HUMAN 3.
Manpower—the people who are needed in a
RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
M2 Workforce Planning: Job Analysis, Design, and
Employment Forecasting
I. Workforce Planning: Workflow Analysis
“Mismatched workers tend to have low job satisfaction, leading
to absenteeism, higher turnover, and lower levels of
productivity than those who are matched effectively”
Workflows
 create the need for certain types of tasks to be performed
within each part of the organization
Work flow analysis
 The tool that we use to identify what has to be done
within the organization to produce a product or
service
 1st step to matching people to the right jobs
: determine what jobs need to have performed and
qualifications needed to do the jobs
(the job description and specifications)
Organizational Output
The first thing we analyze is the end result of the process: our
expected organizational outputs.
 we need to know what the customer wants from us
Work Flow Analysis
Identify expected result (organizational outputs)
• Determine steps required to create the end result
• Spot inputs necessary to carry out and perform the same
tasks
(i.e., the 4 Ms: machines, material, manpower, and money)
4 Ms
1. Machines—resources such as tools, equipment,
manufacturing machinery, and other machines that
are used in completing work
2. Material—any physical resource (e.g., wood, metal,
buildings, real estate, etc.) that we use in production
particular production process—both quantity and
types
4. Money—the capital that must be spent to perform our
processes
Importance of workflow analysis
o Workflow analysis almost always shows us that some
steps or jobs within the organization can be combined,
simplified, or even eliminated.
o workflow analysis will show that certain types of
groups or self-managed work teams—rather than
individual workers—should be the basic building
blocks of our processes.
HR’s role in workflow analysis
Does HR do all of this workflow analysis? No, the organization’s
line management  responsible for mapping out workflows.
o HR can assist line managers in identifying the tasks
and the human inputs required to do those tasks
o HR can design appropriate organizational systems—
training, development, and incentive compensation
systems—for the human resources who will be
performing the tasks.
o This will keep people both motivated and efficient
Job Analysis
» is the process used to identify the work performed and the
working conditions for each of the jobs within our
organizations
» analyzes one small part of the workflow; and the results of
the analysis will include duties, responsibilities, skills,
knowledge required, outcomes, conditions under which the
worker must operate, and possibly other factors.
1. Identifies work performance and working conditions
2. Basis for HR
HR planning
 Job analysis helps us design jobs better to get the
results that we need.
Job evaluation for compensation
  If we don’t know what the job consists of, how can we • Workforce characteristics (labor market–related
determine how much the job is worth to the information)
organization so we know how much to pay the person?  wages and employment
Staffing (recruiting and selection) • Occupation-specific information (detailed elements of
 If we don’t know what an employee is going to do and specific jobs)
how much we will pay that employee, then how do we  tasks
know whom to recruit and hire?
Training Five Common Job Analysis Methods
 If we don’t know what the job consists of, how can we • Questionnaires
teach people to do the job?  It may be given to the current jobholder (the
Performance management incumbent), the supervisor, or others who are
 How can we evaluate performance if we don’t know affected by the way the job is done in the organization
what the worker’s job consists of Questionnaire Advantages
Maintaining a safe work environment o Quick way to get information from large number of
 Job analysis will help us identify hazards that the job sources
incumbent will need to understand, as well as any o Usually easy to quantify
required personal protective equipment and training the o Relatively low cost
person will need to safely carry out the job. o Generally valid and reliable instruments
o No need for a trained interviewer or observer
Job Analysis Outcomes Questionnaire Disadvantages
o Incomplete responses (nobody is interviewing or
Job description observing actions, so there is no follow-up)
 Identification of the major tasks, duties, and o Responses may be hard to interpret
responsibilities that are components of a job o Low response rates are possible if there is no
supervisory follow-up
Job specification
 Identification of the qualifications of a person who
• Interviews (usually of job incumbents)
should be capable of doing the job tasks in the job
 a trained interviewer who knows how to interpret
description
answers and ask follow-up questions if needed.
How Job Analysis affect Managers?  The interviewer asks job-related questions, and the
• Managers must have detailed information about all the incumbent describes the job based on the questions
jobs in their work groups so that they can understand the asked.
workflow process
• Managers need to understand the job requirements in
their work groups so that they can make intelligent hiring, Interview Advantages
training, and promotion decisions o The incumbent is most familiar with the job
• Every manager is responsible for conducting performance o Can include qualitative data
evaluations to ensure that all employees are performing their o Allows the interviewer to follow up confusing or
jobs satisfactorily. incomplete answers
o Simple, quick, and more comprehensive than some
Databases and Job Analysis other forms
• Several databases can be helpful with job analysis. One o Provides an opportunity to explain the need for the
free resource, the U.S. Department of Labor’s O*NET, analysis and answer questions
identifies six categories within its occupational
classification structure: Interview Disadvantages
o Dependent on trained interviewer and well-designed
• Worker characteristics (enduring traits that influence a questions
person’s performance on the job) o Workers may exaggerate their job duties
 abilities, interests, work styles, and work values o Time-consuming and may not be cost efficient
• Worker requirements (attributes acquired through
experience and/or education) • Diaries (usually kept by job incumbents)
 knowledge, and skills  work log
• Experience requirements (training and experience needed)  employee writes down the tasks accomplished while
 job zone, education, training, and experience going about the job
• Occupational requirements (actual work performed on the  This log becomes the document from which we build
job) the description of the job.
 work activities
Diary Advantages
 o Participatory form of analysis
o May collect data as it happens
o The worker knows the job and what is important
o Useful for jobs that are difficult to observe
Diary Disadvantages
o Relies on worker writing all work down
o Worker may rely on memory of things done earlier in
the day
o Information distortion
o Data is not in a standard format—makes quantifying
difficult
• Observation of workers in jobs
 observer shadows the worker and logs tasks that the
worker performs over a period of time
 trained observers will usually identify tasks that
workers don’t even think about doing and therefore
wouldn’t have noted in a log or diary
 Jobs that require significant mental activity such as the
securities analyst, experimental scientist, and CEO
mentioned in the Diaries section above would not be
able to be analyzed successfully by observation.
Observation Advantages
o Firsthand knowledge
o Allows the analyst to see the work
environment, view the tools and equipment
the
o worker uses, observe the worker’s
interrelationships with other workers, and
gauge
o the complexity of the job
o Reduces information distortion common in
some other methods
o Relatively simple to use
Observation Disadvantages
o Observer may affect the job incumbent’s
performance
o Inappropriate for jobs that involve significant
mental effort
o May lack validity and reliability
o Time-consuming
o Requires a trained observer
• Subject matter experts (SMEs)
 “technical conference method,”
 It also allows them to brainstorm to identify the key
factors of the job, based on their background and
expertise.
 They use their knowledge and background to identify
the major tasks associated with the jobs they are
analyzing.
Subject Matter Expert Advantages
o SMEs are chosen for expertise and competence
o Data received from SMEs are generally comprehensive
o SMEs can apply any other methods of job analysis
(such as diaries or questionnaires) they think are
necessary
Subject Matter Expert Disadvantages
o SMEs may have trouble breaking work into tasks and
describing work
o Time-consuming, which means expensive
o SMEs need to resolve any differences of opinion to
create a consensus
o Dependent on the validity of the opinions and the
judgment of the SMEs
Do We Really Have “Jobs” Anymore?
• Job analysis is valuable when jobs are stable. It offers
less value when jobs are not well-defined
• Job analysis is of greater value to organizations making a
product than to those providing a service
Task Versus Competency-Based Jobs
Task-based job
• A function of tasks performed within the job
• Best for jobs in stable, bureaucratic organizations
Competency-based job
• Looks at capabilities an individual needs to succeed in
the job
• Best for jobs in less structured organizations
Examples of Tasks and Competencies in a Sales Role
Sales tasks
 Determine pricing
 Generate sales quotes
 Transact sales orders
Sales competencies
 Ambition, drive, and desire to succeed
 Ability to manage the sales process/cycle
 Talent to convince and persuade while converting
prospects to sales
Job Design vs. Job Redesign
Job design
» Identifies tasks that employees are responsible for
and how those tasks will be accomplished
Job redesign
» Changes tasks or how they are performed. Job
redesign is about working smarter, not harder
Organizational Structure and Job Design
• Rigid bureaucratic structures with strong centralized
decision making need jobs that are controlled by an 1. Job simplification
authority  Eliminate tasks, combine tasks, and/or change
• Relaxed, flatter structures with autonomy need jobs task sequence
that 2. Job expansion
take advantage of autonomy  Rotation, enlargement, and enrichment of jobs
3. Work teams
Approaches to Job Design and Redesign  Integrated and self-managed
4. Flexible work
• Mechanistic job design: emphasizes task  Flextime, job sharing, telecommuting, and
specialization, skill simplification, and repetition compressed work weeks
• Biological: focuses on how the body works to minimize
strain Job Design Options, Process, and JCM
• Perceptual/motor: keeps employees within mental
limitations
• Motivational: focuses on affecting psychological
meaning and motivational potential

JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL (JCM)

» Provides a conceptual framework for designing or
enriching jobs based on core job characteristics

Job Design Is Country-Specific

JCM (5) CORE JOB CHARACTERISTICS
• Skills variety – is the number of diverse tasks that make
up a job and the number of skills used to perform the job
• Task identity – is the degree to which an employee
performs a whole identifiable task. (e.g. did the employee
put together an entire television or just place the screen
set?)
• Task significance – is an employee’s perception of the
importance of task to others-the organization, the dept,
coworkers, and or customers
• Autonomy – is the degree to which the employee has
discretion to make decisions in planning, organizing, and
controlling the task performed
• Feedback - is the extent to which employees find out
how well they perform their tasks
» Jobs in the United States tend to focus on motivational
design
» Jobs in countries that focus on basic manufacturing
or routine service jobs are often designed to be
mechanistic
» Jobs in countries that focus on knowledge creation
» and innovation are often designed to be organic
» Jobs in collectivist cultures tend toward
collaboration
HR Forecasting
• HR forecasting identifies the estimated supply and
demand for the different types of human resources in the
organization over some future period, based on analysis
of past and present demand
• Methods can be quantitative or qualitative
Quantitative Forecasting
• Trend analysis
» Reviewing historical items (such as revenues)
and relating changes to business factors to form
a predictive chart
• Ratio analysis

Designing Motivational Jobs

 » Reviewing historical data and calculating
proportions between a business factor (such as
production) and number of employees needed
• Regression analysis
» Identifies relationship between a series of
variable data points to forecast future variables
Succession Planning
• Type of forecasting done to:
• Have people ready to move into vacated positions
• Make predictions for leadership requirements
• Prepare new leaders to take on higher positions or
recruit people

Internal Labor Supply and Demand

Employers need the right numbers of employees with the
right skill sets in the organization at the right time

Options for a surplus

● Downsizing and layoffs
● Pay reduction
● Work sharing
● Natural attrition
● Hiring freeze
● Retraining and transfers
● Early retirement

Options for a shortage

● Overtime
● Temporary or contract employees
● Retrain employees
Qualitative Forecasting ● Outsourcing
» Non-quantitative methods are usually based on ● Turnover reduction
knowledge of a pool of experts in a subject or an ● Hire new employees
industry ● Technological innovation
» • The experts work from the quantitative
Trends and Issues in HRM
predictions but also assess industry, economic,
Gig work
and other factors• Non-quantitative methods
are usually based on » work on distinct pieces that can be farmed out to
» knowledge of a pool of experts in a subject or an independent contractors or some other form of
temporary labor- is increasing at a very rapid
industry
pace
» • The experts work from the quantitative
predictions but also assess industry, economic,
Automation
and other factors
» work that was once done by a person but that is
now relegated to machines or other technology –
Measuring Absenteeism and Turnover
is improving at a rapid pace

Complexity
Complexity, the first major component of organizational
structure, is the degree to which three types of dif
erentiation exist within the organization. These three
types of differentiation
are vertical differentiation, horizontal differentiation, and
spatial differentiation.
Vertical differentiation deals with how we break the
organization up vertically, meaning how many layers
there are in the organization from the top to the bottom.

Horizontal differentiation identifies how we break the

organization up horizontally.

Spatial differentiation deals with the physical separation

of different parts of the
Organization

Three Levels of Culture

The three levels of culture include behavior, values and
beliefs, and assumptions. Exhibit 2-
6 illustrates the three levels of culture.

Level 1: Behavior
Behavior includes the observable things that people do
and say or the actions employees take. Artifacts result
from behavior and include written and spoken language,
dress, material objects, and the organization’s physical
layout. Heroes, stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies
are all part of behavior-level culture. The behavior level
is also called the visible level. Values, beliefs, and
assumptions are considered the invisible level, as you
cannot actually observe them.

Level 2: Values and beliefs

Values represent the way people believe they ought to
behave; and beliefs represent “if, then” statements like “If
I do X, then Y will happen.” Values and beliefs provide the
operating principles that guide decision making and
shape the behaviors that result in level1 culture. Values
and beliefs cannot be observed directly; we can only infer
from people’s behavior what they value and believe.

Level 3: Assumptions
Assumptions are values and beliefs that are so deeply
ingrained that they are considered unquestionably true.
Because assumptions are shared, they’re rarely
discussed. They serve as
an automatic pilot to guide behavior. In fact, people often
feel threatened when
assumptions are challenged. If you question employees
about why they do something or
suggest a change, they often respond with statements
like, “That’s the way it’s always been
done.” Assumptions are often the most stable and
enduring part of culture and are difficult
to change.