polymers
Article
The Fatigue Wear Process of Rubber-Metal Shock Absorbers
Marcin Kluczyk 1, * , Andrzej Grzadziela
˛ 1 , Michał Pajak






Citation: Kluczyk, M.; Grzadziela,
˛ A.;
Pajak,
˛ M.; Muślewski, Ł.; Szelezinski,
A. The Fatigue Wear Process of
Rubber-Metal Shock Absorbers.
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186. https://
doi.org/10.3390/polym14061186
Academic Editor:
Małgorzata Szymiczek
Received: 11 February 2022
Accepted: 14 March 2022
Published: 16 March 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14061186
˛ 2 , Łukasz Muślewski 3 and Adam Szeleziński 4
1 Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Polish Naval Academy in Gdynia, 81-127 Gdynia, Poland;
a.grzadziela@amw.gdynia.pl
2 Mechanical Engineering Faculty, University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, 26-600 Radom, Poland;
m.pajak@uthrad.pl
3 Mechanical Engineering Faculty, University of Science and Technology in Bydgoszcz,
85-796 Bydgoszcz, Poland; lukasz.muslewski@utp.edu.pl
4 Department of Maritime Engineering, Gdynia Maritime University, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland;
a.szelezinski@wm.umg.edu.pl
* Correspondence: m.kluczyk@amw.gdynia.pl; Tel.: +48-261262667
Abstract: Rubber and rubber-metal vibration isolators are widely used vibration isolation systems in
marine applications. For naval application, shock absorber mounting systems must fulfil two func-
tions. The first one supports the suspended mass in the absence of waving or detonation while
providing isolation from vibrations and shock impact. In the second case, during the machine opera-
tion, it reduces the force of movement to an acceptable value. Moreover, it returns the insulated mass
to the position output without plastic deformation or residual buckling after removing shock stresses
or harmonic vibrations. The environment in which marine vibration isolators are to be used strongly
influences the selection of a shock absorber. The main environmental problem is the temperature
range in marine power plants, which ranges from 20 ◦ C to 55 ◦ C. Temperature fluctuations may cause
changes in the physical properties of typical vibration/shock insulators. Both rubbers and elastomers
used for shock absorbers tend to stiffen, gain low-temperature damping, and soften and lose damping
at elevated temperatures. Factors such as moisture, ozone and changes in atmospheric pressure are
usually ignored in shipbuilding. The main environmental factors influencing the ageing of insulators
are liquid saturated hydrocarbons, i.e., oils, fuels, coolants, etc., which may come into contact with
the surface of the insulators. This work presents the results of the research carried out to determine
the effect of overload and the impact of petroleum products on the materials of metal-rubber shock
absorbers made of three different rubbers and one polyurethane mixture. For each of the materials,
shock absorbers with three different degrees of hardness were tested.
Keywords: marine absorber; rubber; fuel and oil ageing; vibrations
1. Introduction
Elastomer insulators are the most commonly used type of vibration dampers. The elas-
tomer is natural rubber or any polymer with elastic properties similar to natural rubber.
Such materials are widely used in insulators because they can be easily formed into any
desired shape and selected to provide a wide range of stiffnesses. Such insulators have
better damping properties than metal springs, usually require less space, are lightweight
and can be combined with metal inserts for simple assembly [1].
Elastomer insulators are able to withstand high deformation and then return to their
original state with virtually no damage or change of shape. Additionally, they are superior
to other types of insulators in terms of the given resilience and ability to deflect and
dissipate energy. They require less space and weight. Elastomers are characterized by
exceptional extensibility and deformation, can be used with elongations up to about 300%,
and the final elongation of some elastomers can reach 1000%. They can be stressed up to
10 MPa or more before reaching the yield point [2–4]. Their excellent ability to store elastic
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 2 of 18

energy enables the transfer of considerable stresses, thanks to which, after being released
from stresses, they practically return to their original shape without damage. Elastomer
damping is often useful in preventing excessive vibration amplitude in resonance.
The use of elastomeric materials to construct vibration isolators and shock absorbers
results from the specific physical properties of high strength, high fatigue resistance, mod-
erate production costs, excellent rebound and compression properties. Determining the
properties of the material and its structure, as well as the installation method in an insulated
machine, it is necessary to assess the effectiveness of the shock absorber application [1,5,6].
Marine vibration isolators and shock absorbers used in naval vessels are mainly used to
ensure three technological parameters, i.e., maintaining the alignment of rotary machines,
isolating harmonic vibrations and absorbing energy at shock impacts. It is extremely dif-
ficult to meet these requirements mainly due to the significantly different dynamics of
these phenomena. Normal operation of the propulsion system causes the formation of
harmonic vibrations, while the impact of the shock wave from an underwater explosion is
an impulse feature.
The analysis of the used rubber and rubber-metal shock absorbers most often con-
cerns three issues, i.e., cyclical changes in properties, reaction to large deformations and
non-linearity of the stress–strain curve. In the case of materials used for shock absorbers,
these parameters have been theoretically characterized and practically verified [7–11].
The durability of shock absorbers is of fundamental importance in shipbuilding engineer-
ing, which is mainly related to the resistance to cyclical loads and environmental impacts,
primarily related to temperature and immersion in aggressive liquids [9–15]. Accord-
ing to [16,17] one of the most widely used techniques to predict the lifetime of polymeric
materials is the use of the Arrhenius equation; however, it will not be used in this work.
Shock absorbers that are subjected to cyclical loads often fail due to the breakage of the
rubber element [18–20]. A crack can be initiated in the area where the stress concentration
is the maximum of the probability of cracking increases with the service life. Dimensional
stability is necessary for vibration isolators that operate under applied loads, which means
that the static deflection of the insulator should not increase with time. Such an increase
would be the result of creep and deformation. Strain is a dimensional change due to stress,
and creep is a dimensional change due to the application of a force. The deformation and
excessive creep will cause large changes in stiffness and dynamic properties. Deformation
is determined by compressing a specimen of specified dimensions to a given deflection [7].
After compression is complete, the sample is left for half an hour and then subjected to
an elevated temperature. After exposure, the sample is left for half an hour, and then the
thickness is measured. The compression deformation percentage is the thickness decrease
divided by the original deformation and multiplied by 100. Typical rubber compounds
used in vibration insulation have a value of 10 to 50%. The exposure time is typically 22 or
70 h at a temperature suitable for the intended use of the insulator or silencer. Creep is
determined by placing the sample in a compression device, applying a compressive force,
and exposing it to an elevated temperature.
Some vibration isolators come into contact with oil or solvents. The influence of
these liquids on a given rubber depends on the solubility parameters of both materials.
The greater the similarity, the greater the effect. The liquid may cause the rubber to swell
and may absorb chemicals from it or react chemically with it. Each of these factors can lead
to deterioration of the physical properties of the rubber. The effect of liquids on rubber is
determined by measuring changes in volume or weight, hardness, elongation and tensile
strength after immersion in oils, fuels, operating fluids or water [4,8,10,11,21,22]. Many re-
search centers around the world develop guidelines for standardized tests of all kinds
of rubber elements. Institutions such as the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) or the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) publish standards
covering procedures for testing rubber elements for environmental impact [5,8,23]. How-
ever, there is little information in the literature known to the authors about changes in
the characteristics of metal-rubber vibro-isolators in the event of a significant overload.
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 3 of 18

The same applies to changes in the resonance characteristics in the case of the impact of
petroleum
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW products on them. Therefore, the authors decided to take up the topic presented
3 of 19
in this study.

2. Materials and Methods

same applies to changes in the resonance characteristics in the case of the impact of petro-
This work focuses on determining the effects of overload and oil immersion interac-
leum products on them. Therefore, the authors decided to take up the topic presented in
tions, which are most quickly visible in the form of stress relaxation and creep and assessing
this study.
the possibility of the dramatic Mullins effect, which may disqualify the shock absorber from
use. Contact or immersion in aggressive liquids also affects the properties of elastomeric
2. Materials and Methods
materials. This effect should be related to the determination of changes in the natural
This work
frequency due to focuses on in
changes determining thedamping
stiffness and effects of[6,9,21].
overloadByand oil immersion
analyzing interac-
the work of a
tions, absorber
shock which areinmost
goodquickly visible
condition in the
(Figure 1), itform
can beof described
stress relaxation and creep and
by the commonly known as-
sessing the
equation of possibility of thewith
forced vibration dramatic Mullins
damping [23]:effect, which may disqualify the shock ab-
sorber from use. Contact or immersion in aggressive liquids also affects the properties of
.. .
elastomeric materials. This effectmshould
x + c x be
+ kxrelated to the
= A sin υt determination of changes in the (1)
natural frequency due to changes in stiffness and damping [6,9,21]. By analyzing the work
where m—mass,
of a shock c—damping,
absorber k—stiffness,
in good condition x—displacement,
(Figure Pa —force,
1), it can be described byω—angular
the commonlyfre-
quency, t—time, P(t) = Asinvt—exciting force
known equation of forced vibration with damping [23]: of amplitude A and frequency v.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. System
System of
of the
the shock
shock absorber.
absorber.

After dividing by m, we obtain [23]:

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐴sin𝜐𝑡 (1)
.. .
x + 2h x + ω02 x = q sin υt (2)
where 𝑚 —mass, 𝑐 —damping, 𝑘 —stiffness, 𝑥 —displacement, 𝑃𝑎 —force, 𝜔 —angular
frequency, 𝑡—time, P(t) = Asinvt—exciting force of amplitude A and frequency v.
where
After dividing by m, we obtain [23]:c
r
A k
h= ; q = ; ω0 = (3)
2m m2 m
𝑥̈ + 2ℎ𝑥̇ + 𝜔0 𝑥 = 𝑞 sin 𝜐𝑡 (2)
The solution to Equation (2) is a superposition of two solutions to equations, the ordi-
where
nary and the specific:
x = x0 + x s (4)
𝑐 𝐴 𝑘
The general solution takesℎthe= form; of:𝑞 = ; 𝜔0 = √ (3)
2𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
−ht
The solution to Equationx0(2)= ise a superposition
(C1 cos pt + C2ofsin pt)solutions to equations, the (5)
two or-
dinary and the specific:
A specific solution will take the form of:
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑥𝑠 (4)
xs = C3 sin υt + C4 cos υt (6)
The general solution takes the form of:
𝑥0 = 𝑒 −ℎ𝑡 (𝐶1 cos 𝑝𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑝𝑡) (5)

A specific solution will take the form of:

𝑥𝑠 = 𝐶3 sin 𝜐𝑡 + 𝐶4 cos 𝜐𝑡 (6)

Individual derivatives have the form:

Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 4 of 18

Individual derivatives have the form:

.
xs = C3 υ cosυt − C4 υ sinυt (7)
..
xs = −C3 υ2 sin υt − C4 υ2 cos υt (8)
Substituting the relations (5)–(7) into Equation (2), the following was obtained:

−C3 υ2 sin υt − C4 υ2 cos υt + 2hυC3 cos υt − 2hυC4 sin υt+

(9)
+ω02 C3 sin υt + ω02 C4 cos υt − q sin υt = 0

Grouping expressions with cosvt and sinvt obtained:

   
C3 ω02 − υ2 − 2hυC4 − q sin υt = 0 (10)
   
C3 2hυ − ω02 − υ2 C4 cos υt = 0 (11)

Expressions (9) and (10) will be reset to zero for each t as elements in parentheses will
be equal to zero, that is:    
C3 ω02 − υ2 − 2hυC4 − q = 0 (12)
   
C3 2hυ − ω02 − υ2 C4 = 0 (13)

From Equation (12), we determine the quantity C4 .

C3 2hυ
C4 = (14)
ω02 − υ2

After substituting Equation (11), the following equation is obtained:

  C3 4h2 υ2
C3 ω02 − υ2 =
−q (15)
ω02 − υ2

Hence:
q ω02 − υ2


C3 = (16)
ω02 − υ2 + 4h2 υ2

Having the expression C3 , the constant C4 was derived from the dependence (14).

−2hυq
C4 = (17)
ω02


− υ2 + 4h2 υ2

Thus, the specific solution takes the form:

q ω02 − υ2


2hυq
xs = 2 2


2 2
sin υt − 2

cos υt (18)
ω0 − υ + 4h υ ω0 − υ2 + 4h2 υ2

Assuming that:
q ω02 − υ2


= H cos ϕ (19)
ω02 − υ2 + 4h2 υ2

−2hυq
= H sin ϕ (20)
ω02 − υ2 + 4h2 υ2

and substituting the expression (18), we obtain:

xs = H cos ϕ sin υt + H H sin ϕ cos υt = H sin(υt + ϕ) (21)

Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 5 of 18

where: s s
2 2
q2 (ω02 −υ2 ) +4h2 υ2 q2 (ω02 −υ2 ) +4h2 υ2
q
H= C32 + C42 = 2 =q 2
ω02 −υ2 +4h2 υ2
(( ) ) ((ω02 −υ2 )+4h2 υ2 ) (22)
q
= q
(ω02 −υ2 )+4h2 υ2
Then, static extension equals:
A
A m q
lst = = = (23)
k k
m
ω02

The expression (22) can be represented in the form:

q
q ω02
H= s 2 = s 2 (24)
υ2 4h2 υ2 υ2 4h2 υ2
ω02 1− ω02
+ ω04
1− ω02
+ ω04

Therefore:
lst
xs = s 2 sin(υt + ϕ) (25)
υ2 4h2 υ2
1− ω02
+ ω04

Magnification factor is:

H lst 1 1
µ= = s = s (26)
lst 2 lst 2
υ2 4h2 υ2 υ2 4h2 υ2
1− ω02
+ ω04
1− ω02
+ ω04

Thus, the complete solution to Equation (4) takes the form:

q
−ht ω02
x = x0 + x s = e (C1 cos pt + C2 sin pt) + s 2 (27)
υ2 4h2 υ2
1− ω02
+ ω04

The constants C1 and C2 in the equation must be determined from the assumed initial
conditions. The first term of Equation (27) describes the damped vibrations with the
frequency p, and the second describes the forced vibrations with the frequency of the
exciting force v. The theoretical analysis of the above equations shows that the change in
stiffness caused by contact with an aggressive liquid will cause a difference in the natural
frequency ωn and changes in the stiffness k as well as the amplitude. As a result, changes
in the resonance characteristics of the vibrating system can be expected with the time of
exposure to an aggressive liquid [22].
Cyclic loads changing the deformation of the shock absorber within the design range
of ±20% should be considered as the possibility of changes in the shock absorber geometry
due to creep and stress relaxation. Another problem that interested the authors is the
change in the stiffness of the shock absorber as a result of cyclic loading (Figure 2). At this
stage of the research, the temperature factor was not taken into account as a catalyst for
changes in stiffness.
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 6 of 18

Before cyclic load

Before
After n/2cyclic
cyclesload
Aftern n/2
After cycles
cycles

Amplitude ratio [ ]
After n cycles

Amplitude ratio [ ]

Excitation frequence ω [s
Excitation frequence ω [s
Figure 2. Plots of the dependence of the ratio of amplitudes 𝑥𝑎 /𝑥0 on the excitation frequency 𝜔
Figure
for 2. Plotscyclic
successive, of the
of the dependenceof
dependence
loads. ofthe
theratio amplitudesx a𝑥/ 𝑎x/𝑥
ratioofofamplitudes 0 on
0 on thethe excitation
excitation frequency
frequency 𝜔
ω for
for successive, cyclic
successive, cyclic loads.loads.
2.1. Materials
2.1. Materials
2.1. Materials
Rubber and rubbery-like materials are essentially incompressible substances that de-
Rubber and
Rubber andrubbery-like
rubbery-likematerials materials are
are essentially
essentially incompressible
incompressible substances
substances thatthat
de-
form
deform by changing shape rather thanthan
changing volume. TheirTheir
Poisson’s ratio ratio
is around 0.5.
form by by changing
changing shape shape rather
rather changing
than changing volume.
volume. Poisson’s
Their Poisson’s ratio is aroundis around0.5.
At very
0.5. smallsmall
At very deformations,
deformations, the ratio of the resulting deformation to to
thethe applied
appliedstress,
At very small deformations, thethe ratio
ratio of of
thethe resulting
resulting deformation
deformation to the applied stress,
stress,
i.e., Young’s
i.e., Young’s modulus,
modulus, is
isconstant.
constant. This
This value
value isisthe
the same
same whether
whether the
the deformations
deformations are
are
i.e., Young’s modulus, is constant. This value is the same whether the deformations are
the
the result
result ofof tension
tension or compression.
or compression. Hooke’s
Hooke’s law, therefore,
law, therefore,applies
applieswithin the
within limits
the of
limits
the result of tension or compression. Hooke’s law, therefore, applies within the limits of
this proportionality.
of this proportionality. However,
However, as strain increases, this linearity can not be used, and
this proportionality. However, as as strainincreases,
strain increases,thisthislinearity
linearitycan cannot not bebe used,
used, andand
Hooke’s
Hooke’s lawlaw
law isis no
is no longer
no longer applicable.
applicable. The The compressive
The compressive
compressive and and tensile
and tensile stresses
tensile stresses
stresses areare then
are then also
then also
also
Hooke’s longer applicable.
different.
different. Typically,
Typically, rubber
rubber vibration
vibration dampers
dampers are
are designed
designed tototake
take advantage
advantage ofofthese
these
different. Typically, rubber vibration dampers are designed to take advantage of these
stresses.
stresses.Compressive
Compressivestress stressexhibits
exhibitsaaanonlinear
nonlinearcure curetoto
tostrains
strainsgreater
greaterthan than30% 30%and andisisis
stresses. Compressive stress exhibits nonlinear cure strains greater than 30% and
used
used where
where restriction
restriction of
ofmovement
movement isisrequired.
required. Additionally,
Additionally, it is
it isrecommended
recommended where
where
used where restriction of movement is required. Additionally, it is recommended where
energy
energystorage
storage is required. Tensile stress stores energy
energy moreefficiently
efficientlythan thancompressive
compressiveor
energy storage is is required.
required. TensileTensilestress
stressstores
stores energymore more efficiently than compressive
orshear
shearloads,
loads,but butit itisisnot
notrecommended
recommendedbecause becauseofofthe theresulting
resultingstresses
stressesatatthe therubber-to-
rubber-
or shear loads, but it is not recommended because of the resulting stresses at the rubber-
to-metal interface,
metal interface, which
which cancan cause
cause premature
premature failure.
failure. TheThe modulus
modulus of elasticity
of elasticity is the
is the ratiora-of
to-metal interface, which can cause premature failure. The modulus of elasticity is the ra-
tio of stress to deformation expressed in newtons per millimeter
stress to deformation expressed in newtons per millimeter [5,23]. It depends not only on [5,23]. It depends not only
tio of stress to deformation expressed in newtons per millimeter [5,23]. It depends not only
onthethe elastic
elastic modulus
modulus of of
thethe rubber
rubber butbut also
also onon thethe shape
shape of of
thethe sample
sample or or
testtest piece.
piece. Since
Since the
on the elastic modulus of the rubber but also on the shape of the sample or test piece. Since
the rubber
rubber is incompressible,
is incompressible, compression
compression in onein direction
one direction stretches
stretches in theinotherthe other two di-
two directions,
the rubber is incompressible, compression in one direction stretches in the other two di-
rections,
causing causing
the sidesthe to sides
bulge.toThebulge. Thefactor
shape shapeisfactor is calculated
calculated by dividingby dividing
one loaded one loaded
area by
rections, causing the sides to bulge. The shape factor is calculated by dividing one loaded
area by the
the total total
free areafree area (Figure
(Figure 3). 3).
area by the total free area (Figure 3).

Figure
Figure3.3.Shock
Shockabsorber
absorberdeflection
deflectionunder
underforce
forceF.F.
Figure 3. Shock absorber deflection under force F.
Foraacorrect
For correctanalytical
analyticalsolution
solutionofofaarubber
rubbershock
shockabsorber,
absorber,its
itsshape
shapecoefficient
coefficientkk
should Forbea determined.
correct analytical solution of
This coefficient
coefficient a rubber
occurs at shock absorber, its shape coefficient k
should be determined. This occurs at the
the place
placewhere
wherethethedimension
dimensionororshape
shapeof
should be determined. This coefficient occurs at the place where the dimension or shape
ofthe
theloaded
loadedelements
elementschanges,
changes,which
whichisisalso
alsowhere
where the
thestress distribution
stress distributionchanges.
changes.
of the loaded elements changes, which is also where the stress distribution changes.
𝑑 d
k =k =𝑑 (28)
(28)
k = 4ℎ𝑠 4hs (28)
4ℎ𝑠
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 7 of 18

During the different test series carried out on the shock absorbers, four types of
materials, each with the three most popular levels of hardness in the marine industry—i.e.,
55, 65 and 75 Sh A—were tested.
CR—rubber based on chloroprene rubber. It is one of the first synthetic rubbers. It is
distinguished by its above-average resistance to ozone. It is also resistant to weather
conditions. It is characterized by high abrasion resistance. Chloroprene rubber is also
distinguished by its high resistance to many chemical compounds. However, chloroprene
rubber is not resistant to petroleum fuels and oils. Its temperature range of operation
ranges from −40 degrees Celsius up to +110 degrees Celsius. For a short time, it can
reach up to +130 degrees. Chloroprene rubber is also flexible at temperatures down
to about −40 degrees Celsius. However, it is worth remembering that when storing
it at a temperature below 0 degrees Celsius during the ongoing crystallization process,
an irreversible stiffening process takes place.
EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer)—rubber cross-linked in the process of
sulfur vulcanization, EPDM has very good properties, including resistance to weather
conditions (ozone), water resistance, good high-temperature properties up to +110 ◦ C,
flexibility at low temperatures down to −40 ◦ C and hardness ranging from 40 ÷ 90 Shore A.
NBR (nitrile rubber)—commonly known as oil-resistant rubber, i.e., a copolymer of
butadiene and acrylonitrile. Depending on the amounts of the above-mentioned chemical
compounds used and the change in their percentage in the mixture, the resistance to oils
and low temperature can be freely manipulated. The temperature parameters at which you
can work with this rubber range between −30 degrees Celsius and 100 degrees Celsius.
The physical properties of rubber are resistance to engine, heating and transformer oils.
Rubber is also characterized by high durability to the use of lubricants, hydraulic fluids
and aliphatic hydrocarbons [5]. It will respond well to work in conditions with the use of
propane, butane and gasoline.
PU—polyurethane is a polymer obtained by polyaddition of aromatic or aliphatic
diisocyanates with compounds containing at least two hydroxyl groups. The physical
and chemical properties of polyurethanes depend on their composition and molecular
weight. Polyurethane elastomers are a rubber-like material with high-performance in-
dicators. Their properties can be shaped in a very wide range, which makes them a
universal material.

2.2. Methods
During the research, shock absorbers of identical dimensions, i.e., diameter of 20 mm
and height of 40 mm, made of the four different materials described above, were tested.
They were subjected to multi-stage strength tests, as well as tests for changes in their
dynamic characteristics as a result of ageing in the presence of petroleum products. In the
first part of the tests, two series of tests were carried out on a tensile testing machine for
each type of shock absorber. Twelve different shock absorbers were tested.
From each type and hardness, two completely new specimens were randomly selected
and tested.
1. For the first samples, the following were carried out:—static compression test for
25% (10 mm)–filename: materialnemestatprzed1; then 10,000 compression cycles at
10% (4 mm), sinusoidal course, finished with static compression test for 25% (10 mm)—
filename: materialnamestatpo1.
2. For the second samples of each type, the following were carried out:—static compres-
sion test at 25% (10 mm)—filename: materialnamestatprzed2 then 100 compression
cycles at 50% (20 mm) triangular course—Figures 4 and 5, finished with static com-
pression test for 25% (10 mm)—filename: materialnamestatpo2.
 or flat samples.orMachine
flat samples. Machine
control enablescontrol enablesout
the carrying theofcarrying
tests on out
the of tests
basis ofon the basis of a
a given
force, displacement or deformation in a range up to 100 mm. An example course of 100 course
force, displacement or deformation in a range up to 100 mm. An example
compressions iscompressions
presented inisFigure
presented in Figure 5. Measurement
5. Measurement resultsinare
results are archived archived
ASCII text in ASC
files. Compresion tests were repeated three times for each type of absorber. An example An ex
files. Compresion tests were repeated three times for each type of absorber.
of a55)
of a sample (NBR sample (NBR
during 55) during
testing is shown testing is shown
in Figure 4b,c. in Figure
The 4b,c.
tensile The tensile
machine machine i
is8certi-
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 of 18
fied Centre
fied by the Polish by the Polish Centre for (PCA).
for Accreditation Accreditation (PCA). The
The maximum maximum uncer-
measurement measurement
tainty for compressive
tainty for compressive forces is 0.25%. forces is 0.25%.

Figure4.4. From
Figure Fromthe Figure
the left: 4. From the
left: (a)—view
(a)—view ofleft:
of MTS
MTS (a)—view
810.12 of MTS
810.12 tensile
tensile 810.12 tensile
machine,
machine, (b)—NBR
(b)—NBRmachine,
55 (b)—NBR
55absorber
absorber 55 absorber
during
during the
the dur
initial phase o initial
tests, phase
(c)—NBR o tests,
55 (c)—NBR
absorber under55 absorber
static under
compresion
initial phase o tests, (c)—NBR 55 absorber under static compresion of 20 mm.static
of 20compresion
mm. of 20 mm.

Figure5.5. An
Figure Figureof
An example
example of5.100
Ancompression
100 example of 100
compression compression
cycles
cyclesat
at50% (20cycles
50%(20 mm) at 50% (20course.
mm)triangular
triangular mm) triangular course.
course.

All test resultsThe

Thecompression are test
tests results
were
presented arethe
carried
in presented in the
out onsection.
results the MTSresults
The section.
810.12
shock(MTS The shock
Systems
absorbers absorbers
for the used
usedGmbH,
Berlin, Germany)
compression compression
tests machine tests machine
(Figure
on the testing on4a),
thewhich
testing
wereismachineused were
a hydraulic
not not used
testing
for further for further
machine
tests. tests.
that enables
the performance of static
In the tests
next in the
stage ofrange
the of +/
study, −
In the next stage of the study, the tests were carried out in conditions similar to for
90
the kN
tests (tensile
were and
carried compression)
out in conditions
the similar
round or flat samples.
real ones, Machine
i.e., control
from each enables
group the carrying out
(material-stiffness),of
real ones, i.e., from each group (material-stiffness), four new shock absorbers were se- tests
four on
newthe basis
shock of a
absorbers w
given force, displacement
lected, which or deformation
were installed inasa range up to 100 elements
vibro-isolating mm. An example
in the course of of the m
foundation
lected, which were installed as vibro-isolating elements in the foundation of the machine
100 compressions is presented
presented in Figure
6. An5.artificial
Measurement results are archived in introduced
ASCII text in the ro
presented in Figure 6. Anin Figure
artificial unbalance unbalance
weighing weighing
35 g was 35 g was
introduced in the rotating
files. Compresion tests
systemThankswere repeated
of the device. three times
Thanks tothe for
this each
solution,type of absorber.
the values An example
of vibration of
parameters occ
system of the device. to this solution, values of vibration parameters occurring
a sample (NBRduring 55) duringthe testing
operation is shown
of the in Figure
device 4b,c.
increased The tensile machine
significantly. In is
the certified
first part of the s
during the operation of the device increased significantly. In the first part of the second
by the Polish Centre
stage for
of Accreditation
the research, (PCA).
new The maximum
dampers were measurement
installed, and theuncertainty
device was for
turned on
stage of the research, new dampers were installed, and the device was turned on. After
compressive forces is 0.25%. speed had stabilized, the vibration acceleration was measured with t
the rotational
the rotational speed had stabilized, the vibration acceleration was measured with the use
The test results areaccelerometers,
presented in the results section. The shock absorbersare used for the
of four accelerometers, the installationthe
of four installation
locations locations
of which of which
are indicated and indicated
described and
in descri
compression tests on the testing machine were not used for further tests.
In the next stage of the study, the tests were carried out in conditions similar to the
real ones, i.e., from each group (material-stiffness), four new shock absorbers were selected,
which were installed as vibro-isolating elements in the foundation of the machine presented
in Figure 6. An artificial unbalance weighing 35 g was introduced in the rotating system of
the device. Thanks to this solution, the values of vibration parameters occurring during
the operation of the device increased significantly. In the first part of the second stage
of the research, new dampers were installed, and the device was turned on. After the
rotational speed had stabilized, the vibration acceleration was measured with the use of
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 9 of 18
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

four accelerometers, the installation locations of which are indicated and described in
Figure
Figure6.6. Then,
Then, the
the power
power supply
supply toto the
the drive
drive motor
motor was
was turned
turned off
off and
andthe
thevibration
vibration
parameters
parameterswere
wererecorded
recordedduring
duringthethe
free run-down
free of the
run-down rotor
of the system,
rotor which
system, allowed
which for
allowed
the elimination of disturbances related to the operating electric motor.
for the elimination of disturbances related to the operating electric motor

Figure6.6.Test
Figure Teststand
standfor
fordampers
damperslong-distance
long-distancetests.
tests.Locations
Locationsofofaccelerometers:
accelerometers:VBA—vertical
VBA—vertical
before absorber, VAA—vertical after absorber, HBA—horizontal before absorber, HAA—horizon-
before absorber, VAA—vertical after absorber, HBA—horizontal before absorber, HAA—horizontal
tal after absorber.
after absorber.
After recording
After recording the the vibration
vibration parameters
parametersduring duringthe therun-down
run-down ofof
thethe
new new shock
shockab-
sorbers, the rotor system was restarted at 500,000 revolutions. In
absorbers, the rotor system was restarted at 500,000 revolutions. In a situation of significant a situation of significant
imbalance,ititcan
imbalance, canbe beassumed
assumedthat thateach
eachrotation
rotationisisthethesame
sameas as aa single
single sinusoidal
sinusoidal impulse.
impulse.
The rotational speed of the rotor system is 1500 rpm. After
The rotational speed of the rotor system is 1500 rpm. After the system had performed the system had performed the
assumed number of revolutions, the measurement was
the assumed number of revolutions, the measurement was performed again in the steady performed again in the steady
stateand
state andafter
afterits
itscompletion
completionin inthe
thetransient
transientstate.
state.DueDueto tothe
theduration
durationof ofregistration
registrationin in
individual states, the number of turnovers may differ by
individual states, the number of turnovers may differ by 1%. Vibration parameters were1%. Vibration parameters were
measuredusing
measured usingthe thePulse
PulseB&K B&Kmeasuring
measuring system system (Brüel
(Brüel & & Kjær
Kjæ r A/S,
A/S, Virum,
Virum, Denmark
Denmark).
). The apparatus includes four accelerometric sensors type
The apparatus includes four accelerometric sensors type 4514-B from the DeltaTron 4514-B from the DeltaTron fam-
family,
ily, and a six-channel measuring cassette type 3050-A-060 from
and a six-channel measuring cassette type 3050-A-060 from the LAN-XI series. A high-pass the LAN-XI series. A high-
pass was
filter filterused
was with
usedawith a cut-off
cut-off frequency frequency
of 0.7 Hz of 0.7
andHz theand the sampling
sampling frequencyfrequency
was setwas to
set toHz.
3092 3092 Hz.
Duringthe
During thelast
laststage,
stage,aacompletely
completelynew newset setofoffour
fourshock
shockabsorbers
absorbersfromfromeach eachgroup
group
(material-stiffness) was subjected to a mixture of petroleum
(material-stiffness) was subjected to a mixture of petroleum products. Since the tested shockproducts. Since the tested
shock absorbers are used in shipbuilding, a mixture of
absorbers are used in shipbuilding, a mixture of NATO F75 marine fuel (Lotos, Gdańsk,NATO F75 marine fuel (Lotos,
Gdańsk,
Poland Poland
and MarinolandRG1240
MarinolmarineRG1240engine marine oilengine
(Lotos,oilGda
(Lotos,
ńsk, Gdańsk,
Poland) wasPoland) was pre-
prepared as
apared
factorasinfluencing
a factor influencing
them. The them.
mixture The mixture
of these of two these two products
products is a veryis common
a very common factor
factor
in ship in ship practice,
practice, affecting affecting
the rubberthe rubber
elements elements
of the of the machine
machine foundation
foundation system system
in ship in
ship power
power plants. plants. The mixture
The mixture was prepared
was prepared so thatso50%
thatof50%theofmass
the mass wasand
was fuel fuel50% andwas 50%
oil.
wasThe shock
oil. The absorbers
shock absorbers were wereimmersed
immersed in in
thetheprepared
prepared mixture
mixtureforfor4848hh(Figure
(Figure 7). 7).
Before
Beforeimmersion,
immersion,all allshock
shockabsorbers
absorberswere weremeasured
measuredand andweighed.
weighed. After
After aging
aging in inthe
the
presence
presenceof ofpetroleum
petroleumproducts,
products,the theshock
shockabsorbers
absorberswere weredrieddriedandandre-measured.
re-measured.The The
results
resultsarearepresented
presentedininTable Table 1. 1.
Next,
Next, thethe
shock
shock absorbers
absorbers were mounted
were mounted in the foundation
in the founda-
structure of theofmachine
tion structure the machineilustrated in Figure
ilustrated 6 and6 subjected
in Figure and subjected to thetosame tests tests
the same as inas thein
first part.part.
the first Thus, measurements
Thus, measurements were obtained
were obtained for for
shock absorbers
shock absorbers made
madeof four
of fourdifferent
differ-
materials
ent materialswithwith
threethree
different stiffnesses
different for the
stiffnesses forvariant of new
the variant ofand
newagedand rubber
aged rubberelements ele-
in petroleum products.
ments in petroleum products.
Polymers 2022,14,
Polymers2022, 14,1186
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of
10 of18
19

Figure 7. An example of vibroisolators during ageing in fuel and oil mixture.

Figure 7. An example of vibroisolators during ageing in fuel and oil mixture.
Table 1. Basic parameters of the tested absorbers before and after soaking in a mixture of fuel and oil
Table
for 48 h.1. Basic parameters of the tested absorbers before and after soaking in a mixture of fuel and
oil for 48 h.
Material
Material
Type
State Diameter [mm] Length [mm] Mass [g]
State Diameter [mm] Length [mm] Mass [g]
Type
Before 19.50 40.07 27.89
CR55 Before
After 19.50
19.73 40.07
40.56 27.89
28.33
CR55
After
Before 19.73
19.49 40.56
40.09 28.33
28.40
CR65
After
Before 19.55
19.49 40.10
40.09 28.75
28.40
CR65 Before 19.74 40.41 28.97
CR75 After 19.55 40.10 28.75
After 19.74 40.40 29.05
Before
Before
19.74
19.53
40.41
39.80
28.97
25.95
CR75
EPDM55 After
After 19.74
20.11 40.40
41.58 29.05
26.90
Before
Before 19.53
19.78 39.80
40.00 25.95
25.95
EPDM65
EPDM55 After
After 20.53
20.11 41.82
41.58 26.73
26.90
Before 19.55 40.30 26.44
EPDM75 Before 19.78 40.00 25.95
EPDM65 After 20.35 41.61 27.75
After
Before 20.53
19.32 41.82
39.91 26.73
25.90
NBR55 Before 19.55 40.30 26.44
After 19.43 39.86 25.91
EPDM75 Before 19.40 39.88 26.92
NBR65 After 20.35 41.61 27.75
After 19.49 39.88 26.99
Before 19.32 39.91 25.90
NBR55 Before 19.42 40.01 26.60
NBR75 After 19.43 39.86 25.91
After 19.42 39.87 26.57
Before
Before 19.40
19.43 39.88
40.14 26.92
28.19
NBR65
PU55
After
After 19.40
19.49 39.89
39.88 28.25
26.99
Before
Before 19.41
19.42 40.03
40.01 28.37
26.60
PU65
NBR75 After 19.42 40.01 28.42
After
Before
19.42
19.65
39.87
40.00
26.57
28.63
PU75 Before 19.43 40.14 28.19
After 19.73 40.02 28.66
PU55
After 19.40 39.89 28.25
3. Results Before 19.41 40.03 28.37
PU65
After consisting of
Rubber ageing is a process 19.42 40.01
changing the physicochemical 28.42
and mechani-
cal properties of rubber Before
(related to the 19.65
degradation of the 40.00
chemical structure)28.63
under the
PU75
influence of such factorsAfter
as oxygen, ozone,19.73 40.02
increased temperature, 28.66 UV
light radiation,
radiation, ionizing radiation and chemicals in which the ingredients of the rubber are
soluble. The ageing of the rubber can also be significantly accelerated when cyclic stresses
are present [18,24]. The first part, Figures 8–11, presents the results of strength tests of
metal-rubber shock absorbers made of the materials described in Section 2.
 ical properties of rubber (related to the degradation of the chemical structure) under the
influence of such factors as oxygen, ozone, increased temperature, light radiation, UV ra-
diation, ionizing radiation and chemicals in which the ingredients of the rubber are solu-
ble. The ageing of the rubber can also be significantly accelerated when cyclic stresses are
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 present [18,24]. The first part, Figures 8–11, presents the results of strength tests of metal-
11 of 18
rubber shock absorbers made of the materials described in Section 2.

a)

b)

c)

Figure 8. CR8.rubber
Figure changes
CR rubber of stiffness
changes during
of stiffness various
during tests
various conducted
tests onon
conducted tensile machine,
tensile (a)—
machine, (a)—CR
CR 5555Sh A, (b)—CR 65 Sh A, (c)—CR 75
Sh A, (b)—CR 65 Sh A, (c)—CR 75 Sh A.Sh A.

In the case of CR rubber with a hardness of 55 ShA, the reduction in stiffness is

noticeable in both cases of fatigue tests. It is especially noticeable in the situation where
the rubber element was subjected to 100 compression cycles at 50% of its initial length.
The situation is similar to the other CR rubber hardness. It should be emphasized here
that the measurement of CR 65 with a 50% compression was damaged and was not shown
in Figure 8. The initial stiffnesses of shock absorbers made of CR rubber show a great
similarity in relation to all tested hardness. However, the similarity of the stiffness of the
new samples to the same hardness is not so obvious, as can be seen from the example
of EPDM65 (Figure 9) or NBR75 (Figure 10) rubber. Concerning both EPDM and NBR,
the tendency of changes in the stiffness of shock absorbers made of them is similar to that
in the case of CR rubber, i.e., they decrease their stiffness during the static compression
test performed after fatigue actions. This is especially noticeable in the case of fatigue
tests in which the rubbers were compressed significantly above the allowable deformation.
 Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 12 of 18

The situation is slightly different in the case of metal-rubber shock absorbers made of
polyurethane (Figure 11). In the case of this material with a hardness of 55 ShA, there was
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW a very small relative reduction in stiffness caused by the fatigue tests carried 12
out,
of and
19 in
one case (PU55), there was even an increase in stiffness. This confirms the strong resistance
of this material to long-term fatigue stress.

a)

b)

c)

Figure 9. EPDM
Figure rubber
9. EPDM changes
rubber of stiffness
changes during
of stiffness various
during tests tests
various conducted on the
conducted ontensile machine,
the tensile machine,
(a)—EPDM 55 Sh A, (b)—EPDM 65 Sh A, (c)—EPDM 75 Sh A.
(a)—EPDM 55 Sh A, (b)—EPDM 65 Sh A, (c)—EPDM 75 Sh A.
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 13 of 18

a)

b)

c)

Figure 10. NBR

Figure rubber
10. NBR changes
rubber of stiffness
changes during
of stiffness various
during tests tests
various conducted on the
conducted ontensile machine,
the tensile machine,
(a)—NBR 55 Sh A, (b)—NBR 65 Sh A, (c)—NBR 75
(a)—NBR 55 Sh A, (b)—NBR 65 Sh A, (c)—NBR 75 Sh A.Sh A.

The results presented below refer to metal-rubber shock absorbers made of the same
materials as described above. This time, they were tested in conditions similar to real
ones and installed as damping elements in the foundations of the rotor machine shown
in Figure 5. Vibration accelerations were recorded at four points. However, preliminary
analyses allowed us to conclude that the most distinct changes were observed in the VBA
point (vertical before absorber). The same tendencies, albeit significantly less pronounced,
were visible in the VAA (vertical after absorber) point. There were no significant rela-
tionships between HBA and HAA. During the measurements, time courses of vibration
accelerations were recorded, which were subjected to integration in the post-processing
process, and the spectra of the vibration velocity were presented (Figures 12–15).
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 14 of 18

a)

b)

c)

Figure 11. PU
Figure 11.changes of stiffness
PU changes during
of stiffness various
during teststests
various conducted on on
conducted thethe
tensile machine,
tensile (a)—PU
machine, (a)—PU 55
55 ShSh
A,A,
(b)—PU 65 Sh A, (c)—PU 75 Sh
(b)—PU 65 Sh A, (c)—PU 75 Sh A. A.

In theThecase of CR rubber
convention with athe
of marking hardness
individualof 55 ShA, the reduction
waveforms of velocitiesinofstiffness is no-
vibrations during
ticeable in both cases
the run-down of fatigue
process tests.inItthe
adopted is especially
figures is asnoticeable
follows: in the situation where
red—waveforms the for
recorded
rubber
new element was subjected
shock absorbers; to 100 compression
green—waveform cycles
recorded at 50%the
during of run-down
its initial length. The
of the machine
situation is similar to the other CR rubber hardness. It should be emphasized
after 500,000 revolutions; blue—new shock absorbers subjected to the action of petroleum here that the
measurement
products of forCR48 65
h; with a 50% compression
black—shock absorberswas damaged
subjected andfor
to oil was48not
h andshown in Fig-
500,000 forces.
ure 8. The
The initial stiffnesses
continuous slim lineofindicates
shock absorbers madewith
the materials of CR rubber show
a hardness of 55aShA.
greatThesimilarity
continuous
in relation to all
light line tested hardness.
indicates the waveformsHowever, the similarity
of vibration of thespecific
acceleration stiffnesstoofthe
the new sam-
materials with a
ples hardness
to the same hardness
of 65 ShA. The is not so obvious,
dashed as canthe
line indicates be hardness
seen fromofthe 75 example
ShA. Before of EPDM65
and after the
shock
(Figure absorbers
9) or were subjected
NBR75 (Figure 10) rubber.to the effects of petroleum
Concerning both EPDM products,
and NBR, they thewere measured
tendency
and weighed. The results are shown in Table 1.
of changes in the stiffness of shock absorbers made of them is similar to that in the case of
CR rubber, i.e., they decrease their stiffness during the static compression test performed
after fatigue actions. This is especially noticeable in the case of fatigue tests in which the
 ure
ure5.5.Vibration
Vibrationaccelerations
accelerationswere
wererecorded
recordedatatfour
fourpoints.
points.However,
However,preliminary
preliminaryanal-
anal-
yses
yses allowed us to conclude that the most distinct changes were observedininthe
allowed us to conclude that the most distinct changes were observed theVBA
VBA
point (vertical before absorber). The same tendencies, albeit significantly less pronounced,
point (vertical before absorber). The same tendencies, albeit significantly less pronounced,
were
werevisible
visibleininthe
theVAA
VAA(vertical
(verticalafter
afterabsorber)
absorber)point.
point.There
Therewere
werenonosignificant
significantrelation-
relation-
ships
ships between HBA and HAA. During the measurements, time coursesofofvibration
between HBA and HAA. During the measurements, time courses accel-
vibration15
accel-
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 erations of 18
erations were recorded, which were subjected to integration in the post-processingpro-
were recorded, which were subjected to integration in the post-processing pro-
cess,
cess,and
andthe
thespectra
spectraofofthe
thevibration
vibrationvelocity
velocitywere
werepresented
presented(Figures
(Figures12–15).
12–15).

Figure
Figure12.
Figure Vibrationparameters
12.Vibration parametersduring
parameters during the
duringtherun-down
therun-downprocess
run-downprocesswith
processwithCR
withCRrubber
CR absorbers
rubber
rubber installed
absorbers
absorbers in
installed
installed
in the
the vibration
vibration insulation
insulation system.
system.
in the vibration insulation system.

Figure
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 13.
Figure13. Vibration
13.Vibration
Vibration parameters
parameters
parametersduring
during
during the
the run-down
run-down
the process
process
run-down withwith
process EPDM
withEPDM rubber
rubber
EPDM absorbers
absorbers
rubber
16 ofin-
19
installed
absorbers in-
stalled ininthe
installed thevibration
the vibrationvibrationinsulation
system.system.
insulation
insulation system.

Figure 14. Vibration parameters during the run-down process with NBR rubber absorbers installed
in the vibration insulation system.
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 16 of 18
Figure 14. Vibration parameters during the run-down process with NBR rubber absorbers installed
in the vibration insulation system.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Vibration
Vibration parameters
parameters during
during the
the run-down
run-down process
process with
with PU
PU absorbers
absorbers installed
installed in
in the
the
vibration insulation
vibration insulationsystem.
system.

The tested
The convention of marking
rotor machine is athe individualdevice,
supercritical waveforms
whichofmeans
velocities
that of vibrations
it goes through dur-
at
ing the
least onerun-down
resonant speedprocessduring
adopted in theand
start-up figures
stop.isIn
asFigures
follows:12–15,
red—waveforms
the passagerecorded
through
three
for newrenaissance
shock absorbers;velocities is clearly visible.
green—waveform This isduring
recorded manifested by a sharp
the run-down increase
of the machinein
amplitude
after 500,000 with a decreaseblue—new
revolutions; in rotational speed
shock (in our case,
absorbers with the
subjected passage
to the actionofoftime during
petroleum
the run-down
products for 48process). The results
h; black—shock of the CR
absorbers rubber to
subjected obtained at h
oil for 48 this
andstage of the
500,000 research
forces. The
indicate
continuousthatslim
for all theindicates
line hardnessthe of this type ofwith
materials rubber, the influence
a hardness of 55ofShA.
petroleum products
The continuous
on itsline
light vibration
indicates damping properties
the waveforms is visible.acceleration
of vibration The possibilities
specificoftoenergy dissipation
the materials with
increased
a hardness significantly
of 65 ShA. The because this line
dashed typeindicates
of rubberthe absorbed
hardness theofmost petroleum
75 ShA. Before products,
and after
which can be
the shock seen in Table
absorbers were 1. The geometrical
subjected dimensions
to the effects of the shock
of petroleum absorbers
products, they made of CR
were meas-
rubber have also changed. Despite improvements
ured and weighed. The results are shown in Table 1. of the damping properties, further use of
metal-to-rubber shock absorbers made of this material would soon
The tested rotor machine is a supercritical device, which means that it goes throughlead to their destruction
and, consequently,
at least one resonant damage
speedto during
the amortized
start-upmachine.
and stop. In In
theFigures
case of EPDM
12–15, rubber with
the passage
athrough
hardness of 55 ShA, a slight decrease in the vibration velocity is observed
three renaissance velocities is clearly visible. This is manifested by a sharp in- in the entire
range
creaseof in the tested frequencies;
amplitude with a decrease however, alreadyspeed
in rotational for hardness 65 and
(in our case, with75the
ShA, there of
passage is
an increase in the RMS value of the vibration velocity in the range
time during the run-down process). The results of the CR rubber obtained at this stage of of higher rotational
speeds and aindicate
the research decreasethat at lower
for allrotational
the hardness speeds of type
of this the rotor. EPDM
of rubber, therubber also of
influence absorbs
petro-
petroleum products, but not as intensely as CR rubber. NBR rubber
leum products on its vibration damping properties is visible. The possibilities of energy and polyurethane,
during the tests
dissipation carriedsignificantly
increased out, did not absorb
becausethe components
this of petroleum
type of rubber absorbed products
the most in petro-
a way
that would change their weight or dimensions. The results relating
leum products, which can be seen in Table 1. The geometrical dimensions of the shock to these two materials
are characterized
absorbers made of byCRtherubber
highest general
have also level of vibration
changed. Despitevelocity in the entire
improvements of themeasured
damping
range, regardless of the state of the rubber elements. In the case of NBR rubber, there is
also a correlation between the influence of petroleum products and the hardness of the
rubber. NBR55 shows a greater than 50% increase in the value of the vibration velocity
amplitudes when passing through the first resonance, while the remaining values of the
change are hardly noticeable. The same is the case with polyurethane. With regard to
this material, a sharp increase in the value of the vibration velocity is clearly visible when
passing through the resonance. The registered amplitude values are the highest among all
the tested materials.

4. Discussion
Despite the fact that rubber-metal vibration isolators are widely used vibration isola-
tion systems in marine applications, the process of their selection must be carried out very
carefully. All factors that may change their characteristics during operation should be taken
into account. In relation to devices located in ship power plants, such factors are impulse
interactions of considerable value, the source of which are usually underwater explosions
and the influence of petroleum products [25]. The conducted tests allow the conclusion
that shock absorbers selected in a way that does not take into account these two factors
Polymers 2022, 14, 1186 17 of 18

may be destroyed in a very short time, causing deterioration of the dynamic characteristics
of the entire drive system.
Particularly important and usually neglected seems to be the influence of exceeding
the permissible loads. Most manufacturers of metal-rubber shock absorbers state that the
permissible loads during the shock absorber’s operation cannot change its length by more
than 10%. However, during the contact of the hull with the shock wave, these values
are often exceeded. The obtained results clearly indicate that the phenomena occurring
during excessive loads cause permanent changes in the stiffness characteristics of the
rubber elements of the shock absorbers. Polyurethane seems to be the most resistant to this
phenomenon among the tested materials.
Due to the common occurrence of fuels and oils on board vessels, the selection of shock
absorbers should also take into account the resistance of the chosen elastomers to these
factors. Rubber manufacturers provide a degree of resistance of individual products to
aggressive liquids. However, this information is not present in the carats of shock absorber
characteristics. Therefore, vibration isolation engineers for marine propulsion systems
must have more knowledge than what is commonly available in catalogues.

5. Conclusions
The main aims of this work were verifying vibro-isolator characteristics in the event of
a significant overload or impact of petroleum products on them. These goals were achieved
by carrying out tests on a tensile testing machine in relation to overload. The characteristics
of changes in properties as a result of the impact of petroleum products were achieved
by testing the samples exposed to such an impact on a test stand that is a model of the
actual foundation system for a rotating machine. The results confirm the existence of a
relationship between the two tested extreme effects on most of the tested materials. It seems
very important that there is no information on the issues discussed in the article in the
literature related to the selection of vibro-isolators, especially in relation to objects exposed
to significant impact interactions.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.G., M.K.; methodology, A.G., M.K.; software, A.S.,
M.K.; validation, Ł.M., M.P.; formal analysis, A.G., M.K.; investigation, A.S., M.K.; resources, M.K.;
data curation, A.G.; writing—original draft preparation, M.K.; writing—review and editing, M.K.;
visualization, Ł.M., M.P., A.G., M.K.; supervision A.G. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to the fact that they were obtained
during research grant which is not finished yet.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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