西南交通大学学报

第 55 卷第 4 期 Vol. 55 No.4
JOURNAL OF SOUTHWEST JIAOTONG UNIVERSITY Aug. 2020
2020 年 8 月

ISSN: 0258-2724 DOI：10.35741/issn.0258-2724.55.4.48

Research article

Social Sciences

PARTICIPATION IN CO-CURRICULUM ACTIVITIES

AND STUDENTS’ LEADERSHIP SKILLS

參加共同課程活動 和學生的領導技能

Sayuti Ab Ghania, *, MohdMahzanAwangb, Gloria Ajitc, MohdAmzari Mat Rania

a
National Defense University of Malaysia, Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, sayuti_70@yahoo.com
b
Faculty of Education, National University of Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia, mahzan@ukm.edu.my
c
Senibong National Secondary School, Lundu, Sarawak, Malaysia, gloriaajit14@gmail.com

Received: April 14, 2020 ▪ Review: June, 06 2020 ▪ Accepted: July 18, 2020

This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)

Abstract
The article describes a new understanding of how active participation in co-curriculum activities
enhances students’ leadership skills. The social capital theory states that active participation in social
activities promotes various qualities of human beings, including leadership skills and networking. The
study employed a survey research design involving 237 students aged 16 years from a rural area of
Malaysia. A structured questionnaire that had gone through a reliability test and validation process in a
pilot study was used. Results revealed moderate involvement of students in outdoor school activities.
Results also demonstrated that students’ participation in Uniformed Units is higher if compared to clubs,
associations, and sports. Due to the moderate level of student participation in these activities, correlation
analyses revealed that it is interrelated with their leadership skills (at a moderate level as well). The
results from this study illustrated a significant relationship between active participation and leadership
skills; therefore, we propose an interesting module package to encourage students’ involvement in co-
curricular programs as a mechanism to promote leadership abilities. An interrelationship between these
two variables was confirmed by Pearson correlation analyses, which found that the significance level was
less than 0.05, with a relationship strength level (r-value) of 0.723. New research results obtained from
this study can be used to improve the current practices in co-curricular management, especially to ensure
all activities can attract students’ interest in active involvement.

Keywords: co-Curricular Activities, Student Leadership Skills, Social Capital, Participation, Involvement

摘要 本文介紹了對積極參與共同課程活動如何增強學生的領導才能的新認識。社會資本理論指
出，積極參與社會活動可提高人類的各種素質，包括領導能力和人際關係。該研究採用了一項調
查研究設計，涉及來自馬來西亞農村地區的 237 名 16 歲的學生。使用了在初步研究中經過可靠性
測試和驗證過程的結構化問卷。結果顯示學生適度參與戶外學校活動。結果還表明，與俱樂部，
 2 Ghani et al. / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University/ Vol.55 No. 4, Aug. 2020
協會和體育相比，學生對統一單位的參與程度更高。由於學生參加這些活動的水平適中，相關分
析表明，這與他們的領導技能相互關聯（也是中等水平）。這項研究的結果說明了積極參與和領
導技能之間的顯著關係。因此，我們提出了一個有趣的模塊包，以鼓勵學生參與聯課計劃，以此
作為提高領導能力的一種機制。皮爾森相關分析證實了這兩個變量之間的相互關係，發現顯著性
水平小於 0.05，相關強度水平（r 值）為 0.723。從這項研究中獲得的新研究結果可用於改善當前
的課程管理實踐，尤其是確保所有活動都能引起學生對積極參與的興趣。
关键词: 課程活動，學生領導能力，社會資本，參與，參與
I. INTRODUCTION
As a result of globalization and rapid changes
over the last few decades, human capital has
become ever more important in determining the
success of a country [1]. Education is closely
related to human capital, as the role of education
is to develop human beings who are
knowledgeable, ethical, and equipped with value-
added skills that are useful in life and work [2].
One of the ways to develop value-added skills
among students is through their involvement in
co-curricular activities [3], [4]. The aim of school
co-curricular activities is to instill, nurture, and
develop leadership qualities, as well as social
cohesion, among students [5]. Engaging in co-
curricular activities has been found to positively
contribute to students’ personality development
[6], [7], [8], [9]. These activities provide students
with an opportunity to socialize, build self-
esteem, and increase self-confidence and self-
reliance.
The Malaysian government emphasized that
co-curricular programs are important for the
development of leadership skills. However, even
though co-curricular programs and activities are
compulsory in schools, leadership skills are still
an issue among school leavers. One of the main
contributing factors for unemployment is a lack
of soft skills, including leadership skills [10],
[11], [12]. This is evident from the data published
by the Department of Statistics Malaysia, which
shows that the percentage of unemployment
increased from November 2014 to February 2015
due to a lack of skills among school leavers [13].
Leadership skills can be developed through
the involvement of students in co-curricular
programs and activities. Active membership of
students in various programs can help them shape
their leadership skills as well as develop their
talents [3], [4], [14]. In general, every individual
has the potential to be a leader, and each unit or
part of an organization needs to have a person
who will lead a group. The commitment of the
members of a group is essential to the
achievement of goals, and the level of
commitment of members within a group is an
indirect indicator of the quality of the leaders of
the group [15]. Thus, the leadership skills of a
leader are a dominant factor that can influence
the commitment of members as well as act as an
indicator of success. Therefore, leadership skills
should be instilled in students from a young age.
Leadership can not only be learned through
formal methods but can be exemplified by
existing leaders and learned through co-curricular
activities [16].
Leadership is one of the essential skills for
student survival both in higher education and in
real work-life, There have been many studies on
the relationship of involvement in classroom
activities with leadership, but these studies have
focused on the practice of various soft skills in
higher education institutions [11], [12], [17], [18],
[19], [20], [21].
The social capital theory (Putnam 2000) posits
that a strong social network is very valuable.
Bonding and bridging social capital through
social activities among community members will
strengthen trustworthiness and human wellbeing.
In the school context, co-curricular activities are
platforms for children to develop social
networking and promote soft skills. Bonding
Social Capital and Bridging Social Capital are
sociological terminologies explained by Putnam
[22] that are referring to the concepts of outward-
looking network and inward-looking network.
This study has examined the levels of
participation of high-school students in various
co-curricular programs and activities, their
leadership skills, and the relationship between
student participation in these activities and their
leadership skills.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Co-curricular activities in school are planned
as informal activities that are conducted outside
the classroom compound and monitored by a
committee [14]. These activities provide
opportunities for students to practice and
reinforce the knowledge, talents, leadership skills,

and social skills that have been formally
conveyed in the classroom [5]. Thus, co-
curricular activities help students continue the
learning process outside of the classroom, and
they need to be documented and evaluated [9],
[23].
The school is an ideal location for promoting
sports activities and is a safe environment for
teens engaged in co-curricular activities [24].
Therefore, schools need to provide students with
facilities to engage in these activities [25].
Previous studies showed that many students are
not interested in certain school programs because
of the limited activities available at their school
[24], [26]. Additionally, some studies [27] outline
that teacher motivation, and peer and parental
influence are associated with the involvement of
students in co-curricular programs. Further, there
is a lack of involvement in classroom activities
across adolescents, with a mean percentage
decrease of 7% starting at the age of 10 [28].
The selection of co-curricular activities in
schools are limited, so high-school students are
getting involved in activities available at the
school. Past studies revealed that male and
female students have different preferences to get
involved in co-curricular activities [29]. Lapa
T.Y. [30]. also showed that men tend to be more
physically active than women, and recent studies
show that male students, especially, spend a lot
of time in sports and social activities [31].
Previous studies have shown that the
involvement of students in co-curricular
programs is diverse based on ethnicity [32]. Ting
et al. [33] showed that schools in the state of
Sarawak have successfully bridged the ethnic gap,
as involvement in both academic and co-
curricular activities is not influenced by the
ethnicity of the student. The acceptance of ethnic
diversity in the state of Sarawak is high because
this is a family value that is embedded in children
at a very young age.
Student involvement in out-of-classroom
activities means that their parents have to incur
costs for transportation, uniforms, sports
equipment, and membership fees, and therefore,
the socioeconomic status of a student also
influences their involvement in co-curricular
programs and school activities [29].
The role of educational institutions is very
important in human resources development all
over the world. Therefore, human capital must be
strengthened from the school level with the
knowledge and practice of leadership skills [34].
Abd. Hassan [35] and Abd. Ghani et al. [36] view
leadership as a relationship that involves
individuals influencing other people's attitudes
3
and behaviors. Therefore, leaders need to have
knowledge, self-confidence, determination,
intervention, and social skills [36].
Leadership is capable of creating the desired
ethics of a person. S.Haq [37] in his research
categorizes leadership elements into technical
skills, emotional intelligence (EQ), interpersonal
skills, conceptual skills, and social intelligence.
Technical skills make responsive individuals
capable of making decisions. Conceptual skills
enable individuals to rationally design and solve
problems without controversy. Interpersonal
skills and emotional intelligence create a positive
environment and motivate employees. Leaders
with emotional and social intelligence can make
decisions even in critical situations.
Leadership skills including communication
and group work are indirectly generated through
regular involvement in structured activities.
Grant et al. [38] coined that co-curricular
activities such as football, rugby, basketball and
frisbee were conducted during the eight-week
break and were facilitated by school facilitators
during the first, third, fifth and seventh weeks.
Findings from this study show that the activities
carried out with the facilitator and in the absence
of the facilitator showed similar results. This
proves that students themselves have leadership
skills and are capable of leading activities that are
conducted without adult supervision.
Massoni [14] found that active involvement of
students would be able to promote leadership
skills. Ahmad et al. [17] and Ahmad Esa et al.
[39] found that a competitive curriculum can
develop leadership skills. In contrast,
involvement in those activities is not the only
factors to foster student leadership qualities [21].
Undoubtedly, leadership skills can be acquired
and enhanced through assignments and training
[54] and can be shaped by various methods and
activities [32].
Previous studies have found that leadership
traits are often identified and highlight masculine
or masculine traits [40]. However, Rosmadi
Dollah [41] in her research found that leadership
abilities and abilities do not differ between
genders. This is because leadership qualities can
be trained, nurtured and shaped among students.
Involvement in these co-curricular activities
enables students to develop effective
communication skills with others, and thus
develop leadership qualities. Undoubtedly, well-
organized co-curricular activities and school
programs have positive implications for students'
well-being.
 4 Ghani et al. / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University/ Vol.55 No. 4, Aug. 2020
III. METHODS/MATERIALS
In this study, researchers used questionnaires
as instruments. The questionnaire used in this
study was adapted from the LPDI instrument
developed by R.I. Carter and D.R.Spotanski [42]
to measure self-perception on student leadership
skills in Louisiana. The instrument also adapted
the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ5R) developed by B. M. Bass and B. J.
Avolio [43] and the instrument developed by C.
D. Townsend and R.I. Carter [44]. The
questionnaire consisted of three sections, Part A
on demographics of respondents, Part B on co-
curricular activities participation, and Part C on
student leadership.
Section A contained information on the
respondents' demographics, including gender,
ethnicity, and family monthly income. Part B is a
series of questions addressing the building of
student engagement in co-curricular activities,
including uniformed units, clubs, and
sports. There are 15 items in this section: five
items each for uniformed units, clubs, and
associations, as well as sports and games. Part C
is a question about building leadership
skills. There are four components to this
construct, namely, communication, command,
problem-solving, and team working skills. Each
fraction contains five items. The questions in this
section have been adapted from The Leadership
and Personal Development Inventory (LPDI)
developed by R.I. Carter and D.R.Spotanski
[42], The Multi-factor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ5R) developed by B. M.
Bass and B. J. Avolio [43], and The Leadership
Skills Inventory developed by D. Townsend and
R.I. Carter [44]. This questionnaire was used to
collect data according to the respondent's
understanding of leadership skills developed
through involvement in extra-curricular
activities. The questions in this section were a
closed-response questionnaire (fixed response),
using a five-point scale from “strongly disagree”
to “strongly agree.” The questionnaire was also
referenced to obtain validity from relevant field
experts and was improved before being used for
pilot studies.
This survey was conducted in Lundu District,
Sarawak, Malaysia. The total number of Form 4
students in this district was 679. For a population
of 679 people, a sample size of 237 people was
adequate. The respondents were randomly
selected.
A pilot study conducted had identified several
improvements required including the use of
language and sentence structure according to the
respondents' understanding concerning the
Cronbach Alpha coefficient. The pilot study
provided an overview of the amount of time to
respond to the questionnaire distributed. A total
of 30 students were randomly selected to answer
these questions. Data from this pilot study were
analyzed using SPSS software version 22.0 to
check its reliability score. The questions in the
instrument were reviewed and modified aside
based on their reliability. The coefficient values
of 0.7 to 0.8 indicated that the reliability of the
tested items was high. The pilot study results
show that was high reliability of all items.
Table 1.
Cronbach's Alpha Score of student engagement in co-
curricular activities and student leadership skills
Alpha
Number
Variable Cronbach's
of items
alpha
Involvement in
4 0.705
Uniformed Units
Involvement in Clubs
and Associations
5 0.735
Engagement in Sports
5 0.654
and Games
Communication skills 5 0.761
Give directions 5 0.796
Problem Solving 5 0.865
Working in a Group 5 0.729
Overall 34 0.861
Cronbach’s Alpha Score showed an overall
alpha value, r = 0.861, indicating that item
reliability was high. The real data collection was
administered manually. The respondents were
given a chance either to participate or withdraw
from the survey. Data collected were analyzed
using SPSS v22 software. Two types of statistical
analyses in this research: descriptive and
inferential. Descriptive statistics analysis was
used to summarize respondents' demographic
information – percentage, frequency, mean and
standard deviation. Interpretation of mean scores
in the variables was used as a reference to
interpret the scores in this study. The mean scores
of less than 2.33 were coded to be low-level;
whereas the mean scores between 2.34and 3.67
are considered to be moderate; meanwhile, the
mean score between 3.67 and 5.00was referred to
be a higher level. The inferential statistic utilized
in this research was Pearson’s Correlation. The
mean score interpretation assumed that the
coefficients 0.01 to 0.29 indicate weak
relationships, the coefficients 0.30 to 0.49
indicate moderate relationships while the
coefficients 0.50 to 1.00 show strong correlations
between variables.
 5

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 4.
A. Student Involvement in Curriculum Student leadership skills in co-curricular activities
Activities
To calculate mean scores, sum the values and Leadership Standard Min score
Min
then divide by the number of cases. The results of skill deviation Interpretation
the descriptive analysis of student involvement in Communication
2.74 0.68 Simple
skills
school programs are shown in Table 2.
Give directions 2.65 0.71 Simple
Table 2. Problem
2.54 0.74 Simple
Student involvement in co-curricular activities Solving
Working in a
Co-curricular Mean 2.50 0.70 Simple
Standard Interpretation Group
activities deviation Overall 2.61 0.63 Simple
Uniformed 2.77 0.75 Moderate
unit
Clubs and 2.48 0.74 Moderate
Table 4 shows that students' leadership skills
associations are modest based on the mean score mean (min =
Sports and 2.47 0.72 Moderate 2.61 and sp = 0.63). The mean scores for
games communication skills showed the highest values
Overall 2.57 0.61 Moderate (mean = 2.74 and sp = 0.68), while the mean
scores for group work skills showed the lowest
Table 2 shows that students' involvement in values (mean = 2.50 and sp = 0.70). However,
school activities was moderate based on the mean the interpolation of mean scores for both the
score mean (min = 2.57 and SD = 0.61). The highest and lowest values is modest.
mean scores for student engagement in the
Uniformed Unit showed the highest values (mean C. Correlation Analysis
= 2.77 and SD = 0.75), while the mean scores for
Sports and Games showed the lowest values Table 5.
(mean = 2.47 and SD = 0.72). Pearson Correlation (Involvement of students in co-
curricular activities and student leadership skills)
Table 3. Leadership
Detailed analysis of students’ participation in uniformed skill
units, clubs, and sports Involvement in
Pearson
Curriculum 0.723 (**)
Types of Standard Min score correlation
Min Activities
Participation deviation Interpretation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
Uniformed Unit N 237
Competition 2.69 0.89 Moderate ** The correlation was significant at 0.01 (2-tailed).
Gathering 2.97 0.91 Moderate
Troop 3.16 1.15 Moderate The relationship between involvement in
Training 2.26 1.06 Low school programs and student leadership skills
Average 2.61 0.63 Moderate was identified using the Pearson product-moment
Clubs
correlation coefficient. Results showed that is a
Meeting 2.28 0.97 Low
Problem solving 2.54 0.98 Moderate
significant and positive relationship between the
Management 2.10 0.99 Low involvement of students and leadership abilities
Project 2.68 1.05 Moderate among students (r = 0.732, n = 237, p <0.05)
Gathering 2.81 0.98 Moderate (Table 5).
Average 2.48 0.74 Moderate Overall findings revealed that the
Sports participation of students in school outdoor
Attendance 2.11 0.93 Low
activities was at a moderate level. This finding is
Tournament 2.51 1.08 Moderate
Meeting 2.76 0.910 Moderate
consistent with past study results [32]. These
Cooperation 2.34 0.977 Moderate results contradict past study findings of low
Training 2.61 1.10 Moderate involvement of students in school activities [45],
Average 2.47 0.72 Moderate indicating that participation in classroom
activities is not considered important for students,
B. Student Leadership Skills as they have not yet reached a high level of
The results from the descriptive analysis of engagement.
student leadership skills levels are shown in
Table 4.
 6 Ghani et al. / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University/ Vol.55 No. 4, Aug. 2020

Table 6. competitions are preferred. Results from this

Detailed Analysis of Students’ Participation in Uniformed study are consistent with [32], where they found
Units, Clubs, and Sports
not many students involved in the Uniformed
Standard Min Score Unit. Compared to Uniformed Units and clubs,
Skills Min
deviation Interpretation involvement in sports showed the lowest mean
Communication Skills
Listening 2.16 0.92 Low
scores. This indicates that students are less
Briefing 2.71 0.88 Moderate interested in physical activities. This situation is
Public Moderate rather concerning because sports provide an
3.11 1.11
speaking opportunity for the individual to relax, and have a
Discussion 3.00 0.89 Moderate healthy lifestyle [47]. Sporting activities are a
Delegation 2.74 0.92 Moderate medium of socialization [48] and have a positive
Average 2.74 0.68 Moderate
impact on students' social relations [29] and
Instructional Skills
motor skills [49]. Ruvalcaba et al. [50] found that
Knowledge 2.30 0.99 Low
engaging in sports enhances individual resilience
Management 2.95 1.03 Moderate
Talent 2.65 0.90 Low
through social support and engaging in the
Diplomacy 2.63 0.93 Moderate activity. Students' involvement in sports activities
Distribution 2.73 0.99 Moderate also develops leadership qualities [30].
Average 2.65 0.71 Moderate In this study, it was found that student
Problem Solving Skills leadership skills, which include communication,
Resolution 2.83 1.06 Moderate giving directions, problem-solving, and working
Diplomacy 2.58 0.93 Moderate in groups, are at a moderate level. The highest
Target 2.33 0.92 Moderate
Cooperation 2.30 0.97 Low
mean scores are in communication skills,
Diversity 2.66 1.02 Low followed by giving directions, problem-solving
Average 2.54 0.74 Moderate ability, and working in groups. Leadership skills
Group Management Skills are often associated with students' ability to
Group task 2.61 0.91 Moderate communicate effectively [51]. Through the
Leading 2.86 0.96 Moderate ability to communicate, students will be better
New methods 2.54 0.91 Moderate able to give directions, lead groups, and evenly
Management 2.23 0.90 Low
Variety 2.26 0.97 Low
distribute assignments to members. According to
Average 2.50 0.70 Moderate [41], there is a link between involvement in
school activities and students' ability to solve
problems.
The lack of involvement in school programs is Co-curricular activities coupled with
caused by the lack of interest in these activities academic activities have the potential to bridge
[2]. The purpose of students' involvement in the gap between students through collaboration
university co-curricular programs is solely to with members [52]. The findings of this study are
fulfill their postgraduate requirements [45], rather in line with [51] study that student participation
than due to their interest in the activities. In fact, in planned classroom activities has led to an
most students engage in co-curricular activities increase in their leadership skills.
for socialization. There is a small group of Findings from this survey indicated that was a
students who are dissatisfied with how the strong relationship between co-curricular
curriculum is organized and implemented ([45], activities and leadership skills. This is similar to
[46]). Therefore, cooperative planning and co- [14] and [17] that students' active involvement in
management of more attractive activities are co-curricular programs can shape their leadership
needed, because the choice of co-curricular skills. The study conducted by Ting et al. [33]
programs in schools is limited by available shows that co-curricular programs are one of the
teaching resources. This limitation requires aspects that motivate students to attend school.
students who have no interest in the programs to The development of student leadership
participate as required, instead of being awarded characteristics is nurtured through their
points for participation. Lack of involvement in involvement in organized activities such as co-
sports activities also results from the limitation of curricular activities [53]. Students' experience in
facilities and sporting equipment [25]. leadership and teamwork also drives the
The mean comparison shows that students are development of individual leadership qualities.
more involved in Uniformed Units than clubs and The findings have provided insights into
sports. This is because hands-on activities as well planning and better management. Studies on the
as competitive activities such as parades, active involvement of students in co-curricular
marching bands, first aid, and participating in activities and the development of leadership

skills through this engagement are necessary to
determine the level of student engagement and
the outcome of leadership skills applied, shaped,
and developed in students. Findings from this
study will benefit a wide range of students,
including students, advisors, school
administrators, and ministries. Findings from this
research can be referred to when the planning and
implementation of strategies for co-curricular
activities and leadership skills are implemented.
This study implies that students seemed to do
not attract to get involved in co-curricular
programs in schools. They may be involved as
their involvement is mandatory. Findings from
this study also show that the level of student
involvement in the curriculum programs is
moderate. Students need to be exposed to the
importance of active involvement in co-curricular
activities in developing their leadership skills that
will be utilized in the workplace as they grow
older. Therefore, one of the challenges for the
school is to create an environment where students
can develop their skills.
This study suggests that the teacher should
plan activities by taking into account the interest
of students. The advisor teachers will act as
facilitators while the tasks and responsibilities
should be delegated to the student leaders
gradually. Findings from this study show that
boys are more active in co-curricular activities in
sports and games than girls. Therefore, the
organization of sports and games and other co-
curricular activities should take into account the
appropriateness of the activity without gender
discrimination. Thus, all students will have the
opportunity to actively participate.
Systematic professional training is required
for teachers who have a lack of experience in
managing school activities. The selection of
advisory teachers for co-curricular activities
should also take into account their experience,
ability, and expertise in the field of work to be
performed – not merely filling the vacancy in a
way that could endanger students. It is important
to have a thorough screening process to appoint
credible teachers.
This study has several limitations. Among
them, there is the possibility that students will
answer the questions in a stressed or inattentive
manner without understanding the questions
asked. Also, students will also copy their friends'
answers to specific questions, which makes them
unreliable. Due to limited time, access, and
financial factors, this study was also limited to
the Lundu District using only questionnaire
instruments.
7
Therefore, for the next study, it is proposed
that a larger number of samples could be used
and secondary schools in other districts in the
state of Sarawak could be involved. Thus, the
information obtained from the findings can be
generalized to the entire population. Also, the
study sample consisted of Form Four students,
regardless of whether they were student leaders
in the co-curricular activities. Therefore, in the
proposal for further study, the researcher can
compare whether there is a difference in the
leadership skills of the student leaders and non-
leader students in the activities involved.
Furthermore, the data collection procedure
can also be varied and not limited to the
questionnaire instrument, as it was in this study.
Methods of data triangulation through interviews
and observations are also recommended for
further study to obtain detailed results regarding
student involvement in co-curricular programs
and their leadership skills.
CONCLUSION
Education is a process that involves the
acquisition of knowledge from various sources.
The learning process also involves the
communication and instructional processes
between students in the school environment.
Leadership skills are different from those of
academic knowledge, which pertain to the
classroom and are assessed through assessment
and examination. Leadership skills are acquired
through engagement and interaction in activities
that require students to lead their peers. Through
involvement in various activities, students
gradually develop into leaders by learning to
adhere to rules, to practice effective
communication, to find the courage to make
decisions, and to inculcate positive values in
themselves. Leadership skills should be instilled
in students during their schooling so that they do
not have to worry about leading a larger
organization in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Appreciation to the funders: the National
Defence University of Malaysia and The
National University of Malaysia (GG-2019-024).
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