352 CONTROL LOOP FOUNDATION: BATCH AND CONTINUOUS PROCESSES

16.2 Batch Processes

Batch processing is used in all sectors of the process industry, with small,
local batch processes often being found in continuous process plants. One
major advantage that batch processing has over continuous processing is
that a wide variety of products can be manufactured in small quantities
with the same equipment. Also, when a process’s chemical reaction or bio-
logical growth rate is slow, then batch processing may be the only practi-
cal means of achieving the required retention time needed to manufacture
a product. Thus, batch processing is frequently used in specialty chemicals
and pharmaceutical manufacturing.

The control loops applied to batch processes are based on both single-loop
and multi-loop control. Some examples are provided in this section to
illustrate how these strategies may be used in the control of batch
processes.

16.2.1 Batch Digester

Batch digesters are vessels used in the manufacture of paper products. At
the start of a batch cycle, the capping valve (a large on-off valve at the top
of the digester) is opened and wood chips are fed into the digester using a
belt conveyor. When the chips inside the digester reach a target level, the
conveyor belt is stopped, the capping valve is closed and a specific volume
of a chemical known as white liquor is added to the digester. White liquor
primarily consists of sodium hydroxide. This strongly alkaline (caustic)
chemical is used to break down and remove the lignin that binds cellulose
fibers within wood chips.

Once the digester is charged (filled) with chips and white liquor, the con-
tents of the digester are raised to an elevated temperature to speed the
delignification process. A temperature control loop that adjusts the steam
flow to an external heater is used to automatically bring the digester tem-
perature to a target value. Any gases and non-condensable vapors that are
generated by the chemical reaction are automatically removed by a pres-
sure control loop that adjusts a vent valve. After a period of time, the con-
tents of the digester are removed by opening the blow valve—an on-off
valve at the bottom of the digester vessel. The control loops and measure-
ments commonly found on a batch digester are shown in Figure 16-6.

The chip conveyor and equipment for white liquor charge are often com-
mon to all the digesters in the plant. Thus, the charging of digesters must
be coordinated by batch control software. Also, the pulp produced by the
digester is often transferred to a common blow tank and this transfer must
be scheduled by the batch control software.
 CHAPTER 16 – APPLICATIONS 353

FC
203
FV
203 PC
FT 205
203 FC PV
PT 205 To Vent
From White LT 205 System
Liquor Storage 204
FC
To Other
Digesters TT TC
206 206
TV
Batch 206
Digester
Steam FC

Discharge to
Blow Tank

Figure 16-6. Batch Digester Control

In discussing the processing done by the batch control software, it is help-

ful to document the desired sequencing of events and changes to process
variables during the batch operation. The processing associated with the
batch digester can be diagrammed as illustrated in Figure 16-7.

16.2.2 Batch Chemical Reactor

Batch chemical reactors may be used to manufacture a variety of products.
Typically the reactor is initially charged (filled) with one or more chemi-
cals, the contents of the reactor are heated to a target temperature and then
a metered quantity of one or more reactive chemicals is added to the
batch. The chemical reaction may be exothermic and thus cooling may be
required to maintain the reactor charge temperature at the target tempera-
ture. A different reaction may be endothermic, and thus heating will be
required. In order to support both heating and cooling, temperature con-
trol is implemented as a split-range control loop that adjusts heating and
cooling media flow to the reactor shell. Similar to the batch digester, the
reactor pressure is maintained at setpoint by venting vapors and gases
generated by the chemical reaction.
354 CONTROL LOOP FOUNDATION: BATCH AND CONTINUOUS PROCESSES

Chip Fill

Liquor Fill

Digester Level

Temperature

Pressure

Start of End of
Batch Batch

Figure 16-7. Batch Digester Operation

With an exothermic reaction, when the flow rate of the reactive chemi-
cal(s) to the reactor increases, more cooling is required. If the cooling
requirements exceed what can be provided by the cooling media with the
cooling valve wide open, then the batch temperature will exceed the tem-
perature controller setpoint—TC211 in Figure 16-8. If the temperature con-
tinues to rise, when the temperature reaches the setpoint of the override
controller (TC211A) the feed flow rate to the reactor will be reduced to
prevent the temperature from exceeding the override temperature set-
point. If the production of gas and vapor exceeds the capacity of the vent
system, then when the pressure reaches the setpoint of the override con-
troller (PC212) the feed flow rate to the reactor will be reduced to prevent
the pressure from exceeding the override pressure setpoint. The control
loops and measurements commonly found on a batch reactor are shown
in Figure 16-8.

The feedstock tank and valve manifold used to initially charge the reactor
are often shared among multiple reactors. Thus, the timing of the reactor
charge must be coordinated by the batch control software. The sequence of
such a batch process may be illustrated as shown in Figure 16-9.
 CHAPTER 16 – APPLICATIONS 355

PC
212
TC
Max Flow 211A
FY
210 Low Select
FC
210 FV
210
FT
210 TT PT
FC 211 212
ZT
Feed B 215
Vent
TC System
211

TY Batch
Split
TV Reactor
Range 211
211B

Feed A
To Other FC Heat
TV
Reactors 211A

LT
FC Cool
213

ZT
214

Figure 16-8. Batch Chemical Reactor Control

The feed rate of reactive chemical(s) to a batch chemical reactor is often set
by the operator to a value that ensures that the capability of the cooling
and vent systems will not be exceeded (i.e., the pressure and temperature
overrides will remain inactive throughout the batch). Thus, at times a
higher feed and throughput rate could be achieved since the capacity of
the cooling and vent systems which can support multiple reactors may
vary with plant operating conditions, for example, cooling media temper-
ature. Using Model Predictive Control (MPC), it is possible to operate at
the temperature and pressure operating constraints to achieve the maxi-
mum possible feed rate and reduce the batch cycle time as illustrated in
Figure 16-9. The use of MPC is shown in Figure 16-10.

As previously discussed, MPC could be layered on top of a traditional

control system.
356 CONTROL LOOP FOUNDATION: BATCH AND CONTINUOUS PROCESSES

Reactor Pressure

Limit

Catalyst Feed Rate SP

Possible

Reactor Temperature

Cooling

Heating

Start of End of
End with
Batch Batch
Possible
Feed
Figure 16-9. Batch Chemical Reactor Cycle

PT
212
TT
211
Split Range
FY
MPC 211
FV
211B Batch
Reactor
FC Heat

FV
211A
FC
210 FC Cool
FV
Feed
210
FT
210
FC

Figure 16-10. Batch Chemical Reactor Control Using MPC

 CHAPTER 16 – APPLICATIONS 357

16.2.3 Batch Bioreactor

The pharmaceutical industry manufactures a wide variety of drugs using
batch processes. A product area of growing importance is one in which a
mammalian cell culture is grown in a bioreactor. The measurements and
controls for such a bioreactor [1] are shown in Figure 16-11.

PC
AT 224
223 PV
Inoculums PT 224
224
Vent
Media FC
SC
Glutamine 226
TC TT
SC
222 222
220 SC
Bicarbonate
Glucose 225
TV AY AY
Tempered 222 225 Pulse 226
Water Duration

FC pH
AT AC
AC AT 225 225
220 220 Glucose
Split Concentration
Range DO
AT AC
AY AC AT 226 226
220 221 221
Glutamine
Bioreactor Concentration
AY Split AT
221 Range 227
Product
FC CO2 LT Concentration
220 228
FC Air
221B

FC O2
221A
Mass Flow
Controller (MFC)
16-11
Figure 16-11. Batch Bioreactor Control

During the start of the batch cycle, media is added to a sterile reactor until
a target volume is reached, as indicated by the reactor level.

Media - A liquid or gel designed to support the growth of

microorganisms or cells.

An initial charge of cells, known as the inoculums, is then added to the

reactor. During the batch cycle, the reactor temperature is tightly main-
358 CONTROL LOOP FOUNDATION: BATCH AND CONTINUOUS PROCESSES

tained by regulating a tempered water flow through the jacket of the reac-
tor. Also, the pH needed for cell growth is automatically maintained
through the split-range adjustment of CO2 flow rate and bicarbonate of
soda feed pump speed to the reactor.

As the cells multiply within the reactor, the required dissolved oxygen
content must be maintained through the split-range addition of air and O2
to the reactor. Because of the low CO2, air and O2 flow rates, the mass,
rather than volumetric, flow rate is maintained using an integrated mass
flow controller (MFC). A mass flow controller is a closed-loop device that
sets, measures, and controls the flow of a gas or liquid.

To maintain the glucose and glutamine concentrations at a level needed

for cell growth, the feed rates of glucose and glutamine are automatically
regulated. Because of the low flow rates of these materials, the positive
displacement peristaltic pumps are regulated using both pulse duration
and pump speed outputs. A vent valve is regulated to maintain the gas
pressure in the top of the reactor at a target level.

A process that employs the addition of reactor feed in this manner is often
referred to as “continuous fed batch.” The sequence of batch bioreactor
operation may be illustrated as shown in Figure 16-12.

Primary Parameters Over Batch

Media
Product: = Antibody
# Stages = 1
Glucose Stage Name = PROCESS
Operation = OP_BIOREAC
Starting Batch ID* = 123213222
Glutamine
* Automatically increments

Inoculums

~ 2m (10,000 liters)

Reactor Level
~ 37 degC

Reactor Temp

Stage Process

Lab Results Inoculums Charge

Product Concentration – previous Prod Conc -This batch

Sample First Available

Sample First Available

Figure 16-12. Batch Bioreactor Operation

 CHAPTER 16 – APPLICATIONS 359

In some cases, the measurement of glucose and glutamine level may be

available only through off-line lab analysis. If this is the case, then the
duty-cycle pulse duration of the glucose and glutamine feed pumps is
manually adjusted by the operator to maintain a target flow rate based on
the latest lab analysis.

The end point of a bioreactor batch may be established based on the batch
processing time or on the cell concentration level as measured by the lab
or an on-line analyzer. The contents of the batch are removed from the
reactor using a peristaltic pump.

16.2.4 Workshop – Batch Chemical Reactor

Explore the Batch Chemical Reactor workshop, based on Figure 16-8. See
the Appendix for directions on using the web-based interface.

Step 1: Using the web-based interface, open the Batch Control workspace
shown in Figure 16-13 and observe the changes in batch ID and control
setpoints made by the batch control. Examine the chart to see when targets
are changed in the batch.

Step 2: Increase the maximum feed rate target, MAX_FLOW, and observe
the impact on the batch operation.

16.3 Continuous Processes

16.3.1 Chemical Reactor

A continuous chemical reactor process such as that shown in Figure 16-14
is characterized by the continuous feed of two or more chemical reactants
and a continuous output flow of product. To achieve the desired product
specifications, the proportions of each reactant must be tightly maintained
at a target value using ratio control.

The chemical reaction that occurs within the reactor is often exothermic. In
such cases, the reactor temperature may be maintained at setpoint by
automatically regulating coolant flow through an external heat exchanger.
Any gases and vapors that are created as a by-product of the chemical
reaction are vented to maintain the reactor overhead pressure at setpoint.

Any imbalance between the feed stream input flows and the product flow
from the reactor is reflected by changes in the reactor level measurement.
Thus, the product flow rate is automatically regulated to maintain the
reactor level at setpoint.