Vittorio De Sica's 1948 film Bicycle Thieves is
a representative of the genre, with non-professional actors, and a story that
details the hardships of working-class life after the war.
Some Major works are Open City (Roberto Rossellini, 1945), Shoeshine
(Vittorio De Sica, 1946), Paisan (Roberto Rossellini, 1946), Bicycle Thieves
(Vittorio De Sica, 1948), The Earth Trembles (Luchino Visconti, 1948), Bitter
Rice (Giuseppe De Santis, 1949), Umberto D. (Vittorio De Sica, 1952) etc.
1.2.3 French New Wave
The New Wave was a term coined by critics for a group of French filmmakers
of the late 1950s and 1960s. Although never a formally organized movement,
the New Wave filmmakers were linked by their self-conscious rejection of the
40 BA (JMC) 309
literary period pieces being made in France and written by novelists, their spirit
of youthful iconoclasm, the desire to shoot more current social issues on
location, and their intention of experimenting with the film form. "New Wave" is
an example of European art cinema. Many also engaged in their work with the
social and political upheavals of the era, making their radical experiments with
editing, visual style and narrative part of a general break with the conservative
paradigm. Using portable equipment and requiring little or no set up time, the
New-Wave way of filmmaking presented a documentary style. The films
exhibited direct sounds on film stock that required less light. Filming techniques
included fragmented, discontinuous editing, and long takes. The combination
of objective realism, subjective realism, and authorial commentary created a
narrative ambiguity in the sense that questions that arise in a film are not
answered in the end.
Some of the most prominent pioneers among the group, including François
Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Éric Rohmer, Claude Chabrol, and Jacques
Rivette, began as critics for the famous film magazine Cahiers du cinéma.
Cahiers co-founder and theorist André Bazin was a prominent source of
influence for the movement. By means of criticism and editorialization, they laid
the groundwork for a set of concepts, revolutionary at the time, which the
American film critic Andrew Sarris called auteur theory. Cahiers du cinéma
writers critiqued the classic "Tradition of Quality" style of French Cinema.
The auteur theory holds that the director is the "author" of his movies, with a
personal signature visible from film to film. They praised movies by Jean Renoir
and Jean Vigo, and made then-radical cases for the artistic distinction and
greatness of Hollywood studio directors such as Orson Welles, John Ford,
Alfred Hitchcock and Nicholas Ray. The beginning of the New Wave was to
some extent an exercise by the Cahiers writers in applying this philosophy to
the world by directing movies themselves.
Apart from the role that films by Jean Rouch have played in the movement,
Chabrol's Le Beau Serge (1958) is traditionally credited as the first New Wave
feature. Truffaut, with The 400 Blows (1959) and Godard, with Breathless
(1960) had unexpected international successes. The French New Wave was
popular roughly between 1958 and 1964, although New Wave work existed as
late as 1973.
New-Wave critics and directors studied the work of western classics and
applied new avant garde stylistic direction. The low-budget approach helped
filmmakers get at the essential art form and find what was, to them, a much
more comfortable and contemporary form of production. The movies featured
unprecedented methods of expression, such as long tracking shots. Also, these
movies featured existential themes, such as stressing the individual and the
acceptance of the absurdity of human existence.
BA (JMC) 309 41
1.3 Summing up
Throughout the short-lived history of cinema, directors and artists have used
this art to create their own visual language that would have their own
characteristics, forming movements that have influenced cinema in one way or
another. There was no stopping and cinema art continued to develop in terms
of technology. Some of the most famous and powerful film movements have
played a significant role in developing world cinema. Here are some of them
that cinema lovers ought to know.
Expressionism: Expressionism is an artistic style that departs from the

conventions of realism and naturalism and seeks to convey inner experience
by distorting rather than directly representing natural images. More generally,
the term expressionism can be used to describe cinematic styles of great
artifice, such as the techni-colour melodramas of Douglas Sirk or the sound and
visual design of David Lynch's films.
Italian Neo-Realism: Italian Neo-realism is a national film movement

characterized by stories set amongst the poor and the working class, filmed on
location, frequently using non-professional actors. Italian Neo-realist films
mostly contend with the difficult economic and moral conditions of post-World
War II representing changes in the Italian psyche and conditions of everyday
life.
French New Wave: the New Wave filmmakers were linked by their self-
conscious rejection of the literary period pieces being made in France and
written by novelists, their spirit of youthful iconoclasm, the desire to shoot more
current social issues on location, and their intention of experimenting with the
film form.
1.4 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe expressionism.
Home Assignment: Describe French New Wave.
• ......................................... came about as World War II ended in 1945.
• The ....................................was a term coined by critics for a group of

French filmmakers of the late 1950s and 1960s.
• Elaborate various movements of cinema.
42 BA (JMC) 309
• Italian Neo-realism
• New Wave
1.8 Keywords
• Expressionism: Expressionism is an artistic style that departs from the

conventions of realism and naturalism and seeks to convey inner
experience by distorting rather than directly representing natural images.
• Italian Neo-realism: Italian Neo-realism is a national film movement

characterized by stories set amongst the poor and the working class, filmed
on location, frequently using non-professional actors.
• French New-Wave: "New Wave" is an example of European art cinema.

Many also engaged in their work with the social and political upheavals of
the era, making their radical experiments with editing, visual style and
narrative part of a general break with the conservative paradigm.

BA (JMC) 309 43
__________________________________________________________________
LESSON 2 Milestones and landmarks in World Cinema:
Alfred Hitchcock, Dziga Vertov, Vittorio De Sica,
Akira Kurosawa and Satyajit Ray
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Milestones and Landmarks in World Cinema
2.2.1 Alfred Hitchcock
2.2.2 Dziga Vertov
2.2.3 Vittorio De Sica
2.2.4 Akira Kurosawa
2.2.5 Satyajit Ray
2.3 Summing up
2.4 Assignments
2.8 Keywords
44 BA (JMC) 309
2. Milestones and landmarks in World Cinema

Alfred Hitchcock, Dziga Vertov, Vittorio De
Sica, Akirina Kurosawa and Satyajit Ray
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the previous lesson we had discussed the various movements of cinema i.e.
Expressionism, Italian Neo-Realism and French New Wave.
In the present lesson we shall discuss milestones and landmarks in world cinema.
___________________________________________________________________
2.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you should be able to
• describe milestones and landmarks in world cinema i.e. Alfred

Hitchcock, Dziga Vertov, Vittorio De Sica, Akirina Kurosawa and Satyajit
Ray.
___________________________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction
As time passes, new models inevitably emerge. In art, politics and history, each
generation finds its own heroes. In the motion picture industry, though, is that
really the case? The innovators who shaped the art form are the ones still
asserting the most influence on moviemakers today. Or so says a stellar
assembly of directors, writers, actors, critics and others. Influence is defined as
that intangible power which can affect a person, thing or course of events.
Many believe that motion pictures, more than any other art form in the past
century, have had a profound influence on modern life. If one also accepts the
generally held premise that directors, more than any other creative force in the
film industry, are responsible for steering and shaping motion pictures, then
perhaps film directors as a group have had a vastly underestimated effect on
the way society thinks and behaves.
45 BA (JMC) 309
2.2 Milestones and Landmarks in World Cinema
2.2.1 Alfred Hitchcock
Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock KBE (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980) was an
English film director and producer, widely regarded as one of the most
influential filmmakers in the history of cinema. Known as "the Master of
Suspense", he directed 53 feature films in a career spanning six decades.
Born on the outskirts of London, Hitchcock entered the film industry in 1919 as
a title card designer after training as a technical clerk and copy writer for a
telegraph-cable company. His first successful film, The Lodger: A Story of the
London Fog (1927), helped to shape the thriller genre, while his 1929 film,
Blackmail, was the first British "talkie". Two of his 1930s thrillers, The 39 Steps
(1935) and The Lady Vanishes (1938), are ranked among the greatest British
films of the 20th century. By 1939 Hitchcock was a filmmaker of international
importance, and film producer David O. Selznick persuaded him to move to
Hollywood. A string of successful films followed, including Rebecca (1940),
Foreign Correspondent (1940), Shadow of a Doubt (1943), and The Paradine
Case (1947); Rebecca was nominated for 11 Oscars and won the Academy
Award for Best Picture.
The "Hitchcockian" style includes the use of camera movement to mimic a

person's gaze, thereby turning viewers into voyeurs, and framing shots to
maximise anxiety and fear. The film critic Robin Wood wrote that the meaning
of a Hitchcock film "is there in the method, in the progression from shot to shot.
A Hitchcock film is an organism, with the whole implied in every detail and every
detail related to the whole." By 1960 Hitchcock had directed four films often
ranked among the greatest of all time: Rear Window (1954), Vertigo (1958),
North by Northwest (1959), and Psycho (1960); in 2012 Vertigo replaced Orson
Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) as the British Film Institute's best film ever made.
By 2016 seven of his films had been selected for preservation in the United
States National Film Registry, including his personal favourite, Shadow of a
Doubt (1943). He received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1979 and was
knighted in December that year, four months before he died.
2.2.2 Dziga Vertov
Dziga Vertov also known as Denis Kaufman (2 January 1896 – 12 February

1954) was a Soviet pioneer documentary film and newsreel director, as well as
a cinema theorist. His filming practices and theories influenced the cinéma
vérité style of documentary movie-making and the Dziga Vertov Group, a
radical film-making cooperative which was active from 1968 to 1972.
46 BA (JMC) 309
Vertov is known for many early writings, mainly while still in school, that focus
on the individual versus the perceptive nature of the camera lens, which he was
known to call his "second eye".
Most of Vertov's early work was unpublished, and few manuscripts remain after
the Second World War, though some material survived in later films and
documentaries created by Vertov and his brothers, Boris Kaufman and Mikhail
Kaufman. Vertov is also known for quotes on perception, and its ineffability, in
relation to the nature of qualia (sensory experiences).
After the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, at the age of 22, Vertov began editing
for Kino-Nedelya (the Moscow Cinema Committee's weekly film series, and the
first newsreel series in Russia), which first came out in June 1918. While
working for Kino-Nedelya he met his future wife, the film director and editor,
Elizaveta Svilova, who at the time was working as an editor at Goskino. She
began collaborating with Vertov, beginning as his editor but becoming assistant
and co-director in subsequent films, such as Man with a Movie Camera (1929),
and Three Songs About Lenin (1934).
Vertov worked on the Kino-Nedelya series for three years, helping establish
and run a film-car on Mikhail Kalinin's agit-train during the ongoing Russian Civil
War between Communists and counterrevolutionaries. Some of the cars on the
agit-trains were equipped with actors for live performances or printing presses;
Vertov's had equipment to shoot, develop, edit, and project film. The trains went
to battlefronts on agitation-propaganda missions intended primarily to bolster
the morale of the troops; they were also intended to stir up revolutionary fervour
of the masses.
In 1919, Vertov compiled newsreel footage for his documentary Anniversary of

the Revolution; in 1921 he compiled History of the Civil War. The so-called
"Council of Three," a group issuing manifestoes in LEF, a radical Russian
newsmagazine, was established in 1922; the group's "three" were Vertov, his
wife and editor Elizaveta Svilova, and his brother and cinematographer Mikhail
Kaufman. Vertov's interest in machinery led to a curiosity about the mechanical
basis of cinema.
In 1922, Vertov started the Kino-Pravda series. The series took its title from the
official government newspaper Pravda. "Kino-Pravda" continued Vertov's agit-
prop bent. In the "Kino-Pravda" series, Vertov focused on everyday
experiences, eschewing bourgeois concerns and filming marketplaces, bars,
and schools instead, sometimes with a hidden camera, without asking
permission first.
By the end of the "Kino-Pravda" series, Vertov made liberal use of stop motion,
freeze frames, and other cinematic "artificialities," giving rise to criticisms not
BA (JMC) 309 47
just of his trenchant dogmatism, but also of his cinematic technique. Vertov
explains himself in "On 'Kinopravda'": in editing "chance film clippings" together
for the Kino-Nedelia series, he "began to doubt the necessity of a literary
connection between individual visual elements spliced together.... This work
served as the point of departure for 'Kinopravda.'" Towards the end of the same
essay, Vertov mentions an upcoming project which seems likely to be Man with
the Movie Camera, calling it an "experimental film" made without a scenario;
just three paragraphs above, Vertov mentions a scene from "Kino Pravda"
which should be quite familiar to viewers of ‘Man with the Movie Camera’: the
peasant works, and so does the urban woman, and so too, the woman film
editor selecting the negative...."
2.2.3 Vittorio De Sica
Vittorio De Sica (7 July 1901 – 13 November 1974) was an Italian director and
actor, a leading figure in the neorealist movement. Four of the films he directed
won Academy Awards: Sciuscià and Bicycle Thieves were awarded honorary
Oscars, while Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow and Il giardino dei Finzi Contini
won the Best Foreign Language Film Oscar. Indeed, the great critical success
of Sciuscià (the first foreign film to be so recognized by the Academy of Motion
Picture Arts and Sciences) and Bicycle Thieves helped establish the permanent
Best Foreign Film Oscar. These two films generally are considered part of the
canon of classic cinema. Bicycle Thieves was cited by Turner Classic Movies
as one of the 15 most influential films in cinema history.
Born into poverty in Sora, Lazio (1901), he began his career as a theatre actor
in the early 1920s and joined Tatiana Pavlova's theatre company in 1923. In
1933 he founded his own company with his wife Giuditta Rissone and Sergio
Tofano. The company performed mostly light comedies, but they also staged
plays by Beaumarchais and worked with famous directors like Luchino Visconti.
His meeting with Cesare Zavattini was a very important event: together they
created some of the most celebrated films of the neorealistic age, like Sciuscià
(Shoeshine) and Bicycle Thieves (released as The Bicycle Thief in America),
both of which De Sica directed.
De Sica was also nominated for the 1957 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for
playing Major Rinaldi in American director Charles Vidor's 1957 adaptation of
Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms, a movie that was panned by critics
and proved a box office flop. De Sica appeared in the British television series
The Four Just Men (1959). De Sica's acting was considered the highlight of
the film.
2.2.4 Akira Kurosawa
48 BA (JMC) 309
Akira Kurosawa (March 23, 1910 – September 6, 1998) was a Japanese film
director and screenwriter, who directed 30 films in a career spanning 57 years.
He is regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers in the
history of cinema.
Kurosawa entered the Japanese film industry in 1936, following a brief stint as
a painter. After years of working on numerous films as an assistant director and
scriptwriter, he made his debut as a director during World War II with the
popular action film Sanshiro Sugata (a.k.a. Judo Saga). After the war, the
critically acclaimed Drunken Angel (1948), in which Kurosawa cast then-
unknown actor Toshiro Mifune in a starring role, cemented the director's
reputation as one of the most important young filmmakers in Japan. The two
men would go on to collaborate on another 15 films.
Rashomon, which premiered in Tokyo, became the surprise winner of the

Golden Lion at the 1952 Venice Film Festival. The commercial and critical
success of that film opened up Western film markets for the first time to the
products of the Japanese film industry, which in turn led to international
recognition for other Japanese filmmakers. Kurosawa directed approximately
one film per year throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, including a number of
highly regarded (and often adapted) films, such as Ikiru (1952), Seven Samurai
(1954) and Yojimbo (1961). After the 1960s he became much less prolific; even
so, his later work—including his final two epics, Kagemusha (1980) and Ran
(1985)—continued to win awards, though more often abroad than in Japan.
In 1990, he accepted the Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement.

Posthumously, he was named "Asian of the Century" in the "Arts, Literature,
and Culture" category by Asian Week magazine and CNN, cited there as being
among the five people who most prominently contributed to the improvement
of Asia in the 20th century. His career has been honoured by many
retrospectives, critical studies and biographies in both print and video, and by
releases in many consumer media formats.
2.2.5 Satyajit Ray
Satyajit Ray (2 May 1921 – 23 April 1992) was an Indian filmmaker,

screenwriter, graphic artist, music composer and author, widely regarded as
one of the greatest filmmakers of the 20th century. Ray was started his career
as a commercial artist. Ray was drawn into independent filmmaking after
meeting French filmmaker Jean Renoir and viewing Vittorio De Sica's Italian
neorealist film Bicycle Thieves (1948) during a visit to London.
Ray directed 36 films, including feature films, documentaries and shorts. He

was also a fiction writer, publisher, illustrator, calligrapher, music composer,
graphic designer and film critic. He authored several short stories and novels,
BA (JMC) 309 49
meant primarily for young children and teenagers. Feluda, the sleuth, and
Professor Shonku, the scientist in his science fiction stories, are popular
fictional characters created by him. He was awarded an honorary degree by
Oxford University.
Ray's first film, Pather Panchali (1955), won eleven international prizes,
including the inaugural Best Human Document award at the 1956 Cannes Film
Festival. This film, along with Aparajito (1956), and Apur Sansar (The World of
Apu) (1959) form The Apu Trilogy Ray did the scripting, casting, scoring, and
editing, and designed his own credit titles and publicity material.
During the period 1959-64, Ray composed films on the British Raj period (such
as Devi), a documentary on Tagore, a comic film (Mahapurush) and his first film
from an original screenplay (Kanchenjungha). He also made a series of films
that, taken together, are considered by critics among the most deeply felt
portrayals of Indian women on screen.
In 1961, on the insistence of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Ray was

commissioned to make a documentary on Rabindranath Tagore, on the
occasion of the poet's birth centennial, a tribute to the person who likely most
influenced Ray.
In 1964 Ray made Charulata (The Lonely Wife); it was the culmination of this
period of work, and regarded by many critics as his most accomplished film.
Based on "Nastanirh", a short story of Tagore, the film tells of a lonely wife,
Charu, in 19th-century Bengal, and her growing feelings for her brother-in-law
Amal. Charulata won him the Best Director prize at the Berlin Film Festival.
Other films in this period include Mahanagar (The Big City), Teen Kanya (Three
Daughters), Abhijan (The Expedition), Kapurush (The Coward) and
Mahapurush (Holy Man).
In the post-Charulata period (1965-1982), Ray took on projects of increasing

variety, ranging from fantasy to science fiction to detective films to historical
drama. Ray also made considerable formal experimentation during this period.
He expressed contemporary issues of Indian life, responding to a perceived
lack of these issues in his films.
In 1983, while working on Ghare Baire (Home and the World), Ray suffered a
heart attack; it would severely limit his productivity in the remaining 9 years of
his life. Ghare Baire was completed in 1984 with the help of Ray's son (who
operated the camera from then on). In spite of rough patches due to Ray's
illness, the film did receive some critical acclaim. It had the first kiss fully
portrayed in Ray's films.
50 BA (JMC) 309
Ray received many major awards in his career, including 32 Indian National
Film Awards, a Golden Lion, a Golden Bear, 2 Silver Bears, a number of
additional awards at international film festivals and award ceremonies, and an
Academy Honorary Award in 1992. The Government of India honoured him with
the Bharat Ratna, its highest civilian award, in 1992.
2.3 Summing Up
As time passes, new models inevitably emerge. In art, politics and history, each
generation finds its own heroes. In the motion picture industry, though, is that
really the case? The innovators who shaped the art form are the ones still
asserting the most influence on moviemakers today.
Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock KBE (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980) was an
English film director and producer, widely regarded as one of the most
influential filmmakers in the history of cinema. Known as "the Master of
Suspense", he directed 53 feature films in a career spanning six decades.
Dziga Vertov also known as Denis Kaufman (2 January 1896 – 12 February

1954) was a Soviet pioneer documentary film and newsreel director, as well as
a cinema theorist. His filming practices and theories influenced the cinéma
vérité style of documentary movie-making and the Dziga Vertov Group, a
radical film-making cooperative which was active from 1968 to 1972.
Vittorio De Sica (7 July 1901 – 13 November 1974) was an Italian director and
actor, a leading figure in the neorealist movement. Four of the films he directed
won Academy Awards. Sciuscià and Bicycle Thieves were awarded honorary
Oscars, while Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow and Il giardino dei Finzi Contini
won the Best Foreign Language Film Oscar.
Akira Kurosawa (March 23, 1910 – September 6, 1998) was a Japanese film
director and screenwriter, who directed 30 films in a career spanning 57 years.
He is regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers in the
history of cinema.
Satyajit Ray (2 May 1921 – 23 April 1992) was an Indian filmmaker,

screenwriter, graphic artist, music composer and author, widely regarded as
one of the greatest filmmakers of the 20th century. Ray directed 36 films,
including feature films, documentaries and shorts. He was also a fiction writer,
publisher, illustrator, calligrapher, music composer, graphic designer and film
critic.
2.4 Assignments
Class Assignment: Write a note on Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock.
BA (JMC) 309 51
Home Assignment: Write a note on Satyajit Ray.
• __________________ produced the film ‘Vertigo’

• Dziga Vertov belongs to the country _______________.
• ________________was a Japanese film director and screenwriter.
• Apur Trilogy includes films ___________, __________, _________.
• Explain milestone filmmakers of world cinema.
• Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock

• United State of Soviet Russia
• Akira Kurosawa
• Pather Panchali, Aparajito and Apur Sansar
2.8 Keywords
• Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock was an Englishman known as the master of

suspense.
• Dziga Vertov was a Soviet pioneer documentary film and newsreel
director, as well as a cinema theorist.
• Vittorio De Sica was an Italian director and actor, a leading figure in the
neorealist movement.
• Akira Kurosawa was a Japanese film director and screenwriter.
• Satyajit Ray was an Indian filmmaker, screenwriter, graphic artist, music
composer and author.

52 BA (JMC) 309
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 3 Landmarks of Indian Cinema: Silent Era (Raja
Harishchandra), Socials (Mother India), Parallel
Cinema (Ankur), Diaspora (Namesake)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Landmarks of Indian Cinema
3.2.1 Silent Era (1896s - 1930s)
3.2.2 Musical Talkies Era (1930s – 1940s)
3.2.3 Social Era (1940s – 1960s)
3.2.4 Main Stream Cinema (1960s – 1980s)
3.2.5 Parallel Cinema (1970s – 1980s)
3.2.6 Millennium Era (1980s – 2000s)
3.2.7 Diaspora Films
3.3 Summing up
3.4 Assignments
3.8 Keywords
BA (JMC) 309 53
3. Landmarks of Indian Cinema: Silent Era

(Raja Harishchandra), Socials (Mother India),
Parallel Cinema (Ankur), Diaspora (Namesake)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the milestones and landmarks of world cinema.
In the present lesson we shall discuss the landmarks of Indian cinema.
___________________________________________________________________
3.0 Objectives
• describe the landmarks of Indian cinema i.e. Silent Era, Socials, Parallel
cinema and Diaspora.
___________________________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction
The history of cinema in India extends back to the beginning of the film era. The
Indian film Industry is the 2nd oldest in the world. Following the screening of the
Lumière and Robert Paul moving pictures in London (1896), animated
photography became a worldwide sensation and by mid-1896 both Lumière and
Robert Paul films had been shown in Bombay.
3.2 Landmarks of Indian Cinema
3.2.1. Silent Era (1896s–1930s)
In 1896 the Lumiere brothers brought their showcase of 6 short films to the
Watson Hotel in Bombay (now Mumbai). This was a significant event in the
history of Indian cinema, as it was the first time that the subcontinent was
witnessing the screening of Cinematography.
In 1897 a film presentation by one Professor Stevenson featured a stage show

at Calcutta's Star Theatre. With Stevenson's encouragement, Hiralal Sen, an
Indian photographer, made a film of scenes from that show, namely The Flower
of Persia (1898). The Wrestlers (1899) by H. S. Bhatavdekar, showing a
54 BA (JMC) 309
wrestling match at the Hanging Gardens in Bombay, was the first film to be shot
by an Indian and the first Indian documentary film.
These short films were mere attempts at capturing live theatrical performances
on film. F. B. Thanawala from Mumbai also made a few short films like the
Splendid view of Bombay and The Taboot Procession (1900). These films were
often matter of fact documentation of events and had they survived the
tribulations of time would have been valid cinematographic representative of
those times with great historic value.
More than indigenous productions a lot of cinematic entertainment was

imported from abroad like Life of Christ (1901), Aladin and the Wonderful Lamp
(1902), Alibaba and 40 Thieves (1903) and Napoleon Bonaparte (1904). This
was primarily because India was a colony of the British Empire and a large
English population lived in the country. It turned out to be a blessing in disguise
as the availability of foreign cinema not only brought the wondrous
technological advancements of the western world to India but also inspired the
Indian film makers to venture into making full length feature films.
The first full length feature film made in India was Dadasaheb Phalke’s (Father
of Indian cinema) silent film in Marathi ‘Raja Harishchandra’ in the year 1913.
The female characters in the film were played by male actors. Only one print of
the film was made, for showing at the Coronation Cinematograph on 3 May
1913. It was a commercial success. Main films that followed included Mohini
Bhasmasur (1914), significant for introducing the first woman to act before the
cameras - Kamalabai Gokhale, Satyawan Savitri (1914), Lanka Dahan (1917),
Shri Krishna Janma (1918) and Kalia Mardan (1919). By 1920 India was
producing more than 27 films a year which was a big number. The first Indian
film makers turned to ancient epics and puranas for source material. The
phenomenal success of Raja Harishchandra was kept up by a series of
mythological films. The content of the films would not change for a long time till
the advent of talkies and colour in the 1930’s.
The first chain of Indian cinemas, Madan Theatre was owned by Parsi
entrepreneur Jamshedji Framji Madan, who oversaw production of 10 films
annually and distributed them throughout India beginning in 1902. He founded
Elphinstone Bioscope Company in Calcutta. Elphinstone merged into Madan
Theatres Limited in 1919, which had brought many of Bengal's most popular
literary works to the stage. He also produced Satyawadi Raja Harishchandra in
1917, a remake of Phalke's Raja Harishchandra (1913).
The films of the Silent Era did not ‘talk’ but they were never watched in ‘silence’.
Dialogue was presented through inter – titles, which were often in English, and
two or three Indian languages. Almost every film had a background score,
which ran through the length of film. The score was ‘live’, and helped to
BA (JMC) 309 55
dramatise the narrative. Sometimes there was only a piano accompaniment,

but there were several films where a violin, a harmonium, tablas and other
musical instruments could be added.
The fist Indian movie ‘Raja Harishchandra’
Raja Harishchandra (lit. King Harishchandra) is a 1913 Indian silent film,

directed and produced by Dadasaheb Phalke. It is often considered the first full-
length Indian feature film. Raja Harishchandra features Dattatraya Damodar
Dabke, Anna Salunke, Bhalchandra Phalke, and Gajanan Vasudev Sane and
is based on the legend of Harishchandra, recounted in the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. The film, being silent, had English and Hindi language inter-titles.
Phalke decided to make a feature film after watching the film ‘The Life of Christ
(1906)’ at a theatre in Mumbai. He went to London for two weeks to learn
filmmaking techniques and founded Phalke Films. He imported the hardware
required for the filmmaking and exhibition from England, France, Germany, and
the United States.
He published advertisements in various newspapers calling for the cast and

crew. As no women were available to play female leads, male actors performed
the female roles. Phalke was in charge of scripting, direction, production design,
make-up, editing, along with film processing. Trymbak B. Telang handled the
camera. Phalke completed filming in six months and 27 days producing a film
of 3,700 feet, about four reels.
The film premiered at the Olympia Theatre, Mumbai on 21 April 1913, and had
its theatrical release on Saturday, 3 May 1913 at the Coronation Cinema,
Girgaon, Mumbai.
It was a commercial success and laid the foundation for the film industry in the
country. The film is partially lost; only the first and last reels of the film are
preserved at the National Film Archive of India. But some film historians believe
they belong to a 1917 remake of the film by Phalke titled Satyavadi Raja
Harishchandra.
Storyline of the film ‘Raja Harishchandra’
King Harishchandra is shown teaching his son, Rohitashva, how to shoot with
a bow and arrow in the presence of Queen Taramati. While on the hunt, he
hears the cries of some women. He reaches a place where the sage
Vishwamitra is performing the yajna to get help from Trigunashakti against their
will. The King unwittingly interrupts Vishvamitra in the midst of his yajna by
releasing three powers. To appease his wrath, Harishchandra offers his
kingdom. The King visits the royal palace and informs the Queen Taramati of
the happenings. Vishwamitra sends Harishchandra, Taramati, and Rohitashva
56 BA (JMC) 309
to arrange for the Dakshina. In Dakshina Vishwamitra kept the empire of Raja
Harishchandra. Therefore, Raja left the Rajmahal and went in exile. While in
exile, Rohitashva dies. Harishchandra sends Taramati to ask the Domb King
for a free cremation. On her way to meet the king, Vishwamitra frames Taramati
for the murder of the prince of Kashi. Taramati faces trial, pleads guilty and is
ordered to be beheaded by Harishchandra. When he raises his sword to
complete his task, a pleased Lord Shiva appears. Vishwamitra reveals that he
was examining Harishchandra's integrity, returns the crown to the King and
rejuvenates Rohitashva.
3.2.2. Musical Talkie Era (1930s – 1940s)
The year 1931 saw the coming of the talkies with a bang which broke the long
silence and introduced the Indian viewers with sound and music on the celluloid
for the very first time. The release of the film Alam Ara (Beauty of the world), at
the Majestic Theatre in Bombay marked the historic event. Advertised as an,
“all-talking, all-singing, all-dancing film” this was a production by Ardeshir Irani
known as father of Indian talking cinema.
Alam Ara is a costume drama telling the story of the rivalry of two queens and
involving many characters, plots and subplots. This film’s songs immediately
proved a smash, particularly the one sung by actor/singer W.M.Khan in the role
of a fakir, ‘De de Khuda ke naam par pyare’ (Give alms in the name of Allah).
Thereafter, songs and dances were established as an integral part of Indian
popular cinema. This genre evolved out of the Urdu-Parsee Theatre, a narrative
form that had already skilfully dramatized Victorian plays and Persian Love
Legends. The courtly love stories of the Urdu-Parsee Theatre are probably the
reason behind Indian cinema’s dependence on romantic themes and the way
they link love, obstacles and tragedy. Another popular genre of this period was
the historical film, based on stories of real characters or legendary hero’s. The
importance of the historical film lay in its patriotic undertones.
Of course, India did not need to be independent to produce films: thousands of

miles of celluloid had run through the projector gate before the British finally
packed their bags in 1947. Despite having first blossomed under a political
power so alien to its own conventions, Indian cinema’s thematic and aesthetic
development seems to have remained largely free of direct concern with
colonial rule. Individual film director’s were deeply concerned by the
independence movement led by the congress party and demonstrated their
allegiance to the concept of a free India in films such as ‘Sikandra’ (1941) and
‘Shaheed’ (1948) . In the 1940s and 1950s, a small number of patriotic films
and a handful of songs with a clear message of Indian nationalism were
produced – the most famous is ‘Door Hato O Duniya Valo, Hindustan Hamara
Hai’ (‘Go away, you invaders! India is ours’) in the 1943 film Kismet – but by
and large the patriotic film isn’t a genre that is hugely popular today.
BA (JMC) 309 57
The fist Indian musical talkie movie ‘Alam Ara’
Alam Ara (meaning ‘The Ornament of the World’), directed by Ardeshir Irani,
released in Bombay on 14 March 1931, to such massive response in theatres
that it is said even police was called to control the hysterical crowds.
Based on a Parsi play by Joseph David, Alam Ara revolves around a love story
between a prince and a gypsy girl. Starring Prithviraj Kapoor and Zubeida, Alam
Ara created an unprecedented craze with throngs of fans standing in queues
for hours to watch the first film that would actually talk to them and also sing!
The film had 7 seven songs. In the 30’s, the concept of playback singing was
unheard of. “De de khuda ke naam per” the first ever song in an Indian film was
sung by actor called Wazir Mohammed Khan who also played the role of a
fakir/sadhu in the film. “Badla Dilwayega Ya Rabb” was sung by the leading
lady, Zubeida herself.
The USP of Alam Ara was its soundtrack and songs. The songs became such
big hits that the tradition of having songs in a film became an integral part of
Indian cinema. As renowned filmmaker Shyam Benegal once said, “It was not
just a talkie. It was a talking and singing film with more singing and less talking.
In that era, Alam Ara marked a great leap for Indian cinema with sounds,
dialogues and music. Alam Ara was a trendsetter of its times and will always
be remembered for its big role in starting the era of Indian talkies.
3.2.3. Social Era (1940s - 1960s)
The Post-Independence era from the late 1940s to the 1960s is regarded by
film historians as the ‘Golden Age’ in the history of Indian cinema rose to such
glory only because of the architects of the superstructure named Bollywood. It
was due to their ability to undertake risks, think ahead of their times and have
the courage and vision to implement their ideas. During that time the creative
talents be it director, actor, lyric writers, composers, writers and in every
department used to be excellent.
This was an era followed by the attainment of freedom bringing with itself the
intricate task of nation building and economic development. This was an era of
turbulent times yet many opportunities, an era known as the most creative and
innovative decade in Hindi cinema, an era of faith and dreams of a better and
more successful India.
The films of the time were thought-provoking and emotionally enriching albeit
with a touch of melodrama; they were not creating an escape into the fantasy
but delivering new ideas and values while keeping the basic Indian virtue intact.
58 BA (JMC) 309
The films of the time sold dreams and created new horizons of expectations for
the masses.
Hindi cinema in the 1950s was influenced by a variety of factors - a leftist

institution such as the Indian People’s Theatre Association (IPTA), formed in
1942 with the aim of using theatre to bring greater political awareness, an event
like the First International Film Festival of India, a phenomena such as large
scale rural to urban migration, the troubles of the marginalized sections of the
society and processes such as nation building, economic development, and
social reform.
Another factor heavily influencing the films of the time was the feeling of
patriotism and national identity in the wake of independence from colonial rule
and subsequent wars with Pakistan and China.
This period also saw a beautiful celluloid portrayal in the trilogy of Satyajit Ray
starting with Pather Panchali (Song of the Road) in 1955 - the first of ‘Apu
Trilogy’, which won the Best Human Documentary Film at the Cannes Film
Festival, Considered to be the world‘s most prestigious film festival. With this
film Indian cinema made, its presence felt all over the world, Aparajito (The
Unvanquished) in 1957 and Apur Sansar (the world of Apu) in 1958 thus
completed the Apu trilogy.
Paraasakti, the Tamil movie which took Sivaji Ganesan to the heights of fame
was a s trong and defiant portrayal of the collusion between religious and
economic forces in the suppression of the poor.
Later on, Social themes were portrayed. Stories were based on the life of
ordinary families. Most films were produced in the Bombay and Madras studios.
The largest number of movies came out in Hindi, Tamil, Telegu, Malayalam,
Kannada and Bengali in that order.
Among the social movies some outstanding films of 50s include Bimol Roy’s
Do Bigha Zameen (1953) and Devdas (1955), Mehboob’s Mother India (1957),
Gurudutt’s Pyaasa (1957) and Kagaz Ke Phool (1959), K. Asif’s ‘Mughal–E–
Azam’ (1960), B.R. Chopra’s ‘Kanoon’ (1960) etc.
The show man Raj Kapoor and his R.K. Studios’ a series came, that were also
great entertainers and pieces of artistic attainments: Aag, Awara, Shri 420, Boot
Polish, Jagte Raho, Barsat, Jis Desh Mein Ganga Bahati Hai, Sangam, Mera
Naam Joker etc.
Some of the significant films of this decade include Dilip Kumar’s Gunga
Jamuna, Gurudutt’s Sahib Bibi Aur Gulam, Dev Anand’s Guide. Bimal Roy’s
Bandini, S.Mukherji’s Junglee, Sunil Dutt’s Mujhe Jeene Do and Yaadein, Basu
Bhatacharya’s Teesri Kasam, Pramod Chakravorthy’s Love in Tokyo,
BA (JMC) 309 59
Ramanand Sagar’s Arzoo, Shakti Samantha’s Aradhana, Hrishikesh Mukherji’s

Aashirwad and Anand, B.R. Chopra’s Waqt, Manoj Kumar’s Upkar, and Prasad
Productions’ Milan. Therefore, 60s is very important decade in the history of
Indian Cinema.
A remarkable social film ‘Mother India’
Mother India is a 1957 Indian epic drama film, directed by Mehboob Khan and
starring Nargis, Sunil Dutt, Rajendra Kumar and Raaj Kumar. It is the story of a
poverty-stricken village woman named Radha (Nargis), who in the absence of
her husband, struggles to raise her sons and survive against a cunning money-
lender amidst many troubles. Despite her hardships, she sets a goddess-like
moral example of an ideal Indian woman.
The title of the film was chosen to counter American author Katherine Mayo's
1927 polemical book Mother India, which vilified Indian culture. Allusions to
Hindu mythology are abundant in this film, and its lead character has been seen
as a metonymic representation of a Hindu woman who reflects high moral
values and the concept of what it means to be a mother to society through self-
sacrifice. Mother India metaphorically represents India as a nation in the
aftermath of independence, and alludes to a strong sense of nationalism and
nation-building.
The film was shot in Mumbai's Mehboob Studios and in the villages of
Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh states. The music by Naushad
introduced Western classical music and Hollywood-style orchestra to Hindi
cinema.
The film was the most expensive Hindi cinema (Bollywood) production and
earned the highest revenue for any Hindi film at that time.
It was released in India in October or November 1957, and had several high-
profile screenings, including one at the capital, New Delhi, attended by the
country's president and prime minister.
Mother India became a definitive cultural classic and is regarded as one of the
best films in Indian and world cinema. It was India's first submission for the
Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1958. The film won the All
India Certificate of Merit for Best Feature Film, the Filmfare Best Film Award for
1957, and Nargis and Khan won the Best Actress and Best Director awards
respectively.
3.2.4. Main Stream Cinema (1960s - 1980s)
From the late 1960s and early 1980s, romance and violence became an integral
part of the movies. This period also gave some romantic and big canvas and
60 BA (JMC) 309
star films like Sholay (1975) that had western genre features in it, was based
on the protest of villagers against exploitation by decoits. During this period,
Indian Cinema gave birth to the stream of cinema of angry young man. The
Bombay film industry became almost one man industry, and Amitabh Bachchan
dominated the film industry for the next many decades. His films like Deewar,
Sholay, Amar Akbar Anthony and Muqaddar-ka-Sikandar were great hits. Salim
and Javed scriptwriters of Sholay and Deewar played very important role in the
success of the films. These scriptwriters proved the script more important than
stars. Dance, music and disco started to be special attractions of the films since
the 70s. Feroz Khan’s Qurbani was a hit and most popular film of the genre of
films with dance, Bobby made in 1973 was a hit mainstream film about teenage
love etc.
3.2.5. Parallel Cinema (1970s - 1980s)
The golden era also marked the beginning of a different genre of cinema which
catered to those who did not saw movies as only a mode of entertainment and
respite but rather viewed it as a medium to bring to life the trauma, troubles and
struggles of the people often forgotten. This category known as “Parallel
cinema” was very different from the mainstream cinema made from a
commercial point of view.
The parallel cinema was characterized by its serious content, realism and
depiction of social issues. These filmmakers departed from the song and dance
formula films and brought out the rich variety of Indian experience and growing
existential problems of the people. The movement, initially led by Bengali
cinema, began to take shape in the Golden era. Most films made during this
period were funded by the State Governments with an aim of showcasing an
authentic art genre. Some of ambitious filmmakers like Ritwik Ghatak, Satyajit
Ray, Shyam Benegal and Govind Nihalani etc. were the pioneers of Parallel
Cinema. Whether one calls it ‘New Indian Cinema’, ‘Parallel Cinema’ or
‘Alternative Cinema’- it was a cinema of social shade and importance. It was
meaningful and at the same time entertaining.
Mrinal Sen’s Bhuvan Shome, which was different from formula films and was
commercially successful, set the stage for the new wave cinema. Mrinal Sen’s
notable films are Chorus, Mrigaya, Ek Din Pratidin, Akaler Sandhane, and
Kharij & Khandahar. Satyajit Ray, after Apu Trilogy, made Pratidwandi, a film
about the unemployed educated youth, Jana Aranya and Shatranj Ke Khiladi.
Ritwik Ghatak was one of the well-known filmmakers of Parallel Cinema. Some
of his films are Meghe Dhaka Tara, Ajantrik, Komal Ghandhar and
Subarnarekha. Among all the films, Meghe Dhaka Tara is a multi-layered and
most complex film.
BA (JMC) 309 61
Basu Chatterji’s Sara Akaash was another film, which falls into the category of
parallel cinema. Rajinder Singh Bedi’s Dastak, Mani Kaul’s Uski Roti, Duvidha,
Kumar Shahani’s Maya Darpan, Avtar Kaul’s 27-Down, M.S. Sathyu’s Garam
Hawa made in 1973 on the theme of partition, are some notable films of parallel
cinema. Garam Hawa is one of the best films ever made on the theme of India’s
partition that took place in 1947. Shyam Benegal’s Ankur, Nishant, Manthan,
Bhumika, Kondura and Junoon; Govind Nihalani’s Aakroshi, Ardh Satya,
Tamas - TV serial on the partition of India, are some of the milestones of parallel
cinema. With Saeed Mirza’s Albert Pinto Ko Gussa Kyon Aata Hai, Mohan Joshi
Hazir Ho, and Salim Langde Pe Mat Ro, Rabindra Dharmaraj’s Chakra, and
Ketan Mehta’s Bhavni Bhavai, Mirch Masala and Maya Memsahib and Sardar
etc. parallel cinema reached its high point at the end of the 70s.
A pioneer parallel cinema ‘Ankur’
‘Ankur’ is an Indian colour film of 1974. It was the first feature film directed by
Shyam Benegal and the debut of Indian actors Ananth Nag and Shabana Azmi.
Though Shabana Azmi had acted in other films as well, Ankur was her first
release. Ankur belongs to the genre of Indian Parallel Cinema. The plot is based
on a true story that occurred in Hyderabad, apparently in the 1950s. It was
filmed almost entirely on location.
Ankur is a complex film that analyzes human behaviour in general and heavily
stresses characterization. The story revolves around two characters, Lakshmi
and Surya. Lakshmi (Shabana Azmi) lives in a village with her husband
Kishtayya (Sadhu Meher), a deaf-mute potter. The couple is poor and belongs
to the lowly Dalit caste. Lakshmi attends a village festival and prays faithfully to
the Goddess, stating that her only desire in life is to have a child.
Surya (Anant Nag), the son of the village landlord, has just finished his studies
in the nearby city of Hyderabad and arrives back home. Surya's father (Khader
Ali Beg) has a mistress named Kaushalya with whom he has a son ‘Pratap’.
Surya is forced by his father into a child marriage with the under aged Saru
(Priya Tendulkar).
Surya takes over the administrative responsibilities of land in the village.

Lakshmi and Kishtayya are sent to act as his servants. Surya starts to form an
attraction towards Lakshmi. Surya also hires Kishtayya to ride his bullock cart
and go on errands. Surya then uses Kishtayya's absence to try to flirt with
Lakshmi, but she fails to reciprocate. In the meantime, the villagers have begun
to gossip, and many believe that Surya has already slept with Lakshmi, and will
act in the same way that his father did.
Some while later, Saru arrives at the village, in order to live with her husband.
Saru does not approve of Lakshmi's presence, partly because Lakshmi is a
62 BA (JMC) 309
Dalit and partly because Saru has heard the villagers' rumors. The next
morning, Saru fires her, claiming that she is too sick to work.
Many days go by, Kishtayya returns. Lakshmi is overwhelmed with a feeling of

guilt, because she believes that she has betrayed her husband. On discovering
Lakshmi's pregnancy, he salutes the village goddess at her temple,
acknowledging that his wife's wish has been granted. He then decides to return
to work for Surya. Surya sees Kishtayya and believes that Kishtayya is seeking
revenge from him due to his infidelity with Lakshmi.
One day Surya orders three men to grab hold of Kishtayya and then proceeds
to whip him with a rope used for lynching and Lakshmi rushes to defend her
husband. She angrily curses Surya. then slowly returns home with Kishtayya.
Ankur has won three National Film Awards and 43 other prizes, both in India
and abroad. It was nominated for the Golden Bear at the 24th Berlin
International Film Festival.
3.2.6. Millennium Era (1980s - 2000s)
The cinema changed drastically since 1998, when the overseas market
blossomed and filmmakers started making movies for an overseas audience.
The cinema became more liberal, bringing in western concepts and way of life.
One example of changed times could be the depiction of characters, for
instance wealthy businessmen were frequently the symbol of exploitation,
injustice, and even criminality in Hindi films from the 1950s-80s but by the mid
1990 they were depicted as benign, loving, and indulgent fathers.
Times were definitely changing and the narrative pattern, the story line, the
personalities of the leading characters were all a testimony to this. While in the
past love stories often had class difference as the source of parental
disapproval and therefore conflict, contemporary love stories showed internal
conflict between individual desire and societal norms.
It was also the time when films seemed to give the message: "Look at the
Twentieth Century, full of night clubs and drinking, smoking, bikini clad women
sinfully enjoying themselves in fast cars and mixed parties; how right you are in
condemning them-in the end everyone must go back to the traditional patterns
of devotion to God, to parents, to village life, or be damned forever. "The late
1990s also brought with itself a fascination of the Indian cinema with depicting
the world of organized crime and gangsters which can still be felt in the movies
such as Once upon a time in Mumbai and its sequel Once upon a time in
Mumbai Dobara.
The nineties was the time when family drama dominated the scene. Sooraj
Barjatya’s films like Maine Pyar Kya, Hum Apke Hain Koun and Aditya Chopra’s
BA (JMC) 309 63
film Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge were commercially the most successful

films. Films like Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge were planned keeping in mind
the NRI audiences and this started a new trend in Bollywood. Apart from this
Subhash Ghai’s Pardes, J.P. Dutta’s Border, Yash Chopra’s Dil To Paagal Hai,
and Ram Gopal Verma’s Rangeela did very well at the box office.
3.2.7. Diaspora Films
As the largest filmmaking industry in India and the world, Bollywood films play
an integral role in Indian society. Through its films, Bollywood has portrayed
Indian society for generations, especially for South Asians living in the diaspora
(a group of people who spread from one original country to other countries) who
wish to reconnect with their “Indianness” by creating a distinct dichotomy
between the “traditional” values of India and the “liberal” values of the West.
The rapid increase in popularity of Bollywood films among Indian women in the
diaspora put these films in a critical position for influencing the identities of this
demographic. Through these films, we are able to realize a “sense of
Indianness,” which allows us to relate to these films and identify with them.
Diasporic Indians, including second-generation India- American women, use
these films to establish a sense of commonality that unites them together as
strangers in another country. This is partially accomplished by giving the
diaspora a glimpse back into their homeland, which helps them cope with the
sense of loss caused by dislocation from one’s culture and tradition. For
example, in “Kabhi Kushi Kabhie Gham” (K3G), during the song “Bole
Chudiyan”, celebrating Karva Chauth away from home, which allows us to revel
in our nostalgia for our timeless Indian traditions.
On the other hand, Bollywood has increased its representations of the West
and of stories of diasporic Indians, creating another avenue by which we can
navigate our hyphenated identities through these films. This can be seen in how
a lot of Indian films are now set in large part or entirely in the West, outside of
India. “Dostana” is entirely set in Miami, “Salaam Namaste” is entirely set in
Australia, “Kambakkht Ishq” is set in the U.S. and partly in Italy, Dilwale
Dulhania Le Jayenge and K3G is mostly set in London, reflecting a general
trend of modern Bollywood films portraying diasporic Indian life.
The “Namesake” is Mira Nair’s feature film. It tells the story of a young couple
who have an arranged marriage in Calcutta and move to New York, where they
discover each other and their new country, and have two children. Then the
story shifts to center on their son, while keeping them in the picture. The movie
covers some 25 or 30 years, so it is episodic by nature. What holds it together
is the subtle loving performances by Tabu and Khan, both Bollywood stars.
They never overplay, never spell out what can be said in a glance or a shrug,
communicates great passion very quietly. As Gogol, Kal Penn is not a million
64 BA (JMC) 309
miles removed from the character he played in “Harold and Kumar Go to White
Castle,” although he is a lot smarter. He is an angel until about 13, and then his
parents, heaven help them, find they have given birth to an American teenager.
“The Namesake” tells a story that is the story of all immigrant groups in America:
Parents of great daring arriving with dreams, children growing up in a way that
makes them almost strangers, the old culture merging with the new. It has been
said that all modern Russian literature came out of Gogol’s “Overcoat.” In the
same way, all of us came out of the overcoat of this same immigrant experience.
3.3 Summing up
The history of cinema in India extends back to the beginning of the film era. The
Indian film Industry is the 2nd oldest in the world. Following the screening of the
Lumière and Robert Paul moving pictures in London (1896), animated
photography became a worldwide sensation and by mid-1896 both Lumière and
Robert Paul films had been shown in Bombay.
Silent Era begins with screening of 6 shorts films by Lumiere brothers at Watson
Hotel in Bombay (now Mumbai). The first full length feature film made in India
was Dadasaheb Phalke’s (Father of Indian cinema) silent film in Marathi ‘Raja
Harishchandra’ in the year 1913. The year 1931 saw the first talkie film ‘Alam
Ara’ (Beauty of the world), at the Majestic Theatre in Bombay marked the
historic event. This film was a production by Ardeshir Irani known as father of
Indian talking cinema. The Post-Independence era from the late 1940s to the
1960s is regarded by film historians as the ‘Golden Age’ in the history of Indian
cinema. During that time the creative talents be it director, actor, lyric writers,
composers, writers and in every department used to be excellent. From the late
1960s and early 1980s, romance and violence became an integral part of the
movies. This period also gave some romantic and big canvas and star films like
Sholay. The golden era also marked the beginning of a different genre of
cinema known as “Parallel cinema”. The parallel cinema was characterized by
its serious content, realism and depiction of social issues. These filmmakers
departed from the song and dance formula films and brought out the rich variety
of Indian experience and growing existential problems of the people. The
cinema changed drastically since 1998, when the overseas market blossomed
and filmmakers started making movies for an overseas audience. The cinema
became more liberal, bringing in western concepts and way of life.
3.4 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe silent era.

Home Assignment: Write a note on parallel cinema.
BA (JMC) 309 65
• The first talkie film was Alam Ara was produced by ___________.
• In 1957 Gurudutt produced a famous film ______________.
• Film ‘Mother India’ released in the year _______.
• Elaborate various landmarks of Indian Cinema.
• Ardeshir Irani
• Pyaasa
• 1957
3.8 Keywords
• Parallel Cinema: The parallel cinema was characterized by its serious

content, realism and depiction of social issues.
• Diaspora: A group of people who spread from one original country to
other countries

66 BA (JMC) 309
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Trends and Debates in Indian Cinema

___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 68
Emerging Trends in Contemporary Indian Cinema: Computer

Generated Imagery (CGI), Crossover and Experimental Cinema
LESSON 2 77
Censorship: Need and CBFC standards
LESSON 3 88
An Overview of Contemporary Indian Film Industry:
Multiplex culture, Piracy and Statistics
BA (JMC) 309 67
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 Emerging Trends in Contemporary Indian Cinema:
Computer Generated Imagery (CGI), Crossover and
Experimental Cinema
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Emerging Trends in Contemporary Indian Cinema
1.2.1 Computer Generated Imagery (CGI)
1.2.2 Crossover Cinema
1.2.3 Experimental Cinema
1.3 Summing up
1.4 Assignments
1.8 Keywords
68 BA (JMC) 309
1. Emerging Trends in Contemporary Indian

Cinema: Computer Generated Imagery
(CGI), Crossover and Experimental Cinema
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In Unit III of the course ‘Film Appreciation’ we shall discuss the trends and debates in
India cinema.
In the present lesson we shall study the emerging trends in contemporary Indian
cinema including computer generated imagery (CGI), crossover cinema and
experimental cinema.
___________________________________________________________________
1.0 Objectives
• describe Computer Generated Imagery (CGI)

• describe crossover cinema and experimental cinema.
___________________________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction
For the past 103 years India has been home to a very lucrative global enterprise
– the Film Industry. The Indian film industry today easily eclipses Hollywood
both in terms of the number of films produced and theatrical admissions. Indian
films find a market not only domestically but also in over 100 different countries
across the globe. This makes it essential for the film makers to work on plots
keeping in view crossover audiences and also work on experimental cinema
also.
Since 2000s Indian cinema also introduced a lot of technical advancements in
the ways movies are made. From Koi Mil Gaya, Krish, Robot, Ra.One till
Bahubali. Movies put a greater emphasis on the visual effects rather than the
story. A lot of movies have been shot abroad, with only the mention of India.
1.2 Emerging Trends in Contemporary Indian Cinema
1.2.1 Computer Generated Imagery (CGI)
Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is an area of digital visualization practices.

It was emerges in the late 1960s and quickly came to hold a privileged
BA (JMC) 309 69
relationship to film production affecting particularly in animation, special effects,

and the big-budget blockbuster. In these areas, digital imaging is consistently
pushed to its limits by an ever-advancing state of the art.
Computer animation in film began in the 1970s as visual effects and short
animations were crafted using the layering of 2D images. In 1972 Pixar co-
founders, Ed Catmull and Fred Park, created the first prototype of a digitally-
rendered 3D hand using a technology that would be the foundation for
countless effects and filmic masterpieces that followed. Academic attention to
CGI grew slowly alongside its emergence as a powerful if alien force in
filmmaking and film culture during the 1980s and 1990s.
In 1993 we witnessed a magical moment in computer-generated film history -

we saw our first dinosaur. Jurassic Park was the first 'physically-textured' CGI
film, meaning those dinosaurs appeared incredibly realistic on screen. But it
didn't happen overnight. The team from visual effects house ILM began with
drawn designs and prosthetics of the dinosaurs before scanning them into a
computer. Animation software was used to pinpoint and manipulate hand and
feet movements before the texture of the dinosaurs' skin was painted on. Once
these separate images were pulled together, the dinosaurs were placed into a
scene and combined with live-action and location shooting.
Until the late 1990s CGI was used sparingly, but in 1995 Toy Story became the
first full-length CG feature. With only a small team of animators, our favourite
characters, from Woody to Buzz Lightyear, came to life. Pixar followed this
breakthrough project with a plethora of CG animations such as Monsters Inc.,
Finding Nemo and the Toy Story sequels, the latest in 3D.
Advancing into the millennium CGI reached new heights as technicians used
computer graphics in live-action film to recreate true events. In 2001 audiences
watched the Japanese attack on a US naval base in Pearl Harbour. The attack
was filmed using two shots of the US’s Arizona and a handful of visual effects
to model the sequence, create body simulations and insert smoke plumes.
Eight years later CGI took a pioneering turn when facial capture joined motion
capture to ensure that each facial expression could be recorded and rendered.
Known for its cutting-edge CGI, Avatar wowed crowds with this innovation in
2009.
In the last decade, Bollywood also has seen major technological developments.
Filmmakers have also brought about a vast change in the process of
filmmaking, out of which some of it is noticeable and some of it can be keenly
observed. Many differences can be seen if the action scenes of 90’s are
compared with the action scenes of the 21st century.
70 BA (JMC) 309
In India CGI full length movies are very few in number like Robot, Bahubali,
Bahubali2, Krish etc. Creation of movies like Ra.One, Dhoom 3, Padmavati and
Padman today, are a great instance to showcase how technological
developments are getting a foray into the movie industry.
Special Visual Effects (VFX)
VFX means, the blending of footage with the characters and objects generated
on a computer and also the effects. This creates a realistic computer-generated
film sequence and digital video. All the ordinary things which you see in the
films are because of graphics, for example blasting a whole building, burning
house, etc. Some movies have only succeeded in the Bollywood industry
because of VFX; they also crossed the records of the box office revenue.
Computer Generated Images are a subset of VFX and are used to generate
images out of thin air, a filmmaker can paste these images or impose them in
a scene. It is impossible to show a crowd of 1,000 people in a movie during the
war, but Computer Generated Images make it very easy for the filmmakers.
Initially, they had to pay the villagers to play the role of the crowd, now a huge
crowd can be depicted with CGI’s help.
3D Animation
Animation is all about generating a chain of drawings or pictures taken by way

of a simulation procedure for creating movement. It is a type of optical illusion
through which we are able to see still images or drawings moving. The
procedure involves the manifestation of motion as a result of displaying still
pictures or photographs one after the other at the rate of 24 pictures per second.
3D Animation is the process of generating three-dimensional moving images in

a digital environment. Careful manipulation of 3D models or objects is carried
out within 3D software for exporting picture sequences giving them the illusion
of animation or movement. The procedure of generating 3D is sequentially
categorized into three main sections and these are modelling, layout and
animation and rendering. Modelling is the phase that describes the procedure
of generating 3D objects within a certain scene. Layout and animation phase
describes the process followed for positioning and animating the objects within
a certain scene. Lastly, rendering described the end result or output of
completed computer graphics. The market is filled with several software used
for the creation of 3D Animation and these range from the professional high-
end ones to the affordable low-end versions. 2D Animation is a flat animation
where all the actions happen in x and y-axes. On the other hand, 3D involves
extra dimension and it is the z-axis.
1.2.2 Crossover Cinema
BA (JMC) 309 71
Crossover cinema is a complex term to define, because of the many factors

which differentiate it from other forms of cinema. Khorana (2013) defines
crossover cinema as “an emerging form of cinema that crosses cultural borders
at the stage of conceptualization and production”. Crossover category of
entertainment also refers to plotting two or more discrete characters, settings
or stories together in one story. This is generally done to combine the essence
of two different concepts and reap the benefits of them together. In many cases,
such crossover films try to explain their existence through a dimensional rift or
science fiction.
The growth of crossover films seen in the Indian film industry is very prominent.
It can be largely attributed to the growing number of Indian immigrants in
various countries and the increasing demand for films, which are closer to
reality and stimulates the brain cells. According to crossover film makers "The
last few decades have seen a substantial growth of Indians settling abroad. If
we have nearly three million Indians abroad, we have 100 million here, who are
connected to those abroad".
The crossover films address the reality of this new generation of Indian
immigrants and their relatives and friends scattered around. A typical Indian film
perhaps does not address this reality and was more based on the past.
However, with the foray made by the crossover films, this whole new reality is
now on the canvas.
Crossover genre movies in India have been successful to some extent in giving
us a reality-based cinema that goes beyond the “larger than life” portrayal that
Bollywood offers. Such movies generally appeal to the urban, educated elite.
The popularity of crossover films like Hyderabad Blues, Mr and Mrs Iyer and
Monsoon Wedding were indicative of the void these films have filled among the
Indian audience grown up in a cosmopolitan culture.
The crossover films are currently popular in the Indian and NRI market.
However, such films need to emerge from the Indian cultural themes and
address more universal themes.
Films like Bend it Like Beckham have displayed the box-office potential of
crossover films in the international market. A strong theme, an effective
screenplay and a strong narrative as well as a strong storyline that displays a
reality that is universal, is essential for Indian film makers to make the global
main stream mark.
1.2.3 Experimental Cinema
72 BA (JMC) 309
Experimental cinema is a mode of filmmaking that rigorously re-evaluates

cinematic conventions and explores non-narrative forms and alternatives to
traditional narratives or methods of working. Many experimental films,
particularly early ones, relate to arts in other disciplines: painting, dance,
literature and poetry or arise from research and development of new technical
resources.
While some experimental films have been distributed through mainstream

channels or even made within commercial studios, the vast majority have been
produced on very low budgets with a minimal crew or a single person and are
either self-financed or supported through small grants.
Experimental filmmakers generally begin as amateurs, and some used

experimental films as a springboard into commercial film making or transitioned
into academic positions. The aim of experimental filmmaking is usually to
render the personal vision of an artist, or to promote interest in new technology
rather than to entertain or to generate revenue, as is the case with commercial
films.
Experimental films are rare and totally unpopular. These films by definition are
unconventional, and therefore almost never reach a wide audience. The vast
majority of experimental films are not screened in theatres, aired on TV, or sold
in discs. They are not main-stream and have no commercial life whatsoever.
Though internationally oriented, the experimental film scene is a traditionally

closed community, one that has little connection to the rest of the film world. It
is a subculture that largely takes place outside of the regular cinemas. These
films are more likely to be screened in museums, galleries, cinema clubs, and
special festivals, and it has its own distribution channels.
Experimental films are not imprisoned by story structure, character arc, or

common sense. Occasionally, an experimental cinema may become popular
despite its peculiarities or even because of theme.
Salvador Dali and Luis Buñuel achieved quite some renown with Un Chien
Andalou (The Andalusian Dog). A surrealist, 16-minute movie from 1928, Un
Chien Andalou is generally considered the most famous experimental movie.
Experimental Cinema in India
Experimental cinema is not a new or a recent concept in India. In the late 60's
and early 70's, a lot of experimental films were produced by the Indian
government. This was a period when a community of artists at the Films
Division was experimenting with the format, and these films were often shown
in cinemas before features.
BA (JMC) 309 73
Dada Saheb Phalke, who is considered to be the father of Indian cinema, can
actually be considered the first experimental filmmaker from India, given his
experimentation with time-lapse photography way back in 20's. Cinema at that
time wasn't about entertainment, people watched Raja Harishchandra for the
same reasons they went for a pilgrimage, or to the temple. And it is an
experiment because Phalke was the first person to tell an Indian tale through
the modern apparatus of cinema, which till then had been passed on through
oral traditions, visuals and writings.
A session called "Experiment with Gods", celebrates the religious cinema of the
silent era. From a medium of devotional engagement, cinema went on to garner
mass popularity with the arrival of the talkies that carried forward the song-and-
dance tradition of India.
The next wave of experimentation came 50 years later. This was facilitated by
government bodies like Films Division (FD) in the late '60s and later, the
National Film Development Corporation (NFDC). "This phase marked the
arrival of the state-funded film which produced some of the most ambitious
experiments. S. Sukhdev's documentary film in 1967 called India 67 is one such
film. Till date, it remains one of the radically experimental documentary films
ever made in India.
In the later years, cinematic experimentation moved to Film and Television

Institute of India (FTII) under the radical vision of Ritwik Ghatak, who mentored
some of the big names in the field there. The Satyajit Ray Film and Television
Institute (SRFTI) also produced more of such works. The later experiments
came with digitisation, animation and video installations in gallery spaces.
Some excellent examples of India experimental cinema are V. Shantaram’s ‘Do

Ankhen Barah Hath’, Kamal Haasan’s ‘Pushpak’, Ashutosh Govarikar’s
‘Lagaan’, Rajkumar Hirani’s ‘Munna Bhai MBBS’, Rajkumar Hirani’s ‘3 Idiots’
etc.
1.3 Summing up
For the past 103 years India has been home to a very lucrative global enterprise
– the Film Industry. The Indian film industry today easily eclipses Hollywood
both in terms of the number of films produced and theatrical admissions. Indian
films find a market not only domestically but also in over 100 different countries
across the globe. Since 2000s Indian cinema also introduced a lot of technical
advancements in the ways movies are made. From Koi Mil Gaya, Krish, Robot,
Ra.One till Bahubali. Movies put a greater emphasis on the visual effects rather
than the story. Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is an area of digital
visualization practices. It was emerges in the late 1960s and quickly came to
hold a privileged relationship to film production affecting particularly in
74 BA (JMC) 309
animation, special effects, and the big-budget blockbuster. Special Visual

Effects (VFX) means, the blending of footage with the characters and objects
generated on a computer and also the effects. This creates a realistic computer-
generated film sequence and digital video. All the ordinary things which you see
in the films are because of graphics, for example blasting a whole building,
burning house, etc. Some movies have only succeeded in the Bollywood
industry because of VFX. Animation is all about generating a chain of drawings
or pictures taken by way of a simulation procedure for creating movement. It is
a type of optical illusion through which we are able to see still images or
drawings moving. The procedure involves the manifestation of motion as a
result of displaying still pictures or photographs one after the other at the rate
of 24 pictures per second. 3D Animation is the process of generating three-
dimensional moving images in a digital environment.
Crossover cinema is a complex term to define, because of the many factors

which differentiate it from other forms of cinema. Crossover cinema can be
defined as “an emerging form of cinema that crosses cultural borders at the
stage of conceptualization and production”. Crossover category of
entertainment also refers to plotting two or more discrete characters, settings
or stories together in one story.
Experimental cinema is a mode of filmmaking that rigorously re-evaluates

cinematic conventions and explores non-narrative forms and alternatives to
traditional methods of working. Many experimental films, particularly early ones,
relate to arts in other disciplines: painting, dance, literature and poetry or arise
from research and development of new technical resources.
1.4 Assignments
Class Assignment: Write a note on Special Effects (VFX).

Home Assignment: Describe crossover cinema.
• FTII stands for _____________________________________.

• SRFTI stands for ___________________________________.
• Elaborate the emerging trends in contemporary Indian Cinema.

• Film and Television Institute of India.

• Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute
BA (JMC) 309 75
1.8 Keywords
• Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is an area of digital visualization

practices.
• Special Visual Effects (VFX) means, the blending of footage with the
characters and objects generated on a computer and also the effects.
• 3D Animation is the process of generating three-dimensional moving
images in a digital environment.

76 BA (JMC) 309
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 2 Censorship: Need and CBFC standards
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC)
2.2.1 Vision and Mission of CBFC
2.2.2 Certificates issued by CBFC
2.2.3 Guidelines of CBFC for Film Certification
2.2.4 Appeal Procedure against CBFC
2.3 Need of Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC)
2.4 Summing up
2.5 Assignments
2.9 Keywords
BA (JMC) 309 77
2. Censorship: Need and CBFC standards

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the emerging trends in contemporary Indian
cinema i.e. computer generated images, crossover cinema and experimental cinema.
In the present lesson we shall discuss censorship of cinema, censorship board and
need of censorship in Indian cinema.
___________________________________________________________________
2.0 Objectives
• describe the censorship of Indian Cinema

• describe the Central Board of Film Certification
• discuss the need of censorship in Indian Cinema
___________________________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction
The term censorship refers to the suppression, banning, or deletion of speech,
writing, or images that are considered to be indecent, harmful, sensitive,
obscene, or otherwise objectionable. Censorship becomes a civil rights issue
when a government or other entity with authority, suppresses ideas, or the
expression of ideas, information, and self. In many countries including India
censorship has been debated, as some seek to protect the public from offensive
materials, and others seek to protect the public’s rights to free speech and
expression.
Film censorship is carried out by various countries to differing degrees,
sometimes as a result of powerful or relentless lobbying by organizations or
individuals. Films that are banned in a particular country change over time.
A motion picture rating system is designated to classify films with regard to

suitability for audiences in terms of issues such as sex, violence, substance
abuse, profanity, impudence or other types of mature content. A particular
issued rating can be called a certification, classification, certificate or rating.
78 BA (JMC) 309
2.2 Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC)

Cinema came to India in 1896 when the first show at Watson hotel, Bombay by
Lumière Brothers was presented in July. As the first film in India (Raja
Harishchandra) was produced in 1913 by Dadasaheb Phalke, Indian
Cinematograph Act was passed and came into effect only in 1920. Censor
Boards were placed under police chiefs in cities of Madras, Bombay, Calcutta,
Lahore and Rangoon. Regional censors were independent.
The Central Board of Film Certification (often referred to as the Censor Board)
is a statutory censorship and classification body under the Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. It is tasked with "regulating
the public exhibition of films under the provisions of the Cinematograph Act
1952". It assigns certifications to films, television shows, television ads, and
publications for exhibition, sale or hire in India. Films can be publicly exhibited
in India only after they are certified by the Board.
After Independence autonomy of regional censors was abolished and they were
brought under the Bombay Board of Film Censors. With implementation of
Cinematograph Act, 1952, the board was unified and reconstituted, as the
Central Board of Film Censors. Cinematograph (Certification) Rules were
revised in 1983 and since then the Central Board of Film Censors became
known as the Central Board of Film Certification.
Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) is a statutory body under Ministry of

Information and Broadcasting, regulating the public exhibition of films under the
provisions of the Cinematograph Act 1952.
Films can be publicly exhibited in India only after they have been certified by
the Central Board of Film Certification.
The Board consists of non-official members and a Chairman (all of whom are
appointed by Central Government) and functions with headquarters at Mumbai.
It has nine Regional offices, one each at Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore,
Thiruvananthapuram, Hyderabad, New Delhi, Cuttack and Guwahati. The
Regional Offices are assisted in the examination of films by Advisory Panels.
The members of the panels are nominated by Central Government by drawing
people from different walks of life for a period of 2 years.
The Certification process is in accordance with The Cinematograph Act, 1952,

The Cinematograph (certification) Rules, 1983, and the guidelines issued by
the Central government u/s 5 (B)
Section 5(B) (1) lays the grounds for not certifying a film for public exhibition if,
in the opinion of CBFC, the film or any part of it is against the interests of the
sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations
BA (JMC) 309 79
with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or involves defamation or

contempt of court or is likely to incite the commission of any offence. This is in
accordance with the reasonable exceptions specified in Article 19 of the Indian
Constitution.
2.2.1 Vision and Mission of CBFC
Vision: To ensure the good and healthy entertainment in accordance with the
provisions of the Cinematograph Act 1952 and the Cinematograph
(Certification) Rules 1983.
Mission:
• To ensure healthy entertainment, recreation and education to the public.

• To make the certification process transparent and responsible.
• To create awareness among advisory panel members, media and film
makers about the guidelines for certification and current trend in films
through workshops and meetings.
• To adopt modern technology for certification process through
computerization of certification process and upgradation of
infrastructure.
• To maintain transparency about Board’s activities through voluntary
disclosures, implementation of e-governance, prompt replies to RTI
queries and publication of annual report.
• To develop CBFC as a Centre of Excellence
2.2.2 Certificates issued by CBFC
The CBFC currently issues the following certificates:
1. U - Universal: Unrestricted Public Exhibition throughout India, suitable for

all age groups. Films under this category should not upset children over 4. Such
films may contain educational, social or family-oriented themes. Films under
this category may also contain fantasy violence and/or mild bad language.
2. UA - Parental Guidance: All ages admitted, but it is advised that children

below 12 be accompanied by a parent as the theme or content may be
considered intense or inappropriate for young children. Films under this
category may contain mature themes, sexual references, mild sex scenes,
violence with brief gory images and/or infrequent use of crude language.
3. A- Adults Only: Restricted to adult audiences (18 years or over). Nobody

below the age of 18 may buy/rent an A rated DVD, VHS, UMD or watch a film
in the cinema with this rating. Films under this category may contain
adult/disturbing themes, frequent crude language, brutal violence with blood
80 BA (JMC) 309
and gore, strong sex scenes and/or scenes of drug abuse which is considered
unsuitable for minors.
4. S- Restricted to any special class of persons: This rating signifies that the
film is meant for a specialised audience, such as doctors.
2.2.3 Guidelines of CBFC for Film Certification
The Cinematograph Act lays down that a film shall not be certified if any part of
it is against the interest of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of
the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or
involves defamation or contempt of court or is likely to incite commission of any
offence.
Under section 5B(2) the Central Government has issued the following
guidelines.
A film is judged in its entirety from the point of view of its overall impact and is
examined in the light of the period depicted in the film and the contemporary
standards of the country and the people to whom the film relates, provided that
the film does not deprave the morality of the audience. Guidelines are applied
to the titles of the films also.
1. Objectives of Film Certification

i. the medium of film remains responsible and sensitive to the values
and standards of society;
ii. artistic expression and creative freedom are not unduly curbed;
iii. certification is responsible to social changes;
iv. the medium of film provides clean and healthy entertainment; and
v. as far as possible, the film is of aesthetic value and cinematically of
a good standard.
2. In pursuance of the above objectives, the CBFC shall ensure that
i. anti social activities such as violence are not glorified or justified
ii. the modus operandi of criminals, other visuals or words likely to incite
the commission of any offence are not depicted;
iii. scenes –
a) showing involvement of children in violence as victims or
perpetrators or as forced witnesses to violence, or showing
children as being subjected to any form of child abuse.
b) showing abuse or ridicule of physically and mentally
handicapped persons; and
BA (JMC) 309 81
c) showing cruelty to, or abuse of animals, are not presented

needlessly
iv. pointless or avoidable scenes of violence, cruelty and horror, scenes
of violence primarily intended to provide entertainment and such
scenes as may have the effect of de-sensitising or de-humanising
people are not shown;
v. scenes which have the effect of justifying or glorifying drinking are
not shown;
vi. scenes tending to encourage, justify or glamorise drug addiction are
not shown;
vii. scenes tending to encourage, justify or glamorise consumption of
tobacco or smoking are not shown;
viii. human sensibilities are not offended by vulgarity, obscenity or
depravity;
ix. such dual meaning words as obviously cater to baser instincts are
not allowed;
x. scenes degrading or denigrating women in any manner are not
presented;
xi. scenes involving sexual violence against women like attempt to rape,
rape or any form of molestation or scenes of a similar nature are
avoided, and if any such incidence is germane to the theme, they
shall be reduced to the minimum and no details are shown
xii. scenes showing sexual perversions shall be avoided and if such
matters are germane to the theme they shall be reduced to the
minimum and no details are shown;
xiii. visuals or words contemptuous of racial, religious or other groups are
not presented
xiv. visuals or words which promote communal, obscurantist, anti-
scientific and anti-national attitude are not presented
xv. the sovereignty and integrity of India is not called in question;
xvi. the security of the State is not jeopardized or endangered
xvii. friendly relations with foreign States are not strained;
xviii. public order is not endangered
xix. visuals or words involving defamation of an individual or a body of
individuals, or contempt of court are not presented.
82 BA (JMC) 309
EXPLANATION: Scenes that tend to create scorn, disgrace or

disregard of rules or undermine the dignity of court will come under
the term ''Contempt of Court'' and
xx. national symbols and emblems are not shown except in accordance
with the provisions of the Emblems and Names (Prevention of
Improper Use) Act, 1950 (12 of 1950)
3. The Board of Film Certification shall also ensure that the film
i. Is judged in its entirety from the point of view of its overall impact; and
ii. Is examined in the light of the period depicted in the films and the
contemporary standards of the country and the people to which the
film relates provided that the film does not deprave the morality of the
audience.
4. Films that meet the above – mentioned criteria but are considered
unsuitable for exhibition to non-adults shall be certified for exhibition to
adult audiences only.
5.
i. While certifying films for unrestricted public exhibition, the Board shall
ensure that the film is suitable for family viewing, that is to say, the
film shall be such that all the members of the family including children
can view it together.
ii. If the Board, having regard to the nature, content and theme of the
film is of the opinion that it is necessary to caution the parents /
guardian to consider as to whether any child below the age of twelve
years maybe allowed to see such a film, the film shall be certified for
unrestricted public exhibition with an endorsement to that effect.
iii. If the Board having regard to the nature, content and theme of the
film, is of the opinion that the exhibition of the film should be restricted
to members of any profession or any class of persons, the film shall
be certified for public exhibition restricted to the specialized
audiences to be specified by the Board in this behalf.
6. The Board shall scrutinize the titles of the films carefully and ensure that
they are not provocative, vulgar, offensive or violative of any of the
above-mentioned guidelines.
2.2.4 Appeal Procedure against CBFC
If the applicant is aggrieved by the order of the CBFC (s)he may appeal to the
Appellate Tribunal which is chaired by a retired High Court judge or any person
so qualified to be a High Court Judge. Further, Revision powers are given to
the Central Government to call for the record of any proceeding in relation to
BA (JMC) 309 83
any film which is pending before, or has been decided by the Board and may
make a decision as it deems fit, after giving the applicant an opportunity for
representing his views in the matter.
The Judiciary has frequently demarcated between the expression and abuse of
freedom of speech. It has always tried to maintain a balance between rights of
artists and the need of censorship wherever required. In S. Rangarajan vs. P.
Jagjivan Ram, the Court opined, censorship by prior restraint is not only
desirable but also necessary in case of motion pictures as it has a strong impact
on the minds of the viewers and can affect their emotions. In this case the ban
on this movie was lifted. Similar cases in which Supreme Court passed an order
in the favour of artists are Raj Kapoor vs. Laxman, and Patwardhan vs. Central
Board of Film Certification, Life Insurance Corporation of India v. Prof.
Manubhai D. Shah and the most recent was the lift of ban on Padmavati.
2.3 Need of Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC)

With more than 1000 films being released every year, in India censorship of
films has not only been a debate in the legal fraternity but also a topic of
discussion at the family dinner table. The recent delay and cuts in the movie
“Padmavati” is just one of the many examples of censorship in India. The
current trend of CBFC of cutting scenes and banning of movies has raised
various questions in people’s mind which need clarification.
According to Bimal Julka (former Information and Broadcasting Secretary) total

censorship and absolute freedom are problematic. Citizens of the country as
complex as ours have varying needs, requirements and sensibilities and one
has to strike a balance. The same freedom enshrined in the Constitution applies
to cinema as well. Neither cinema nor the press are separately listed in the
Constitution, though they are derived from Article 19 (1)A, which lists the
freedom of speech and expression. And this balance has been elaborated in
the form of restrictions to freedom of expression under Article 19 (2) and these
have to do with the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the state,
friendly relations with foreign states, public order, decency or morality or in
relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence. In the
sense, there will be reasonable restrictions to free speech which affects the
country’s integrity and disturbs public order, decency and so on and so forth. I
also strongly hold that the CBFC, which is a statutory body, should have the
last word on a film, on whether to allow it for public exhibition without changes
or release it with certain deletions and modifications.
The idea behind vetting is to ensure that people do not get exposed to
potentially psychologically dangerous material. The combination of speech and
sight and action in the semi-dark environment of a theatre can impact viewers
in ways we cannot even imagine. The power of the visual medium can never
84 BA (JMC) 309
be overstated. It carries with it the potential to instil violent modes of behaviour

and cannot be equated with other modes of communication. Censorship and
reasonable restrictions are required because of the impact that cinema can
have on the minds of the viewing public. Films as a medium of entertainment
require a different treatment from books or newspapers. Watching a film is not
like reading a newspaper. That is why films have to be certified in order for them
to be exhibited in a public place according to age as Unrestricted, Adult or
Under Parental Guidance or Special category.
The regional boards too have people from all walks of life and from different
regions in India. The chairperson of the board and its members are appointed
by the Information and Broadcasting Ministry but these are people who
represent different sections of society. The members are tasked with viewing
films keeping in mind the reasonable restrictions enshrined in the Constitution.
It is the restrictions which serve as a moral compass for the committee
members of the Board. Certification is a dynamic process and one which is
likely to change as society changes and evolves.
Need for Censorship of a film
In 1970, a Supreme Court judge in K. A. Abbas v. The Union of India & Anr,
recognized the universal treatment of motion pictures different from that of other
forms of art and expression. He further insisted that it has a deep impact on
adolescent children more than that on mature women and men. The need of
censorship thus arises from the prolonged effect that a motion picture has on
an individual that doesn’t occur in a painting, book or play.
As the title suggests, censorship is a necessary evil, but that doesn’t negate the
freedom of speech and expression completely. The chief problem is that it
seems that Censor Board doesn’t look into alternative options before banning
a film and fails to take into account a lot of mitigating factors involved in the
making of the film. While public interest needs to be protected, private interest
of the parties involved cannot absolutely be forgotten. Right from the script to
music, to production and advertising, a lot of effort and money has gone into
films which when banned enormously impacts the economic status of people
involved, which in turn comes under the ambit of their fundamental right of
livelihood. This repeated pattern of Board or Government banning or halting the
release of movies, thereby consequently an appeal being filed to High Courts
and Supreme Court where the ban is lifted is getting quite tedious. Since the
scopes of grounds are quite wide it calls for some stringent measures to be
taken by authorities, to clarify the objectivity with which a film must be granted
a certificate. The struggle between the necessity of censorship and freedom of
speech must be met with a right balance.
BA (JMC) 309 85
Cinema as an art form has always drawn a disproportionate interest from the
Indian state and the judiciary. Their approach is best encapsulated in this
excerpt from the last major constitutional challenge to censorship law, nearly
50 years ago, in the landmark S. Rangarajan vs. P. Jagjivan Ram case: “Movie
motivates thought and action and assures a high degree of attention and
retention. It makes its impact simultaneously arousing the visual and aural
senses. The focusing of an intense light on a screen with the dramatizing of
facts and opinion makes the ideas more effective. The combination of act and
speech, sight and sound in semi-darkness of the theatre with elimination of all
distracting ideas will have an impact in the minds of spectators.”
The Supreme Court went on to cite an academic study according to which

“continual exposure to films of a similar character” would significantly affect the
attitude of an individual or a group. On this basis, the Supreme Court deemed
pre-censorship necessary.
2.4 Summing up
The term censorship refers to the suppression, banning, or deletion of speech,
writing, or images that are considered to be indecent, harmful, sensitive,
obscene, or otherwise objectionable.
A motion picture rating system is designated to classify films with regard to
suitability for audiences in terms of issues such as sex, violence, substance
abuse, profanity, impudence or other types of mature content. A particular
issued rating can be called a certification, classification, certificate or rating.
Cinematograph Act was passed and came into effect only in 1920. Censor
Boards were placed under police chiefs in cities of Madras, Bombay, Calcutta,
Lahore and Rangoon. After Independence autonomy of regional censors was
abolished and they were brought under the Bombay Board of Film Censors.
With implementation of Cinematograph Act, 1952, the board was unified and
reconstituted, as the Central Board of Film Censors. Cinematograph
(Certification) Rules were revised in 1983 and since then the Central Board of
Film Censors became known as the Central Board of Film Certification.
The Central Board of Film Certification (often referred to as the Censor Board)
is a statutory censorship and classification body under the Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. It assigns certifications to
films, television shows, television ads, and publications for exhibition, sale or
hire in India. Films can be publicly exhibited in India only after they are certified
by the Board.
The CBFC currently issues the following certificates: U - Universal:

Unrestricted Public Exhibition throughout India, suitable for all age groups. 2.
UA - Parental Guidance: All ages admitted, but it is advised that children below
86 BA (JMC) 309
12 be accompanied by a parent. A- Adults Only: Restricted to adult audiences

(18 years or over). S- Restricted to any special class of persons: This rating
signifies that the film is meant for a specialised audience.
2.5 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe certificates issued by CBFC.
Home Assignment: Describe vision and mission of CBFC.

• U certificates meant for _________________________
• UA certificates meant for ________________________
• S- Restricted certificate meant for ______________________

• Elaborate the guidelines for film certification.

• All age group
• Children up to 12 years age under the supervision of parents.
• Specialised audience
2.9 Keywords
• Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) is a statutory body under
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, regulating the public exhibition
of films under the provisions of the Cinematograph Act 1952.

BA (JMC) 309 87
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 3 An Overview of Contemporary Indian Film Industry:
Multiplex culture, Piracy and Statistics
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 An Overview of Contemporary Indian Film Industry
3.3 Multiplex Culture
3.4 Piracy of Films
3.5 Statistics of Film
3.6 Summing up
3.7 Assignments
3.11 Keywords
BA (JMC) 309 88
3. An Overview of Contemporary Indian Film

Industry: Multiplex culture, Piracy and
Statistics
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the need and standards of Central Board of Film
Certification.
In the present lesson we shall discuss an overview of contemporary Indian film

industry i.e. multiplex culture, piracy and statistics.
___________________________________________________________________
3.0 Objectives
• describe multiplex culture
• describe the piracy
• describe statistics
___________________________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction
The Hindi cinema has crossed over many paths and bridges to reach where it
stands today. The contemporary period of Indian cinema depicts the time frame
from the late 1990s to the present 21st century. The word ‘contemporary’
literally means living or occurring in the present; modern or current. As is
apparent even to a layman‘s eyes the film industry has drastically changed from
the 1980s-1990s to now. The film industry is now much more capitalized and
regulated. The process of film production has become professionalized and
rationalized as never before. Filmmaking is now incorporating a lot of high-end
technology. There is greater division of labour and the modes of movie
distribution and exhibition have been drastically altered.
3.2 An Overview of Contemporary Indian Film Industry
BA (JMC) 309 89
Nowadays, the film business is more closely integrated with other sectors of the
entertainment industry and the nature of the film audience has also changed
dramatically. Not only has the modes of manufacture of films changed but the
narrative style and the script of the movies have become more in tune with the
present day demands and aspirations.
Let‘s take the case of Anurag Kashyap‘s adaptation of Devdas in Dev-D (2009)
which in itself depicts the radical alteration in the films of now and then. The
new Devdas is shown to have moved forward and carried on with his life with
Chandramukhi while the old one is shown to have drowned in alcohol and dying
at the altar of his beloved Paro. The new adaptation matches more suitably to
the contemporary times and provides a peek into the thinking and changing
ideologies of the times.
3.2.1 Perceptions About Cinema: Then and Now
It is a universal truth that cinema is a powerful reflector of society. It mirrors the

transformations, cultural tensions and new trends that are surfacing in society
in interesting ways. In short, cinema captures the essence of life itself. As the
Cinema is changing so is the perception about cinema. A look at the history of
the nation will reveal that when the films entered the nation not all were happy
and rejoicing in the art form, there were many who looked upon it as a social
evil capable of destroying young minds and corrupting them. Even, the father
of the Nation, Mahatma Gandhi (Bapu) viewed cinema as a corrupting
influence, and could not envisage a role for it in the construction of a swadeshi
culture.
In the modern day India there would be very few who would shun cinema and
label it as a social evil. On the other hand, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru recognized
the potential of cinema from the very beginning itself and wanted to use the
medium in a way which benefits the society. In a personal communication
dispatched to the organizers of the first Indian Motion Picture Congress in
Bombay in 1939, he asserted:
“I am far from satisfied at the quality of work that has been done. Motion pictures
have become an essential part of modern life and they can be used with greater
advantage for educational purposes… so far greater stress has been laid on a
type of film, which presumably is supposed to be entertaining, but the standard
or quality of which is not high. I hope that the industry will consider now in terms
of meeting the standards and of aiming at producing high-class films that have
educational and social values. Such films should receive the cooperation and
not only of the public but also of the state.”
Thus, there were two ways in which the nationalist leadership approached
cinema. First, as ‘low art’ which aimed to provide vulgar entertainment to the
90 BA (JMC) 309
masses and second as a mode of mass communication which can be used for
instilling and propagating good values among the people. The vision of Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru held ground for quite some time and during those early days
the purpose of cinema was not entertainment but education and value building.
Nitin Bose, an Indian film director, cinematographer and screenwriter active

during the years from 1930-60s in an interview in Cinema Vision India, Volume
1, Number 2, April 1980 says “When we directed films, we tried to make pictures
with messages that would wake people up, rouse them. They could see
themselves in our pictures. Just entertainment had no value, in fact, the word
“entertainment” was not used.
This outlook is strikingly different from the modern times wherein the mantra of
success for a film was accurately summed up by Vidya Balan in her 2011
blockbuster film “The Dirty Picture” wherein she comments, “A film becomes a
hit only because of three reasons….Entertainment, entertainment and
entertainment”. This change in the way movies were being watched and
perceived was not effected in a single day but gradually began from the 1990s.
3.2.2 The Beginning of The Contemporary Period
The beginning of contemporary period is not certain and cannot be defined

precisely but the decade of 1990s can fairly be said to be the time from where
it all started. The 1990s gave a string of crude comedies like Raja Babu (1994),
Dulara (1994), Hero No. 1 (1997), Coolie no. 1 (1995), Sajan Chale Sasural
(1996) and many more from Govinda-David Dhawan camp.
In the decade of 90s the trend of middle class cinema which started from the
late 1980s was carried forward by films like Lekin (1990) and Rudali (1993).
This decade was also dominated by love stories and realism which appeared
in bits and pieces. It was not the crude realism of serious and non-commercial
cinema but a soft realism influenced by real life with a touch of fancy and
imagination.
This decade also brought some innovative trends like the trend of films based
on anti-hero or negative hero as a central character such as Baazigar (1993),
Dar (1993) and Khalnayak (1993).
It was also a decade which witnessed the emergence of star-sons like Salman
Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Akshay Khanna, Hritik Roshan and star-daughters like
Kajol, Karishma Kapoor, Karina Kapoor, Esha Deol and Soha Ali Khan as
joining the Bollywood race.
The development of 1990s was shaped by important factors such as

urbanization and the rise of the growing middle classes both of which have been
crucially important in facilitating the creation of New Bollywood. Thus we see
BA (JMC) 309 91
that the popular films of the 1990s were often masala films, with a blend of
many ingredients: broad comedy, improbable action, uncomplicated romance,
and copious amount of melodrama.
The broad story line would include the following phases: After the heroes
traverse the plots full of coincidence, sit through at least one item number
performed by special guest star Helen, and have some dishoom–dishoom with
a henchman or five, traditional family values would be upheld, greed and
dishonour would be punished by legitimate authority figures, and the world
would be set right.
It was from the 1990s itself that more emphasis was being given to the
commercial and entertainment value of a film and less to its moral and ethical
message. In this background the decade of 2000 began with the contemporary
versions of old classics such as Lagan (2001) and Devdas (2002), both of which
went on to become huge hits. The film Lagan was also India's official entry to
the 2002 Oscars.
The beginning of the 21st century also brought with itself the first cycle of
biopics in the Indian film culture which was mostly based on a revival of the
historical genre. A biographical film, or biopic is a film that dramatizes the life of
an actual person or people. Until the early 2000s, there were very few biopics
in mainstream Hindi cinema except probably the 1982 Indo-British co-
production about the father of the nation Mahatma Gandhi, titled Gandhi (1982).
Even in the 21st century, the trend was continued and these type of films were
mostly about national leaders including Ashoka (2001), Bhagat Singh, an anti-
colonial revolutionary whose story featured in the 2006 hit Rang de Basanti;
Mangal Pandey, a semi-legendary hero of the 1857 uprisings, featured in The
Rising: Ballad of Mangal Pandey (2005) and the great mughal, Akbar, who was
the subject of Jodha Akbar (2008). The 21st century also saw the production of
sequels i.e. the continuation of the previous films such as Krishh (2006), Phir
Hera pheri (2006), Lagey Raho Munna Bhai (2006), Don (2006) and Umrao
Jaan (2006).
This was a time of experimentation with various subjects and innovation, people
no longer wanted to watch movies with the same story line, thus the filmmakers
arrayed diverse movies such as social films like Baghban (2003), love stories
like Veer Zaara (2004), patriotic films such as Rang de Basanti (2006), Mangal
Pandey (2005), Swades (2004); thrillers such as Murder (2004) and comedy
like Bunty aur Bubbly (2005).
It was also a time when literary masterpieces such as Pinjar (2003), Parineeta
(2005), and Omkara (2006) graced the celluloid. The time was also ripe for
Technological advancement. This was just the beginning of the contemporary
period of Hindi cinema and Hindi cinema was achieving new heights of
92 BA (JMC) 309
excellence, the varied movies has proven that Hindi cinema is now mature
enough and has learnt to take risks. With the films like Tare Zameen Par (2007)
and Chak de India (2007) which contains no heroine, no romance, no sex, no
violence and yet they have become blockbusters, the success itself is testimony
to the fact that the Indian audience has changed and so is the Indian filmmaking
process.
3.2.3 Into The Contemporary Era
As the times further progressed, we realize that the Contemporary films have a
better variety to offer. There is something for everyone. If one wants to enter
into a dream like sequence with happy endings and a lot of glamour and
grandeur one can always opt for the lively films made by Sooraj Barjatya, Aditya
Chopra, and Karan Johar which represent candy floss entertainment at its best.
If one wants to relive the good old days, one can opt for period films set in the
retro era such as Barfi (2012), Once Upon A Time In Mumbai (2010) and The
Dirty Picture (2011). Other movies set in the 1980s are Special 26 (2013),
Himmatwala (2013) and Shootout At Wadala (2013). If one is interested in
historical dramas with special focus on costumes of the time one can go ahead
with movies such as Veer (2010) and Jodhaa Akbar (2008).
The inclination towards remakes and biopics still remain a popular choice for
several makers, but the biopics have shifted their concentration from the
freedom fighters to the people who have achieved success in a particular field
like business or entertainment or sports. Some examples of the same can be
Guru (2007), Chak De India (2007), Paan Singh Tomar (2012), Bhaag Milkha
Bhaag (2013) and Mary Kom (2014).
The one issue with biopics has been that they are often looked upon by the
mainstream audiences as ‘Documentary’ movies and thus devoid of any
entertainment value. Tigmanshu Dhulia, who directed the biopic on the runner
turned bandit Paan Singh Tomar (2012) also pointed out that audiences would
think that a biopic without stars would be classed as a ‘documentary’.
All this shows the dynamism and vitality of the Indian cinema and its
tremendous capacity to keep abreast of changes. It is because of these
features that the Indian cinema influences the dominant urban culture in more
ways than one. It exercises its influence on all other art forms such as television,
theatre, advertising, music, information technology, journalism, architecture,
fashion and even the profiles of goddesses on calendars and in pooja pandals.
3.3 The Multiplex Culture
In the contemporary period of Hindi Cinema there has been a recent transition
to multiplex exhibition of films. A multiplex is a movie theater complex with
BA (JMC) 309 93
multiple screens within a single complex. They are usually housed in a specially
designed building.
The largest of these complexes can sit thousands of people and are sometimes
referred to as a megaplex. The difference between a multiplex and a megaplex
is related to the number of screens, but the dividing line is not well-defined.
Some say that 14 screens and stadium seating make a megaplex, while other
says that at least 20 screens are required. Megaplex theaters always have
stadium seating, and may have other amenities which often not found at smaller
movie theaters. Multiplex theatres often feature regular seating. The
Multiplexes which generally open inside big Shopping malls seek a middle class
audience primarily located in urban areas.
In India, the mushrooming of multiplexes since the mid-80s has changed the
dynamics of Indian cinema. India's first multiplex was MARIS theater (now LA
Cinema’s) with 5 screens in Trichy, Tamil Nadu, which was inaugurated in
1980. In north India the first multiplex ‘PVR (Pirya Village Roadshow) Cinema,
opened in New Delhi in 1997 and from then on the Multiplex sector in India has
seen phenomenal growth especially over the last few years.
In 2010, multiplexes accounted for 21 per cent of film exhibition revenues while
in 2011, they accounted for more than 30 per cent. As the multiplexes are
entering deeper into smaller towns, it seems the single screens are losing the
battle. With the rising young population, more and more people are attracted
towards the multiplexes.
In the face of threats from Television and Internet, the Multiplexes have
essentially been a key player in reinvigorating the theatrical market. The movie
viewing experience in a multiplex has added a new dimension to urban leisure.
Watching a movie in a multiplex located almost always in the middle of a
shopping mall and in its lavish surroundings has altered the way in which people
view movies. It has given both a social and economic push to the Movie
watching market. In the coming times, Multiplexes are more likely to succeed
than the single screens.
India's multiplex bandwagon has gone beyond the metros to redefine

entertainment in B and C class towns. "While the first phase of the multiplex
theater saw emergence of multiplexes in metros and now this growth is
spreading to tier 2 and 3 cities like Lucknow, Indore, Nasik, Aurangabad,
Kanpur, Amritsar and so on," says Ajay Bijli, Managing Director, PVR Cinemas.
And PVR is not alone.
Other top multiplex players like Adlabs Films (where Anil Ambani holds a 51%
stake), Inox Leisures, Shringar Cinemas (Fame multiplexes), Fun Multiplex (of
Essel group) and Cinemax India too have ventured to small towns across the
94 BA (JMC) 309
country from Darjeeling to Mangalore to Ghaziabad to Pimpri to Pune to Panipat

to Allahabad to Indore to Latur to Agra to Thane to Lucknow to Hyderabad to
Nasik to Jaipur to Visakhapatnam.
Projects are under way in places like Kochi, Bhatinda, Coimbatore, Kota,
Madurai and Ambala. "Metro or non metro, if a town has a population of more
than 10 lakh (1 million) people, we are interested," says Alok Tandon, Chief
Operating Officer, Inox Leisures.
"Given that there is little or no means of entertainment in B and C class towns,

there is a huge potential for multiplexes," says Devang Sampat, General
Manager, Marketing, Cinemax India.
"After two years, non-metros will clearly be the drivers for film exhibition
companies," says a foreign fund manager, who owns and tracks multiplex
stocks. "With box office collections from non metros, expected to move up one
cannot ignore the smaller towns."
At present, as much as 65% of the total box office collections in the country
come from non-metros, says Sampat of Cinemax. "We see this changing to
30:70 metro-non metro in three-to-five years," he adds.
PVR Talkies plans to enter 70 cities including Khanna, Jalandhar, Amritsar and
Moradabad over the next three-to-five years. Adlabs, which says it would invest
Rs 200 crore over the next three years, is eyeing places like Hyderabad, Delhi
and NCR, Agra, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Indore and Allahabad.
Inox, which has entered into a share swap deal to take over Calcutta Cene Pvt
Ltd (CCPL) known for its multiplex brand 89 Cinema already has multiplexes in
smaller places like Vadodara, Darjeeling, Goa, Indore, Jaipur, Kota, Nagpur
and Pune.
As in metros, in smaller towns too it is the retail boom that's mostly driving the
multiplex story. Mall developers all over the country are wooing multiplexes to
occupy their top floors as anchor tenants who would ensure footfalls.
"The arrival of the mall syndrome has accelerated the growth of cineplexes as
multiplexes are the anchor tenants in most of these malls," says Shravan Shroff,
managing director, Shringar Cinemas.
3.4 Piracy of Films: a serious threat to Indian film industry
Indian film industry, said to be the largest globally with some 1,000 movies
produced each year, earns around $2 billion from legitimate sources such as
screening at theatres, home videos and TV rights. But with $2.7 billion, piracy
earns 35 per cent more, and a way out has proved elusive.
BA (JMC) 309 95
Red Chillies Entertainment, a production house promoted by actor Shah Rukh

Khan, was a victim of film piracy with 'Dilwale' last year. It grossed Rs 148 crore
at the box office, but its pirated version, circulated a day before its release,
grossed a much higher amount, stakeholders said.
Recent films like 'Kabali', 'Great Grand Masti' and 'Udta Punjab' have all faced
similar music.
"Content theft or piracy in the film industry originates from 'camcording' in

cinema halls. Over 90 per cent of new release titles originate from cinemas,"
said Uday Singh, Managing Director, Motion Picture Distributors' Association
(India). Singh added "The Indian film industry loses around Rs 18,000 crore
($2.7 billion) and over 60,000 jobs every year because of piracy."
This figure is also what the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)
brandishes in its magazine, quoting noted filmmaker Anurag Basu. While the
Indian film industry is, indeed, flourishing, piracy points toward how much more
its stakeholders can make, he said.
According to the latest KPMG-FICCI report on the Indian media and

entertainment sector, the film industry here is projected to grow from Rs 138.2
billion ($2.09 billion) in 2015 to Rs 226.3 billion ($3.43 billion) by 2020 at an
annual growth rate of 10.5 per cent. But piracy could also grow exponentially
unless checked.
"Currently, the government is focused on inclusive society initiatives, aimed at

connecting villages via broadband. This has the potential to incentivise piracy,
as people would find it much easier to watch a movie on their laptop than travel
to far off theatres," the report said.
Adding another dimension, Patrick Kilbride, Executive Director for International

IP with Global Intellectual Property Center of the US Chamber of Commerce,
said piracy also limits the economic contribution which creativity can make in
India.
"Issues such as copyright infringement, film piracy, camcording and content

leakage weaken the industry by hampering the deserved revenue production,"
said Kilbride.
Stakeholders said some sophisticated technologies like the watermarking of

prints, which allow producers or rights holders to monitor the usage and
movement of each print across the globe, have also not been able to stop
piracy.
96 BA (JMC) 309
"New technologies, including digitisation of film prints, have cut the cost of
recording, storing and copying of films for distribution. Risks involved in leaking
and piracy have also increased manifold," said Lavin Hirani, Head of Legal
Affairs, Red Chillies Entertainment.
"Unfortunately, these technologies are not enough to protect the clandestine

recording of pirated versions done 90 percent of the times with a camcorder or
high-quality mobile camera in a low-light setting of a cinema theatre, or from
the projector room," Hirani said.
There is also the recent prevalence of pirated versions of Indian films swarming
the market and the Internet a day or two before their actual release, since
distributors opt for a simultaneous global screening, which requires the dispatch
of prints some 10-12 days in advance.
"Some territories like in the UAE, they release films a day prior to the Indian
release date which is typically a Friday. This is one of the reasons why a film is
leaked before its actual release," he added.
"Earlier, one odd film would get accidentally leaked before release date. But
these days, pre-release piracy leaks have become a recurring feature, which is
very alarming for the industry," Akella told.
The Indian film industry lost $959 million (Rs 4,411 crore) in revenue and
around 5,71,896 jobs in 2008 thanks to piracy, according to a report released
on Thursday by the US India Business Council and Ernst & Young. According
to the report, the effects of counterfeiting and piracy on Indian entertainment
industry, estimates the piracy rate at 60%.
Delivering the keynote speech at FICCI Frames 2010, Dan Glickman,

chairman, Motion Picture Association of Amercia (MPA), said that two years of
co-productions, joint television ventures, shared distribution rights and joint
ownership of technology companies had resulted in greater co-operation
between India and the MPA member studios.
Such co-operation fosters conducive environment which allows movies like

Slumdog Millionaire and My Name is Khan achieve global box office success.
As successful as we have been or can be, we need to come together to
overcome common obstacles to our joint success. Though piracy is damaging
creative communities across the world, it can be curbed if we take steps to
collectively address this problem, said Glickman.
Harish Dayani of Moser Baer, said, Indian films are far too important to be
destroyed by criminals. Strong legislative and enforcement responses are
needed to tackle the issue of copyright theft. He further said that the enormity
of the theft is perhaps not being understood and the current state of affairs in
BA (JMC) 309 97
the film business is largely owing to large-scale consumption of pirated DVDs.

The industry lost around Rs 2,000 crore last year due to piracy.
Filmmaker Mukesh Bhatt said online copyright theft in India is growing rapidly.
Two separate reports last year placed India on the top ten countries worldwide
for P-2-P infringements. A community of internet users views piracy as an
activity without consequence, and is engaged in piracy with ease within both
domestic and international sites. The government needs to sit down with
stakeholders and find a solution.
Even as the government said that no definite data was available on losses
owing to piracy “if any”, the film industry had said in mid-2016 that the Indian
film industry was losing $ 2.7 billion (Rs 180 billion) every year. Minister of state
for Information and Broadcasting Rajyavardhan Rathore told the Parliament
that the government is aware that there are instances of piracy of films but these
are subject matters of investigation by concerned investigating agencies of the
respective state governments based on complaints by the concerned
filmmakers’.
The possible solutions to prevent piracy
Anurag Basu told WIPO that people need to understand piracy is a crime. The
state blocks Web sites that allow downloads of pirated films, which is good. This
apart, DVD versions must be available within a week or two after the formal
release, as a wait of three-four months is a bit long.
"Piracy is working because people can buy a (pirated) DVD for Rs 100 and a
whole family can watch it. We have to offer that kind of entertainment at that
price. It has to be as easy to get an original DVD as it is to get a pirated one,"
he said.
Hirani said there's no single method or step. "Possible measures would require
concerted efforts by all stakeholders, including the state and central
governments which lose tremendous amount of money in taxes from the sale,
distribution and exhibition of films."
To check piracy, Bollywood is looking to use the Electronic Sell Through (EST)
mechanism for the digital sale of films, according to a study by global advisory
firm Deloitte. Through EST, consumers can buy digital copies of films for
unlimited viewing on demand via the Internet, mobile and cable in exchange of
a transactional fee.
"The country's film industry continues to lose around Rs 50 billion in revenues

and over 50,000 jobs every year due to piracy. India is one of the top countries
witnessing peer-to-peer file-sharing infringement worldwide," the report said.
98 BA (JMC) 309
Although there is no immediate solution to curb piracy, the filmmakers are trying
to counter the menace with increasing digitisation of the movie prints, it added.
In India, about 60% of the box-office collections are made during the first week
of release of a movie. Digital cinema distribution firms are going for digital prints
of the films, the report said.
"A big-budget Hindi movie, which would have been released earlier with 400
500 prints, now enjoys a wider release with almost 1,000-1,500 prints. Further,
with an increasing demand for an alternative source of entertainment for the
home audience, filmmakers will look at Digital EST and online VOD (video on
demand) transactions to garner revenue," it said.
Taking cinema to the audience in this way will generate more money and start
making up for the DVD business, which is dying worldwide, it added. The report
further said that content will be the king and Bollywood filmmakers will
experiment with themes like biopics and reality.
3.5 Statistics of Films
Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India says, India has the
largest film industry in the world, making on an average of nearly one thousand
feature films and nearly fifteen hundred short films every year. The Report also
mentions that films play a significant role in shaping public opinion and in
imparting knowledge and understanding of the lives and traditions of the
people.
The popular appeal and accessibility of films make them an important

instrument of aesthetic education for broad sectors of the population. Bollywood
is a powerful medium that provides useful and entertaining information on
history, civilization, variety of cultures, religions, socio-economics and politics
in various regional languages. We cannot deny the social and economic effect
of Films on our lives, habits, fashion and even on the way we interact, speak
and walk. The social reality gets depicted in the mirror of Indian cinema,
sometimes realistically and sometimes elliptically.
Coming to the Economic impact of the Film Industry, as per the recent study
conducted by Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu India Pvt Ltd (DTTIPL) Economic
contribution of the motion picture and television industry in India for the Motion
Picture Association (MPA) as per which the Indian film industry is estimated to
have directly provided employment to 1.84 lakh people in financial Year 2013,
and added INR 5,291 Cr. (US$ 853 mn) of value to the economy.
The music industry in India is dependent primarily on the film industry, with
around 80% of music sales in India attributable to film music. As per another
report, titled Economic Contribution of the Indian Film and Television Industry,
BA (JMC) 309 99
it also finds that the sector has a total gross output of $20.4 billion (Rs 92,645
crores) and contributes more to the GDP of India than the advertising industry.
“The report demonstrates the importance of the film and television sector to the
overall growth and vitality of the Indian economy. Indians should be proud of
the staggering growth that the film and television industry has achieved," said
Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) chairman Dan Glickman, who
launched the report in New Delhi at the Asia Society Conference. Glickman also
commented that the report illustrates the need to protect the Indian film and
television industry. "While still growing, the Indian film and television industry
already contributes significantly to India's economy, and the menace of
copyright theft jeopardizes a movie's ability to make money if at all.
This affects the level of investment available for new films and the ability to
create new jobs for workers throughout the country. The launch of the coalition
to protect film and television content is as such a clear reflection of the Indian
creative community's recognition of the urgent need to act quickly to address
this threat," he said.
On the need for a strong legislative response to tackle copyright infringement,

Motion Picture Dist. Association (India) managing director Rajiv Dalal said,
"While the film industry has come together to fight intellectual property theft, the
industry also needs the Indian government to pass legislation such as anti-
camcord restrictions that would allow for effective copyright enforcement." Not,
only this but the film Industry also affect other sectors economically for instance,
the textile sector starts manufacturing clothes with film characters, the toy
industry encashes the most by manufacturing caricatures of hit star characters.
As we see there are various issues that need to be addressed from the
economic point of view but it is clear that the film industry has become one of
the most sought after industry with huge economic implications.
3.6 Summing up
The contemporary period of Indian cinema depicts the time frame from the late
1990s to the present 21st century. The word ‘contemporary’ literally means
living or occurring in the present; modern or current. As is apparent even to a
layman‘s eyes the film industry has drastically changed from the 1980s-1990s
to now. The film industry is now much more capitalized and regulated. The
process of film production has become professionalized and rationalized as
never before. Filmmaking is now incorporating a lot of high-end technology.
There is greater division of labour and the modes of movie distribution and
exhibition have been drastically altered.
The development of 1990s was shaped by important factors such as

urbanization and the rise of the growing middle classes both of which have been
100 BA (JMC) 309

crucially important in facilitating the creation of New Bollywood. The beginning

of the 21st century also brought with itself the first cycle of biopics in the Indian
film culture which was mostly based on a revival of the historical genre. A
biographical film or biopic is a film that dramatizes the life of an actual person
or people. The inclination towards remakes and biopics still remain a popular
choice for several makers, but the biopics have shifted their concentration from
the freedom fighters to the people who have achieved success in a particular
field like business or entertainment or sports. This was a time of
experimentation with various subjects and innovation, people no longer wanted
to watch movies with the same story line, thus the filmmakers arrayed diverse
movies such as social films like Baghban (2003), love stories like Veer Zaara
(2004), patriotic films such as Rang de Basanti. It was also a time when literary
masterpieces such as Pinjar (2003), Parineeta (2005), and Omkara (2006)
graced the celluloid.
In the contemporary period of Hindi Cinema there has been a recent transition
to multiplex exhibition of films. A multiplex is a movie theater complex with
multiple screens within a single complex. They are usually housed in a specially
designed building. In India, the mushrooming of multiplexes since the mid-80s
has changed the dynamics of Indian cinema.
3.7 Assignments
Class Assignment: How piracy affected the Indian Cinema?

Home Assignment: Describe the evolution of Multiplex cinema in India.
3.8 Self-Check Questions
• In North India the first multiplex cinema was ______________
• Give an overview of contemporary Indian Cinema.
3.10 Possible answers of Self-Check Questions
• PVR (Priya Village Roadshow) in New Delhi.
3.11 Keywords
• Multiplex cinema: A multiplex is a movie theater complex with multiple

screens within a single complex.
• Megaplex cinema: The largest of these complexes can sit thousands of
people and are sometimes referred to as a megaplex.
BA (JMC) 309 101


102 BA (JMC) 309

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Film Appreciation
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 104
Film Appreciation: concept, need, elements and Cinematic Language
LESSON 2 116
Film Review: Critical Appreciation of Cinema as a text,
Discourse and Narrative
LESSON 3 127
Job Profile and Responsibilities of a Film Reviewer
BA (JMC) 309 103

___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 Film Appreciation: concept, need, elements and
Cinematic Language
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Film Appreciation: Concept and Need
1.3 Elements of Film Analysis
1.4 Cinematic Language
1.5 Summing up
1.6 Assignments
1.10 Keywords
104 BA (JMC) 309

1. Film Appreciation: concept, need, elements

and Cinematic Language
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In Unit IV of the course ‘Film Appreciation’ we shall discuss the concept and need of
film appreciation; elements of film appreciation and cinematic language.
In the present lesson we shall study the concept and need of film appreciation,
elements of film and cinematic language.
___________________________________________________________________
1.0 Objectives
• describe concept and need of film appreciation

• describe the elements of film
• describe the cinematic language
___________________________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction
‘Film Appreciation’ is a humble attempt to make aware of the potential of film

and empower the artist and audience aiming towards a more enriching
experience. Film appreciation brings wide knowledge over film making, story-
telling pattern and concept involved in it. People who wants film as a subjective
medium will find film appreciation as a sister concern to film production. It not
only motivates the film maker to work more and more perfection but also uplift
the taste of the audience and makes them believe “Film is a Language”.
Film is unique because it is an art form but it also an industry. Audiences are
willing to sacrifice money and time to take part in the magic of the silver screen.
Their love for this art form has created the need to better understand the films,
to create a deeper meaning than what is first visible. With practice audiences
can analyze an entire move and describe how they find meaning in a film. Also,
they can develop their own personal criteria for analyzing film. Techniques
employed by filmmakers at first may be difficult to comprehend, but once
understood they will add significant value to the film.
BA (JMC) 309 105

1.2 Film Appreciation: Concept and Need
Film appreciation is writing a review of a film keeping in view the each and every
aspect of film from script to cinematography, from acting to editing, from
dialogues to music, from every scene to the complete idea, everything.
Film appreciation also means enlightenment to the language of cinema and

familiarization the vocabulary of the medium. Film appreciation is analyzing film
in emotional point of view, technical point of view and audience point of view
etc. Film Appreciation is basically an attempt to make you understand the
potential of a movie along with a good understanding of the history of cinema.
For appreciating a film, you need to understand the timeline and milestones
since the inception of cinema till the day, history of filmmaking, how the films
were made in the past, and how they are being made, and what progress can
be achieved in the future cinema. You must be able to understand what the
director had in his mind while he made the film, to what extent could he be just
with the film, what could have been done better.
How to Appreciate the Film?
The terms film and movie are often used interchangeably. The word, film,
though, has a slightly different meaning and is often associated with artistic
expression rather than simple entertainment. As a result, appreciating the art
of film is much different than simply watching films for entertainment. To
appreciate the art of film you should try to experience many types of films,
explore film culture, and gain a basic understanding of cinematography and the
technical aspects of filmmaking.
1. View Films: View films that have been critically acclaimed. While film
appreciation is more than just applauding films that critics have endorsed,
critically acclaimed films are acclaimed because they are either
groundbreaking or are characteristic of specific styles. Viewing critically
acclaimed films, then, is a great way to hone your appreciation for film.
Critically acclaimed films may include:
a. Films that have won awards at the Golden Globes, the Academy
Awards, the Cannes Film Festival, the Sundance Film Festival, or
similar festivals and award ceremonies around the world.
b. Films that exemplify a certain type of filmmaking or have pioneered

a genre or subject matter. To find these films, run an internet search
of your favourite film style or genre, and see what comes up. Read
up on that style or genre so you can identify important films.
106 BA (JMC) 309

2. Enjoy independent films. Independent films are films created by

filmmakers not associated with major studios. These films usually have
lower budgets. While their budgets may be smaller, independent filmmakers
can often take on subjects and use styles that are experimental or unique.
3. Explore different genres. A genre is a category of film. While most people

are familiar with popular genres like action, drama, and horror, there are
many different film genres you can explore.
4. Identify directors that create films. While experiencing different genres

may help you gain a wide appreciation, you may gain a lot by identifying
directors that create works that move you. Ultimately, directors are largely
responsible for the artistic character of a given film.
5. Observe different types of camera shots. Filmmakers use both static

shots and dynamic shots. Static shots are camera shots where the camera
remains stationary and does not alter its aim. Dynamic shots are shots
where the camera is moving and changing its aim. Filmmakers use both
types of shots to convey meaning and to emphasize elements of what they
are filming. With both types of shots, the angle, point of view, and scale may
vary. Pay attention to these different elements when watching different films.
6. Pay attention to the lighting. Lighting is one of the most important parts of
how filmmakers bring their stories to life. Filmmakers can use lighting to
emphasize elements of what they’re shooting or to add mood to the story.
There are several major types of lighting:
a. Back lighting. This is when lighting comes from behind the character
or object. This can be used to make something look mysterious or
ominous.
b. Key and fill lighting. This is lighting that is directed at a character or
object.
c. Under-lighting. This comes from below the character or object.
d. Top lighting. This is where the lighting comes from above. It can be
used to create a brighter, happier scene.
e. Side lighting. This is when lighting is directed at the object from the
side.
7. Listen to the sound of a film. The sound of a film can alter your perception
of visuals and visual affects tremendously. As a result, your pursuit of film
appreciation should be paired with a study of how filmmakers integrate
sound into their work. Some things to consider are: The score; Sound effects
and Lack of sound.
BA (JMC) 309 107

8. Educate yourself about formalism. Formalist film is when a filmmaker

focuses on aesthetics – how things look – more than the content or subject
matter. Formalist filmmakers will experiment with a wide variety of things,
including lighting, special effects, editing, colors, hues, and more.
9. Learn about realism. Realist film is when a filmmaker tries to recreate

reality. Realist films will focus on set, location, and details. Realism does not
lend itself to distortion or creative camera work. Realist films will often have
a candid or natural appearance.
1.3 Elements of Film Analysis
Contemporary film theory -- at least part of it -- is increasingly concerned with

how a film is put together. What are the irreducible parts or elements? How do
they relate to each other? How do they work on an audience? Ideally, a movie
is very simple: you are watching something and listening to something.
Abstractly what you watch are: color, shape, form, and movement. What you
listen to are: language and sound, with rhythms, harmonies, and melodies.
Concretely we watch people, either alone or together, objects, scenery, and
events. We listen to monologues and conversations, narration, sound effects,
music and silence.
Successful film artistically or financially or both, simply combine all these

elements, concrete and abstract into a pleasing pattern. But the whole question
is what makes one pattern pleasing and another not? What sells?
Following five (5) point model remains useful for an analysis of the conscious
motivation of the film. Psychologically, film may work in a much more complex
manner -- but practically for both the filmmaker and film viewer -- movies remain
stories, stories about people, in certain locations, that present a number of
ideas, and do so in a more or less recognizable aesthetic manner.
A. Story
A good story has a very clear beginning, middle and end. It is divided into fairly
equal thirds. It moves in a good order from exposition through development to
conclusion. It is tightly knit (then what happened? And then? And then?), but it
often leaves space for other profitable enterprises, such as character and
setting. The best way to organize the telling of a story is through proper balance
of suspense and action. Alfred Hitchcock was fond of defining suspense as the
“the opposite of surprise.” Surprise: when something happens and you don’t
expect it. Suspense: when you expect it and it doesn’t happen. Any story upon
which the element of surprise, action and suspense can be superimposed is a
candidate for success in the Hollywood format or any format for that matter.
Often, the suspense/action balance can be adjusted after the film is shot.
108 BA (JMC) 309

B. Character
The general run of films is strongly plot-oriented, however, the best movies
depend heavily on character for the full effect, even at the expense of storyline.
Films relied heavily on ACTORS to bring the action alive. It is the actor, the star,
who brings character to the role. In films which are in the first place oriented
towards character, the material is there to begin with like Ordinary People.
C. Setting
Setting is probably the most important in film that any other art. Moreover, it
increases in importance with each passing year. People do go to movies to see
places they have not been seen or they also like to see places they have been
seen. The indoor movies, once a staple of the studios, prisoners of their huge,
expensive lights, often seems cramped and claustrophobic. But setting alone
can’t make a commercially successful film.
D. Theme
Theme is, perhaps surprisingly, a saleable commodity. People go to adventure

films, to women’s films, to mid-life crisis movies, to youth films etc., at least
partially for what those films have to say -- MESSAGE.
E. Style
This last of the five elements of the cinematic equation is the least defensible.
Only trained observers, mass communication and communication arts student,
look for it or appreciate it. If it is blatantly evident, it is usually done in bad faith,
and audiences react with sensible contempt. In European Films, style usually
plays a notably significant part than in American films. Since European films
are on the whole much more personal communications, the tone of voice of the
author is an important element in the grand design. American films exist in the
context of movies as powerful mass entertainment, so that personal style, when
it makes itself evident, often seems invasive. In terms of American movies, style
is all too often defined as the residue that remains after action and character,
setting and ideas have been extracted.
F. SFX and Music
To these five classic elements we should add two others, each of which is
something more than a gimmick, but less than a basic component of the
construction: SFX and MUSIC. They are hardly necessary and sufficient like
the five from which films are built, but they can often save a “borderline case”
film.
1.4 Cinematic Language
BA (JMC) 309 109


words.
From ancient cave paintings to modern interactive games, humans have

excelled at visual storytelling. Cinema is a relatively new media whose stories
transcend geographical boundaries. Since the dawn of moving pictures in the
1890s, cinema has evolved as a language spoken across the globe.
Fortunately, this universal language is far easier to learn than a foreign dialect.
Written language uses letters, words, sentences and paragraphs to convey a

narrative. Cinema uses shots, shot sequences, scenes and dramatic
sequences. Using language as an organizational structure can give your video
greater narrative impact and broader appeal. They say a picture is worth a
thousand words. A moving picture is worth even more.
Shot: The language of cinema starts with the shot. In film, a shot is a series of
still image frames that runs for an uninterrupted period of time. Like a letter in
written language, the shot is the smallest piece of visual language. However, a
shot is closer to a word because it communicates much more than a single
letter can.
Depending on its elements, a shot can tell the entire story or just a tiny piece.
These elements include the shot’s duration, camera angle and movement,
sound, lighting and all the visual design of the production that comprise its
“mise-en-scène.” If an actor or actors are in the shot, their physical performance
and emotions can also communicate more than dialogue.
Shot size is one of the basics of filmmaking. It means how big things are in the
picture. An extreme long shot just shows the setting; long shots and mid shots
show people in the setting, and close-ups show details of faces and objects.
Shot Sequence: A shot sequence is a collection of shots that communicate an

idea, just as a collection of words form a sentence. A sequence can be long or
short, using many shots or a few, sometimes using only a single long take. Just
like the order of the words matters in a sentence, the order of images are
important in cinematic syntax.
Film Scenes: Film scenes often start with a wide shot to establish the location
before moving closer to the talent or action. But this isn’t always the case.
However, for a different emphasis, the scene could open with a close shot of
the character. The first shot sequence may also include reaction of the
110 BA (JMC) 309

character. This is a new location, beginning a new shot sequence even though
the action is continuous.
A dramatic sequence is a collection of dramatically linked scenes that

communicates a complete narrative idea. It is comparable to a series of
paragraphs or a chapter in a book. Scenes of different locations and characters
are intercut to tell the story.
Difference between a shot sequence and a scene: A shot sequence

communicates an idea, while a scene depicts a narrative event in the story. If
a shot sequence is comparable to a written sentence, a scene is a paragraph
Montage: In a montage sequence, shots of different locations can be combined

because they are communicating a single idea with compressed time. A shot
sequence can also illustrate the juxtaposition of opposing ideas or characters
in order to compare and contrast them, or establish a relationship between
them. Like a montage, a juxtaposition sequence compresses time with shorter
shots.
Camera position and angle: As well as shooting different shot sizes, you
should film from different places. Get closer or move further away. See what
the shot looks like if you move round to the side. Crouch down or use a ladder
to get unusual angles.
Composition: Think about exactly what to put in the shot, what to leave out,
and how to arrange things in the shot. To make things look natural, put
lines, edges or faces about a third of the way across (apply rule of third), up or
down the picture ‘frame’.
Camera Movements: Most shots need some kind of movement to give them
life. Keep the camera still to show subtle movements; move the camera – tilt,
pan, track or dolly to follow action or move through a space.
The Lens: Use wide angle (zoomed out) shots to get up close or make things
dramatic, and telephoto (zoomed in) shots to make things bigger if you can’t
get close. With bigger cameras, you can change the focus to pick out the
important parts of the shot.
Light and Colour: Light doesn’t just help us see things. You can make the
mood happy, sad, romantic or scary just by using daylight or room lights and
basic reflectors. For example, three point lighting (Key light, fill light and back
light) or multi pint lighting, shadows (natural shadows and cast shadows), low-
key lighting makes a scene more dramatic. Soft lighting and focus creates a
dreamy atmosphere.
BA (JMC) 309 111

Sound: Sound is a really powerful tool for telling your story and helping make
an impact. Your soundtrack can include all kinds of different sounds: natural
sounds which you record live (or fake with sound effects), dialogue, voiceovers
and music.
Editing for Communication: Just like in writing the message, you are telling
visually should be clear and refined. Build your scene like a writer building a
paragraph. Your cinematic structure starts with individual words (shots)
combined into sentences (shot sequences).
Think about the idea you’re trying to communicate and simplify it to a sentence.
We can break down the example scene’s shot sequences into the following
sentences:
It’s starting to rain.
1. The woman has an umbrella.

2. The woman runs to an alley.
3. An unpleasant man waits in the alley.
4. The man attacks the woman.
5. The woman defends herself with her umbrella.
Consider the importance of each sentence as you combine them into a

paragraph that describes the narrative event of your scene.
“Cut to the chase” is a popular saying among filmmakers and editors. This
doesn’t mean every scene must be cut with the frantic pace of an action
sequence. It means you should leave out ideas that are not relevant to that
particular scene. Stay focused on what you want each shot to say.
Your message can be made clear by following the conventions of cinematic

language. Rapid editing ups the excitement. A tight close-up emphasizes
importance. Every image and its timing should tell a part of the overall story.
When using language as cinematic structure, you should also consider your
punctuation. Does the sentence end with a period, an exclamation point, or a
question mark? This can determine the shot sequence duration, how quickly
it’s cut and the transition to the next sequence.
Sometimes a scene can be a collection of shots connected by camera

movement, or even a single shot where the entire narrative is depicted without
any changes to the camera or background.
There should be a reason for your long take. Does it depict a character’s
isolation? A group of misfits finally working together? How does it connect its
images, and why? In cases where the camera itself is a character, like found
112 BA (JMC) 309

footage films, its point of view mimics the human experience of events without
unnatural cuts.
A scene filmed without cuts can still be broken down into sentences for each
idea you’re trying to communicate, and those sentences translated into shots
or sequences. The long take seamlessly connects the sentences.
Continuity: Film-making is a bit like a magic trick. You can film a lot of different
shots, add some sounds and music, and put it together so everything seems to
flow naturally. You can shoot with one camera and make it look as if you have
ten. You need to follow some tricks and rules to make this work.
Short units of narrative - sequences of shots: We call a series of shots a

sequence and it is a part of the language of film that we are all very used to.
We are used to seeing sequences which move back and forth between two
characters and making the connections between them. Think about an
example- we watch a man getting out of a car and looking up at a building, we
then cut to another shot from inside a building of the same man walking in. No-
one could doubt that it is the same building, the sequence of shots implies this.
Causality: All of these different sequences are joined together into a general
structure of the film. They are joined together in a pattern which is called
causality. One thing leads to another which leads to another. As you watch any
film, you should be able to plot the pattern of causality throughout it, watching
a structure develop of events providing the seeds for other events throughout
the film.
Syd Field’s Three Act Plot Structure: The typical Hollywood film,
according to Field can be separated into three separate dramatic sections
or acts: the setup, the confrontation and finally resolution.
(a) The first act - Setup: In many ways this act is the most important for
Field. He claims that within the first ten minutes in particular, the
audience will decide whether they like the film and will normally be
unwilling to change their minds later. It is therefore vital for the film-
maker to give the audience a sense in those ten minutes what the
film is going to be about, who the main character is and why they
should care about him/her and what they can expect in terms of style.
In the rest of the first thirty minutes, the audience should learn the
nature of the problem facing the hero although this can be left all the
way to plot point one.
(b) The second act – Confrontation: In this longest act of the film we
see the main character in a number of more and more extreme
problem situations where they confront their enemies normally quite
BA (JMC) 309 113

helplessly. Often there will be a mid-point where they begin to turn

things around and win what looked like a helpless struggle, but there
is still a long way to go and at plot point two they will realise that the
way they have been going about things is not working and they will
be ready for…
(c) Act three- Resolution: The hero will finally take control in the
struggles with their problems (often by going to confront the enemy
on their own home territory) and will achieve a final, decisive victory.
Becoming fluent in the language of cinema takes study and practice. Break
down a scene from your favourite movie. Observe the timing of each shot. If
you changed the order of shots, how would this change the story? Language
and cinema are about communicating and expressing ideas. Practice using
language as organizational structure to better express yourself through film and
video.
1.5 Summing Up
‘Film Appreciation’ is a humble attempt to make aware of the potential of film

and empower the artist and audience aiming towards a more enriching
experience. Film appreciation brings wide knowledge over film making, story-
telling pattern and concept involved in it. Film appreciation is writing a review of
a film keeping in view the each and every aspect of film from script to
cinematography, from acting to editing, from dialogues to music, from every
scene to the complete idea, everything. Film appreciation also means
enlightenment to the language of cinema and familiarization the vocabulary of
the medium. Film appreciation is analyzing film in emotional point of view,
technical point of view and audience point of view etc.
To appreciate the art of film you should try to experience many types of films,
explore film culture, and gain a basic understanding of cinematography and the
technical aspects of filmmaking. Five (5) point models like story, character,
setting, theme, style, and SFX an music, remain useful for an analysis of the
conscious motivation of the film.
1.6 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe elements of film analysis.

Home Assignment: Describe cinematic language.
• In film, a ________ is a series of still image frames that runs for an

uninterrupted period of time.
114 BA (JMC) 309

• In a _________sequence, shots of different locations can be combined

because they are communicating a single idea with compressed time.
• Elaborate concept and need of film appreciation.
• Shot
• Montage
1.10 Keywords
• Film appreciation is writing a review of a film keeping in view the each
and every aspect of film from script to cinematography, from acting to
editing, from dialogues to music, from every scene to the complete idea,
everything.

BA (JMC) 309 115

__________________________________________________________________
LESSON 2 Film Review: Critical Appreciation of Cinema as a
text, Discourse and Narrative
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Film Review
2.3 Film Analysis
2.4 Film Criticism
2.5 Discourse and Narrative Analysis of Film
2.6 Summing up
2.7 Assignments
2.11 Keywords
116 BA (JMC) 309

2. Film Review: Critical Appreciation of

Cinema as a text, Discourse and Narrative
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the concept and need of film appreciation,
elements of film; and cinematic language.
In this lesson we shall focus on film review, critical appreciation of cinema, discourse
and narrative analysis of film.
___________________________________________________________________
2.0 Objectives
• Discuss the writing of film review, critical analysis of film.
• Describe the discourse and narrative

___________________________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction
Effectively reviewing a film is complex in that film is not static. In literature and
screenplays one is able to read and re-read the information because it remains
motionless on the page. In film, however the viewer must be able to process
the non-verbal, and other visual ques. During critical analysis of a film the critic
must be able to view all of the elements separately but also understand their
relationship to the whole. The viewer must ask several questions prior to the
analysis of the film. Does the film have a unified plot? Is the story and characters
credible? Is the film interesting? Does the director create a simplistic yet
complex film? Does the film handle emotion with restraint?
A film with a unified plot enables the viewers to follow a stream of

consciousness when viewing the movie. It has a beginning, middle, and an
end. In literary terms, a unified plot includes an exposition, a rising action, a
climax, and a denouement. The characters, theme, and plot are developed as
the film progresses. A logical sequence of events maintains a constant theme
and the conflict are resolved by elements or characters that have been
introduced in the film. The events bear a resemblance to cause and effect; this
forces the actions to move the story along.
BA (JMC) 309 117

2.2 Film Review (Critical evaluation of cinema as a text)
Film review is an evaluation of a movie. In addition to a critical evaluation, the

review's author may assign the work a rating to indicate its relative merit. A film
review is a work of film criticism addressing the merits of one or more films.
Generally, the term "movie review" implies a work of journalistic film criticism
rather than of academic criticism. Such reviews have appeared in newspapers
and printed periodicals since the beginning of the film industry, and now are
published in general-interest websites as well as specialized film and film
review sites.
Preparing to Write the Review
While film reviews tend to be fairly short (approximately 600 to 1200 words),
they require a lot of preparation before you begin writing. Prior to viewing the
film, you may want to get a sense of the bodies of work by the director, writer,
or individual actor. For instance, you may watch other films by the same director
or writer in order to get a sense of each individual style. This will enable you to
contextualize the film and determine whether it works as a continuation and/or
disruption within the broad trends of the director’s or writer’s work.
Writing a film review often requires multiple viewings of the film. Plan to watch
the film two, three or more times. During the first viewing, surrender yourself to
the cinematic experience; in other words, get lost in the narrative and enjoy the
film without worrying about the argument you will eventually cultivate. During
your second viewing, try distancing yourself from the plot and instead focus on
interesting elements of the film that you can highlight in the review. You may
separate these elements into following two broad categories:
1) Formal techniques such as cinematography, editing, mise-en-scene, lighting,

diegetic and non-diegetic sound, genre, or narratology, and
2) Thematic content that resonates with issues such as history, race, gender,
sexuality, class, or the environment.
After watching the film a second time, take careful notes on the formal and
thematic elements of the film. Then attempt to create a central idea for your
review that brings together the film’s formal and thematic elements. If your
second viewing does not yield a strong central claim for the review or if you
need to take more notes, you may have to watch the film or parts of the film
more times.
Writing the Film Review
118 BA (JMC) 309

Although there is not a set formula to follow when writing a film review, the
genre does have certain common elements that most film reviews include.
A. Introduction: In the opening of film review, provide some basic

information about the film i.e. name of the film, certification, year of
release, language(s), duration, genre, name of the director, screenwriter,
production house, cast, music director etc. and rate (1 - 5 star) the film.
Your introduction, which may be longer than one paragraph, should also
begin to evaluate the film, and it should allude to the central concept of
the review.
B. Body (Summary of the film): Plot summary is a brief description of the

events in a story which advance the narrative thrust of the story or
significantly add to the knowledge of main characters in direct relation to
the story. A plot summary also lists the various turning points of a story
- the hook, the inside incident, the midpoint shift, the moment of darkness
that incites the final battle, and then the outcome.
Remember that many readers of film reviews have not yet seen the film.
While you want to provide some plot summary, keep this brief and avoid
specific details that would spoil the viewing for others. Do not reveal the
ending.
C. Body (aspects of film): Discuss key aspect of film making. You may
choose from acting direction, costume design, set design,
cinematography, music, songs, editing or anything else you may think
of. Be sure that you are specific and cite example from the movie.
D. Body (support paragraphs): Discuss other aspects of film making. You

may choose from acting direction, costume design, set design,
cinematography, music, songs, editing or anything else you may think
of. Be sure that you are specific and cite examples from the movie, but
obviously choose different from what you have discussed in the previous
paragraph.
E. Analysis: In order to explain your impression of the film, consider how

well the film utilizes formal techniques and thematic content. How do the
film’s formal techniques (such as cinematography, editing, mise-en-
scène, lighting, diegetic and non-diegetic sound, genre, or narrative)
affect the way the film looks, feels, and sounds to you? How does the
thematic content (such as history, race, gender, sexuality, class, or the
environment) affect your experience and interpretation? Also, do the
formal techniques work to forward the thematic content?
BA (JMC) 309 119

F. Conclusion/Evaluation: The closing of film review should remind the

reader of your general thoughts and impressions of the film. Give your
overall reaction to the movie as your opinion on the quality of movie and
also include your recommendation for potential viewer.
2.3 Film Analysis (Critical evaluation of cinema as a discourse)
Film analysis is a critically appreciation and evaluating discourse

(conversation), including words, phrases and images that make up a scene in
a film: the cast, the lighting, the angles, the colours etc.
The analysis of film enables viewers to truly appreciate the work as a form of
art. It explains all of the working parts, thusly encouraging a more complete
understanding of the whole. This in turn deepens the characters, conflicts, and
theme of film making it more real or significant to the viewer. While initially
developing and implementing skills of analytical viewing are difficult. With
practice one will be able to analyze an entire move and describe how viewers
find meaning in a film. Also, one can develop their own personal criteria for
analyzing film. After reaching these goals the viewer will not only be able to
enjoy the film emotionally but also intellectually.
Guidelines for analyse as Film
Re-watching the film and creating screen captures (still images) of certain
scenes can help with detailed analysis of colours, positioning of actors,
placement of objects, etc. Listening to the soundtrack can also be helpful,
especially when placed in the context of particular scenes.
Criteria for effectively analyzing a film will vary from person to person. The most
important objective is to establish a pattern, a system, or to evaluate films in
way to ensure one covers every aspect. You can do this by locating a film,
ensuring the clear open mind, watching the film first to determine interest and
initial impressions. Then watch the film again to carefully analyze literary
elements, such as, setting, plot, characters, and symbols. After the film is
completed it is important to reflect on several questions.
o What is the theme of the movie?

o How the theme is relevant to the contemporary society?
o Is the movie effectively communicates a theme to viewers?
o How did the storyline move?
o Does the plot flow easily but remains complex drawing the audience in?
o How does the film represent its topic?
o How was the characters of the film justified their roles?
o Does the dialogue work?
o Will viewers of the film find the dialogue credible and natural?
120 BA (JMC) 309

o Do the set, lighting, score, and special effects used to construct mood?
o Does the mood shift at any point during the film, and how is that shift in
mood created?
o What does the setting say about certain characters?
o How are props used to reveal aspects of characters personality?
o Are there any messages in the lyrics that pertain to the theme?
o How well is the film edited?
o How effectively does the director use symbolism or metaphors?
o Does the director add depth to the characters or objects through
association?
After deliberate review of all of these questions you may be able to fully
appreciate the value of the effort put into, or lack thereof, filmmakers have put
into their work. While at the same time it allows you to enjoy the film on a
platonic level prior to analysis.
During analysis most evident aspect is the movie’s ability to captivate. How do
the filmmakers make the movie interesting? While to the audience this can be
dependent on personal preference, the reviewer must remain objective to make
this conclusion. Directors and writers will create suspense throughout the movie
to create the desire to keep watching. They will usually provide the audience
with clues hinting to possible outcomes. Another aspect of how interesting the
movie is the action. Whether it be external, or physical action or it is internal or
psychological action. As easily as the reviewer can see a duel or crash landing,
they will be able to see external action. Now, when the action takes place in the
mind or emotionally for the characters it is internal. They both however create
movement that is essential to maintain the audience’s interest in the film.
The complexity of the film should be taken into consideration during analysis.
While it is possible to over-simplify the theme, characters, or the plot of a film it
is also possible to make it too complex. It is possible for many people who enjoy
the complexity of a serious, thought-provoking film. On the other hand, it is just
as simple to find those who would rather be entertained and do not desire to be
challenged during a film. Either way as a critical reviewer, one should be able
to recognize how well the film-maker combines these to ideas. How well they
are able to present complex ideas in a simple manner without taking away from
the meaning, and vice-versa.
A final aspect in critical review of film to consider is its ability to present

emotional material with restraint. Normally the director will intend for the film to
be reciprocated with a certain emotional response from the audience. As the
objective viewer, one will notice that emotional content can be presented in plot
structure, character’s dialogue, musical score, and even visual cues.
BA (JMC) 309 121

People from across every economic, social, gender, cultural, and all other
stratifications that can be thought of watch movies. Knowing that people are
innately different from one another leads one to the conclusion, that there exist
hundreds of different ways that individuals use to find meaning in film. When a
critical viewer attempts to find meaning in a film there are several different areas
in which they can search. The meaning of film can be found in its allegories,
symbolism, metaphors, and ironies.
In cinema and literature, allegories create an additional meaning for what is

being portrayed on the screen. The characters normally cannot adopt distinctive
personalities because their primary role is to accurately portray something
already in existence.
Films often use symbolism to help the audience discover meaning beyond what
is being shown. Filmmakers will introduce a symbol that will arouse certain
emotions, feelings, thoughts, and connotations within the viewer. This skillful
application of symbols can be done with the use of natural or universally
accepted signs or through by the director placing emphasis on the symbols
throughout the film.
Often in cinema different metaphors are used to represent actions. Normally

metaphors are figures of speech that denote an object or idea to suggest
likeness or analogies between them. There exist two methods in creating
metaphors in film, extrinsic and intrinsic metaphors. Extrinsic metaphors a
normally very similar to symbolism in film in that they are achieved by
juxtaposition or showing scenes simultaneously. In a romance the director
could show a man and woman making love and then show a bee pollinating a
flower to show the miracle of life. The intrinsic metaphors occur more naturally,
the metaphor can now replace action. The director can simply show the two
people entering a room and then show the bees and the audience will
understand what is happening.
Quite the opposite of metaphors is irony. Irony creates association through

differences. There are many different types of irony: dramatic, situational,
characters, setting, tone, and cosmic. Audiences draw meaning through irony
by understanding the contradictions that exist in the film.
Although viewers can find meaning through these devices, the most common
methods are through analyzing the plot and characters of a film. The conflict
which is central to the plot a film is what moves the movie along. Conflict centers
on man versus self, nature, society or man. The characters portrayed in a film
can be identified by the conflicts that they will face and the audience will be able
to deepen their understanding of characters through the conflicts that they face.
Firstly, the audience will see what actions lead to the conflict. Secondly, the
audience will see how the character copes with the situation, whether he will
122 BA (JMC) 309

rise to meet the challenge, remain static, or fail to act. Finally, the audience will
be shown how the character reaches a resolution adding depth to the character.
The type of conflict and the personality character who is facing it often develops
the theme of a film. Once the nature of the characters is establishes the viewers
can find meaning in them.
2.4 Film Criticism (Critical appreciation of cinema as a medium)
Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of film medium. The concept is often
used interchangeably with that of film reviews. A film review implies a
recommendation aimed at consumers, however not all film criticism takes the
form of reviews.
In general, film criticism can be divided into two categories: 1) journalistic

criticism which appears regularly in newspapers and magazines and other
popular mass-media outlets; and 2) academic criticism by film scholars who are
informed by film theory and are published in academic journals. Academic film
criticism rarely takes the form of a review; instead it is more likely to analyze
the film and its place within the history of its genre, or the whole of film history.
Although the significance of Film Criticism has blurred yet there is still hope for
more refined and unbiased criticism, such critic is appreciated. The Directorate
of Film Festivals, also accords The National Film Award for Best Film Critic
annually from 1984 for films produced in the year across the country, in all
Indian languages to such critic.
Nowadays, the importance of the role of film critic cannot be denied. Viewers
still turn to movie reviews before making the decision to watch a film. Some of
the trusted film critics of the contemporary times are Khalid Muhammad, Nikhat
Kazmi, Mayank Shekhar, Janhvi Patel, Sonia Chopra, Komal Nahta, Anupama
Chopra, Rajeev Masand, Omar Qureshi and Taran Adarsh, who have
succeeded to raise the bar of Film criticism in the country.
The Qualities in an Ideal Film Critic
1. Should have strong communication skills: A film critic is expected to have

a strong hold on his language skills. He should have a flair for writing and should
be able to express his views regarding the movie in the most detailed manner.
He may have to write film reviews for the online media as well as for the various
print magazines. Knowledge about films and the knack to express the same in
good language is vital.
2. Should understand different aspects of film making like direction,

scripting, songs, photography and acting: An average audience has basic
knowledge regarding acting, songs, scripting and direction. If you ask a
BA (JMC) 309 123

common man how he found the movie, he would describe in his own words the
discrepancies and the shortfalls in the movie. The film critic is expected to go a
step further and analyse the movie in comparison with other films of the same
genre. When a film critic is questioned about direction, he would give you the
details of why the movie scores over other recent movies by the same director.
3. Should understand the message conveyed by the film: Each film has an
underlying message. The film critic should be able to explain the message in
the simplest words. He should be able to tell you what the director hopes to
convey through the movie. Your opinion as a film critic matters a lot. You may
be asked to review and rate the movie and your opinion holds a lot of
importance in the media. You must be able to write reviews in a fashion that it
conveys the gist of the movie and yet leaves the best for the viewers to watch
during the movie.
5. Should select words wisely: As you are a film critic, your review is going
to be read by millions of people around the world. You must thus be wise while
choosing your words. You must be able to understand the general sentiment of
the audience and should write your review so that it does not hurt the
sentiments of the public.
6. Specialise in a genre: The film industry is truly vast and there are numbers
of films coming up each year. There are many different genres of films like
comedy, thriller, art and action. You need to first identify what kind of films you
enjoy most. Select a genre of your choice. Once you make a choice,
specialising on that genre helps you gain authenticity.
7. Read magazines and blogs on films: The best way to gather knowledge
about the film industry is by reading magazines and blogs on films. These are
usually packed with a lot of information about movies and films. They also have
all the media related gossips. You get to know about different directors and their
work experience. Reading through such magazines and blogs also help to
understand the industry better.
8. Watch many different types of films: Even while you are specialising on
one type of films, it is really a great idea to watch many different types of movies.
You may become an expert in just one type of movies but you need to be aware
of all types. While you watch the movies, you need to focus on different aspects
of the film and not get carried away by the story. No one becomes a film critic
in one day and it is truly a gradual and step by step process.
9. As a beginner start with Blogging on films: When you think you have
sufficient knowledge regarding different movies, you may start off by blogging
on the movies you have watched. Blogs are usually easy to make and anyone
who has an email id can make a free blog on WordPress. You can start blogging
124 BA (JMC) 309

with one of the free blogs. Try and share your blogs with your friends on different
social circles. It will help you understand where you stand as a film critic. You
must always take feedbacks as constructive criticism. Analyse the views
presented by the people. Make amends in your blogs so that it is now liked by
audiences. Establish yourself as a prominent blogger for movies.
2.5 Summing Up
Film review is an evaluation of a movie. In addition to a critical evaluation, the

review's author may assign the work a rating to indicate its relative merit. A film
review is a work of film criticism addressing the merits of one or more films.
Effectively reviewing a film is complex in that film is not static. In film the viewer
must be able to process the non-verbal, and other visual ques. During critical
analysis of a film the critic must be able to view all of the elements separately
but also understand their relationship to the whole. A film with a unified plot
enables the viewers to follow a stream of consciousness when viewing the
movie. It has a beginning, middle, and an end.
2.6 Assignments
Class Assignment: What are the guidelines for analysing a film?

Home Assignment: What are the qualities in an ideal film critic?
• Common element of film review writings are ____________,

____________, ____________, and _____________
• Explain the critical appreciation of cinema as a text.

• Introduction, Body, Analysis and Conclusion
2.10 Keywords
• Film review is an evaluation of a movie. In addition to a critical evaluation,

the review's author may assign the work a rating to indicate its relative merit.
BA (JMC) 309 125

• Film analysis is a critically appreciation and evaluating discourse

(conversation), including words, phrases and images that make up a scene
in a film: the cast, the lighting, the angles, the colours etc.
• Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of film medium.

126 BA (JMC) 309

___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 3 Job Profile and Responsibilities of a Film Reviewer
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Job Profile and Responsibilities
3.3 Requirements: Qualification and Experience
3.4 Summing up
3.5 Assignments
3.9 Keywords
BA (JMC) 309 127

3. Job Profile and Responsibilities of a Film

Reviewer
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the concept and need of film review, critical
analysis of film, discourse and narrative.
In the present lesson we shall discuss job profile and responsibilities of film reviewer.
___________________________________________________________________
3.0 Objectives
• describe the job profile and responsibilities of film reviewer
• describe qualification and experience required

___________________________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction
Movie critics evaluate and rate movies and share their critiques in print and
broadcast media. If you're thinking about a career as a movie critic, you will
likely need a bachelor's degree in a field such as film studies, cinematography
or journalism, and an aspiring critic's credibility can be further strengthened by
a master's degree in film studies, internship opportunities and Internships are a
good way to gain experience in this field.
3.2 Job Profile and Responsibilities
Movie reviewers or film critics, are professional writers who specialize in

critiquing films. They view movies and then analyze various elements to form
an assessment based on their opinion. Film critics may be freelancers or
employed by a publication. This work is typically deadline driven.
Film critics and reviewers write articles describing a movie's content and plot,
analyzing its theme and evaluating how enjoyable the viewing experience was.
They might also interview actors and actresses or other individuals involved in
making a film. To perform their job, they usually take notes or create outlines
during a film so that they can thoroughly and accurately write their review. They
might also research a subject or the technical details of a film.
128 BA (JMC) 309

As part of their job, a movie critic may evaluate several movies a week, report
on general entertainment news, attend film festivals and premieres and analyze
trends in movie ticket sales. Movie critics discuss their opinions on films in
broadcast media. They attend meetings with editors and adhere to deadlines.
They generally discuss the goals and meanings of the films they analyze and
give reviews that are entertaining and insightful.
During awards season, it is common for movie critics to give their opinions on
the top contenders. Well-respected movie critics have opportunities to attend
these awards shows. They may also interview actors about their work.
Film critics and reviewers generally work for print or online magazines, journals,
television networks, radio stations, or newspapers. Some might work as
freelance reviewers, submitting their work to multiple publications, while others
might establish film review websites to publish their work. Many reviewers are
not employed in their jobs full-time, but rather supplement their reviewing career
with a job in journalism or a related field.
Online publishing, however, has opened up new possibilities for movie

reviewers and other writers. Film critics may now hone their craft through
Internet blog posts or self-publishing. Skillful, unique, or popular articles may
help blogger gain notoriety and potentially land a paid position.
Film critics, like other writers, typically pursue advancement by looking for
positions at larger, more prestigious publications and/or transitioning into other
forms of media as well. Many reviewers hold multiple positions as critics for
print and Internet publications, TV programs, and radio shows. Established film
critics may also consider becoming members of various professional film critics
associations, such as the Broadcast Film Critics Association or the Women Film
Critics Circle.
Critics play a vital role in the film industry. The film directors and producers get
to learn the flaws in their movies and they need to make improvements in their
work from the reviews and opinions of film critics. Be it Bollywood, Hollywood
or Tollywood, the role of critics is truly significant over the world.
3.3 Requirements: Qualification and Experience
There are some basic qualifications that you require to enter any career. If you
love movies and enjoy observing the many aspects of a movie too keenly, this
may just be the perfect profession for you. A knowledge of movies can only be
sharpened if you enjoy watching movies of diverse types and languages.
(A) Bachelor's Degree: Anyone can call himself or herself a movie critic, even
those without a degree. However, formal education and credentials lend
BA (JMC) 309 129

credibility to aspiring movie critics. A movie critic should possess at least a

bachelor's degree in film studies, cinematography or journalism. Courses of
study for film students may include history of cinema, technology,
communications, screenwriting, filmmaking, theories of film and film
workshop.
(B) Master's Degree: Students who are interested in obtaining their master's
degrees in film studies focus on advanced courses in film criticism, history
and theory. Classes may include television culture and history and film form.
(C) Internships: When entering the movie criticism profession, students may
participate in internships in order to gain experience. They can start out
writing film reviews for their school papers. Students may also write movie
reviews on a freelance basis to become more experienced in the profession.
Freelance opportunities may exist with online websites and print media.
(D) Additional Skills: These professionals should have strong writing skills,
creativity, determination, and persuasiveness. Additionally, movie reviewers
publishing online content should have knowledge of graphic design,
multimedia software, and page layout.
3.4 Summing up
Movie critics evaluate and rate movies and share their critiques in print and
broadcast media. Movie reviewers or film critics, are professional writers who
specialize in critiquing films. They view movies and then analyze various
elements to form an assessment based on their opinion. Film critics may be
freelancers or employed by a publication. This work is typically deadline driven.
3.5 Assignments
Class Assignment: What basic qualification and experience is required for a

good film critic?
• ________________ generally work for print or online magazines,

journals, television networks, radio stations, or newspapers.
• What is the job profile and responsibilities of film reviewers?
130 BA (JMC) 309

• Film critics and reviewers
3.9 Keywords
• Movie critics evaluate and rate movies and share their critiques in print
and broadcast media.

5. Phillips, L. R., & Phillips, J. M. (1979). Film Appreciation. New York: Gordon Press
BA (JMC) 309 131

SLM - 309 Film Appreciation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SLM - 309 Film Appreciation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Film Appreciation Table of Contents

UNIT 1 Film as a Language

LESSON-1 Film as a Medium of Communication: Concept, Strengths & Limitations 01

LESSON-3 Visual Language: Shot, Scene, Sequence, Montage,

UNIT 2 Landmarks in Cinema

LESSON-1 Various Movements in Cinema: Expressionism, Italian Neo Realism and

LESSON-2 Milestones and landmarks in World Cinema: Alfred Hitchcock,

LESSON-3 Landmarks of Indian Cinema: Silent Era (Raja Harishchandra),

UNIT 3 Trends and Debates in Indian Cinema

LESSON-1 Emerging Trends in Contemporary Indian Cinema:

LESSON-2 Censorship: Need and CBFC standards 77

LESSON-3 An Overview of Contemporary Indian Film Industry:

UNIT 4 Film Appreciation

LESSON-2 Film Review: Critical Appreciation of Cinema as a text,

LESSON-3 Job Profile and Responsibilities of a Film Reviewer 127

UNIT 1 BA (JMC) 309 L: 12

1. Film as a Medium of Communication:

• describe film as a medium of communication

1.2 Concept of Film

In technical term film is a thin flexible strip of cellulose coated with a

1.3 Film as a Medium of Communication

Film is an audio-visual medium and uses images, sound and editing to

human beings. They communicate through hand movements, facial

Film is a very powerful medium of mass communication. Through this medium,

It is a collaborative medium. Filmmakers produce films for masses not for

Film is an effective medium for development also. Films can contribute to

1.4 Film as a Medium of Art Form

When twenty-four frames/photos per second are projected on a screen at a

1.5 Strengths of Film

Film has been a cardinal means of mass communication. It is a reliable and

Making of film generally is based on transmitting good amount of message for

Film can be instrumental in curbing menace, like terrorism, naxalism, money

Films also help in promoting solidarity among people, mutual co-operation, as

Film can also propagate substantial amount of salubrious message to the

1.6 Limitations of Film

Film is a product of interaction between machines and artistic and technical

Film is an expensive medium as it involves a strong team work such as

Therefore, deviation of Indian film from social responsibilities is a matter of

Film uses images, sound and editing to communicate. It is a combination of

1.9 Self-check questions

2. What gives movement to cinema is the concept of ‘..................................’

1.10 Terminal Questions

1.11 Possible answers of self-check questions

1. Feature film, Documentary film, Educational film, Short film etc.

1.13 Suggested further readings

2. Components of Film: Script, Light, Sound,

• Explain various components of film

Films share many component as other forms of literature (theme, character,

2.2 Components of Film

2.2.1 Script (Screenplay)

A screenplay can be an original piece, or based on a true story or previously

(a) The First Page of a Screenplay

(b) Screenplay Elements

(i) Scene Heading: A scene heading is a one-line description of the location

(iv) Character: When a character is introduced, his name should be

(vi) Parenthetical: A parenthetical is direction for the character, that is either

(vii) Extension: Placed after the character's name, in parentheses. An

According to Federico Fellini, Film Director, “Lighting expresses ideology,

screen or off-screen, diegetic or non-diegetic (including voice over). It

used to suggest futuristic technology in a science fiction film, or

Cinematography is the art of visual storytelling. Anyone can set a camera on a

Basic Rules of Composition

The Types of Camera Movements