Introduction to Tool

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO TOOL Engineering and

Management
ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 Basics of Tool Engineering

1.3 Elements in Tool Engineering
1.3.1 Single Point Cutting Tool
1.3.2 Multi Point Cutting Tool

1.4 Types of Machine Tools

1.5 Operational Issues in Tool Engineering
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Tool engineering is a vital area of production engineering. It includes metal cutting,
pressing, and various work holding devices. Metal cutting is the operation in which thin
layer of metal is removed by wedge shaped tool. Metal cutting is commonly associated
with industries like automotive, aerospace, home appliance, etc. The machining of metal
and alloys play a crucial role in the range of manufacturing activities including ultra
precision machining of extremely delicate components.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• understand the basics of tool engineering,
• classify the tooling and machine tools, and
• recognise various types of operations performed on different machines.

1.2 BASICS OF TOOL ENGINEERING

Machine tools are very important for any industrialised country because they hold a key
position in the technology chain. Machine tools are needed to build the machines and
parts with which capital goods and consumer goods of all kinds are manufactured, from
cars to airplanes, from glasses to ball point pen. If the creative tool engineers and
qualified skilled workers are constantly producing faster, better and more intelligent
machine tools for the market, they are helping many industries. This means innovation in
machine tool industry have a far-reaching and multiplicative impact.
Tool engineer is a professional whose job is to assist the production engineer in design
and refinement of production, in design and purchasing of machinery, tools, fixtures, dies
and gauges to be used in producing the parts and in their assembly to the final
production.
The most common classification of types of tooling is as follows :
Cutting Tools
Drills, reamers, milling cutter, broaches, tap etc.
Jigs and Fixture
For guiding the tool and holding the workpiece. 5
Fundamentals of CIM Sheet Metal Press Working Dies
Figure 1.1 shows various types of tool bit grinds. It should be noted that edges
involved in cutting operation must be the only edges permitted to touch workpiece.
All other faces should be ground so that they will not interfere with the cutting
action.

Parting Tool
Turning Tool
Chamfe
Right Hand Turning Tool Threading Tool
Left Hand Turning Tool Radius Tool

Figure 1.1 : Various Types of Tool Bit Grinds

Work holding devices such as jigs and fixtures are used for holding the workpiece.
Jig is workpiece holding and locating device that positions and guides or controls
a cutting tool. Drill jig makes it possible to drill, ream and tap hole at faster speed
and with great accuracy as compared to that of conventional hand methods.
Fixture is workpiece locating and holding device used with machine tools,
inspection, welding and assembly. Fixture takes care of accuracy of workpiece to
be machined and operators fatigue is also taken care by fixture itself. Fixture is
always fixed to machine or bench. Table 1.1 shows the historical development of
materials and manufacturing processes.
Table 1.1 : Historical Development of Machine Tools and Related Devices
Period Tools, Tool Materials and Machining
Before 4000 BC Tools of stone, flint, wood, bone, ivory

4000 - 3000 Corundum

3000 - 2000 Hole making, hammered axes, tools for iron making and carpentry

2000 -1000 No significant development

1000 -1BC Improved chisel, saws, files, wood working lathes

AD 1-1000 Etching of armor

1000 -1500 Sand paper, wind mill driven saw

1500 – 1600 Boring, turning, screw cutting lathe, drill press

1600 – 1700 Hand lathe (wood)

1700 – 1800 Shaping, milling, copying, lathe for gunstocks, turret lathe,
universal milling machine, vitrified grinding wheel

1800 – 1900 Geared lathe, automatic screw machine, hobbing, HSS tools, Al2O3
and silicon carbide (synthetic)

1900 – 1920 Tungsten carbide, mass production, transfer machine

1920 – 1940 No significant development

1940 – 1950 No significant development

1950 – 1960 Electrical and chemical machining, automatic control

1960 – 1970 Titanium carbide, synthetic diamond, numeric control

1970 – 1980 CBN, coated tools, CIM, adaptive control, industrial robots, FMS,
unmanned factory

6
 Introduction to Tool
1.3 ELEMENTS IN TOOL ENGINEERING Engineering and
Management
The basic elements of tool engineering are single point cutting tool and multiple point
cutting tool.
1.3.1 Single Point Cutting Tool
The cutting tool, which has only one cutting edge, is termed as single point cutting tool.
Single point cutting tools are generally used while performing turning, boring, shaping
and planing operation. The important elements in single point cutting tools are rake
angle, principle cutting edge, nose etc.
Types of single point tools are as follows :
(a) Solid type tool bit
(b) Brazed tip tool
(c) Long indexable insert tool
(d) Throwaway indexable insert tool
Solid Type Tool Bit
It is made up of same material as that of the tool. Solid tools are ground to the
required geometry by machine operator. They are also used for special ground
form tools since material is easier to grind the special shapes. They may be
mounted on the machine tool directly in the tool post. Smaller size solid bit are
usually held in tool holder. This type of tool is tipped up to an angle from 15° to
20°. High speed steel and cast alloy tools are commonly categorized into solid
type. The material used in solid bit is relatively cheaper than others.
Brazed Tip Tool
These have the cutting insert held in tool shank by silver brazing, i.e. soldering.
Tungsten carbide is generally used as a material for brazed tip tools. Torch or gas
burners, and induction heating are used for brazing carbide tips of tool. In all these
three methods, a pocket is machined in the shank material to fit the shape of
carbide insert. Induction heating is used by large industries to produce it in large
quantity. Torch method is used by small industries or limited production. The main
advantage of induction heating is the localized heat generated with tool shank and
carbide tool. Also it is faster than torch and gas burner method. Brazed tool is
having lower cost. Also, it doesn’t occupy much space.
Long Indexable Insert Tool
It consists of mechanical tool holder and an indexable insert with top and bottom
that can be reground to correct geometry. Regrinding is done by grinding the ends
of inserts normal to the side only enough to clean up the cutting edge. Inserts are
available in square, rectangular, diamond, round, triangular shapes.
Throwaway or Disposable Insert Tool
It refers to the cutting tool insert, which is mechanically held in the tool holder.
The inserts are used depending upon the shape and insert geometry. Inserts have
number of cutting edges that can be indexed into position. When all the cutting
edges are used, the insert is discarded and not resharpened. This process eliminates
the tool grinding requirement. Inserts are available in triangular, square, round,
diamond, parallelogram and button shapes.
1.3.2 Multi Point Cutting Tool
A cutting tool which has more than one cutting edge is multi point cutting tool. Multi
point cutting tools are generally used while performing drilling, milling, broaching,
grinding etc. Important elements are cutting edge, helix angle, the number of teeth. The
cutting edge is the only element that comes in direct contact with the work. The axial
7
Fundamentals of CIM angle corresponds to side rake angle in single point tool and similar angle with respect to
the cutting axis, i.e. the radial angle is same as the back rake angle.
In case of straight tooth milling cutter, a sudden change in tooth load occurs when the
chip drops off as the tooth leaves the work. This type of force formation is responsible
for chatter formation. Much smoother operation is obtained when more than one tooth
cut at the same time. This happens particularly when the cutting edge length is gradually
changing as in helical cutters.
SAQ 1
(a) What are the different types of single point cutting tool?
(b) Differentiate between brazed tip tool and long indexable insert tool.
(c) What are the different operations that can be performed by multi point
cutting tool?
(d) Discuss about the functions of jig and fixture.

1.4 TYPES OF MACHINE TOOLS

Machine tools are classified as follows :
General Purpose Machine Tool
The machine tool that is able to perform all the metal cutting operations within
their range of operation is called as general purpose machine tool. These are also
called basic machine tool.
Examples of general purpose machine tools are engine lathe, drilling machine,
milling machine, boring machine, grinding machine, shaping and planing machine
etc.
General purpose machine tools are further classified in accordance with surface
produced and are as follows :
For Cylindrical Work
Centre lathe, bar turret lathe, capstan lathe, boring machine, cylindrical
grinder etc.
For Surface Work
By Reciprocating Motion : Planing, shaping, slotting and broaching
machines etc.
By Rotary and Translatory Motion : Milling machine, surface grinding
machine, lathe etc.
For Producing or Enlarging Hole
Lathes, drilling machine, boring machine, honing machine, broaching
machine etc.
For Gear Cutting
Milling machine, Rack cutter and pinion cutter machine, hobbing machine
etc.
For Thread Cutting
Lathe screw cutting machine, tapping, thread milling, thread grinding,
thread rolling machine etc.
Production Machine Tools
8
 Production machine tools are capable of enhancing the rate of production and Introduction to Tool
reducing the manufacturing cost as well. Engineering and
Management
Examples of production machine tools are multiple tool lathe, multiple head
drilling machine, capstan and turret lathe, automatic screw machine,
semi-automatic lathe, production milling machine etc.
Special Purpose Machine Tool
The machine tools that are able to perform machining of large quantity of same
products are classified as special purpose machine tools. These types of machines
are quite important in reducing manufacturing cost when relative jobs are
performed continuously. Examples of special purpose machine tools are piston
turning lathe, camshaft grinder, gear generator, form tool etc.
SAQ 2
(a) What are the different types of machine tool?
(b) Discuss about special purpose machine tool.
(c) Define general purpose machine tool.

1.5 OPERATIONAL ISSUES IN TOOL ENGINEERING

The different kinds of operations performed by a cutting tool are given as follows:
Facing
Facing is carried out on lathe machine. Facing generates flat surface, normal to the
axis of rotation by feeding the tool from the surface towards the centre or outward
from the centre. In facing, the depth of cut is measured in direction parallel to the
axis and feed in a radial direction. The cutting speed in this operation varies
continuously, i.e. approaching zero towards the centre of the bar.
Turning
Turning is also carried out on lathe. The tool is held rigidly in a tool post and
moved at a constant rate along the axis of the bar, cutting away the layer of
material to form a cylinder or a surface of more complex profile. Figure 1.2 shows
principle of turning operation.

Depth of Cut

Chip

Held in Chuck f, Feed Rate

Workpiece
Cutting Speed

Cutting Tool Insert Tool Holder

Figure 1.2 : Lathe Turning

Drilling
9
Fundamentals of CIM It is carried out on drilling machine as well as on the lathe. Twist drill is commonly
used for drilling operations. Drilling is the operation through which holes are
produced. Essential feature of drilling is the variation in cutting speed along the
cutting edge. The speed is maximum at the periphery that generates cylindrical
surface and approaches zero near centerline of drill. There are only even numbers
of tooth on twist drill for balancing purpose. Figure 1.3 depicts the nomenclature
of twist drills.

Figure 1.3 : Twist Drill

Drilling Time Estimation

The cutting speed in the drilling operation is given by following equation
π DN
V = . . . (1.1)
1000
where, V = cutting speed, m/min
D = diameter of the twist drill, mm
N = rotational speed of the drill, rev/min
The drill will have to approach the start of the hole from a distance say, AI, and
also traverse beyond the actual hole by a distance termed as the total approach
allowance (A). Generally, AI is taken as 2 to 3 mm. Total approach distance is
given by
D
A= tan γ . . . (1.2)
2
where, γ = 59o in common case
D
So, A=
3.3286
Total length of tool travel
L = (l + A + 2) mm . . . (1.3)
where, l = length of hole
L
Thus, time for drilling the hole = *
. . . (1.4)
( f N)
where, f = feed rate in mm/rev.
Example 1.1
A hole of 20 mm diameter and 50 mm depth is to be drilled in a mild steel
component. The cutting speed can be taken as 60 m/min and the feed rate as
0.25 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time.
Solution
10
 Given V = 60 m/min Introduction to Tool
Engineering and
f = 0.25 mm/rev Management

D = 20 mm
L = 50 mm
1000 × 60
Spindle speed, N =
π × 20

= 955 rev/min
20
Total approach distance, A = tan 59
2
= 6 mm
Total length of drill travel = 50 + 6 + 3 = 59 mm
59
Time for the drilling the hole =
0.25 × 955

= 0.247 minutes.
Reaming
It is similar to drilling operation. It is basically used for finishing of holes and
enlarging of small holes. Reaming is carried out by the reamer, which has large
number of flutes.
Boring
Boring is used to enlarge already produced hole or bore hole. It is carried out on
boring machine.
Trippaning
Trippaning is the operation carried out to produce large hole without drilling. It is
carried out by trippaning tool. Trippaning tool is hollow drill bit. It has only
disadvantage that it only produces through hole and not used for blind hole. The
trippaning tool is portrayed in Figure 1.4. The function of tripanning tool is same
as that of drill but only difference is that it produces the hole thoroughly.

Figure 1.4 : Trippaning Tool

Broaching
Broaching is the operation performed to enlarge hole especially, non-circular hole.
It is carried out by broach tool. As a pre requirement, there must be an initial hole.
Broach tool has multiple traverse cutting edges. Each successive cutting edge
removes a layer of material giving steady approach to required final shape. The
shape produced may be flat surfaces but more often, they are holes of various
forms of grooved components such as the teeth of gear. Cutting speed and feed are
kept low in this operation. Also adequate lubrication is required during operation.
Milling
11
Fundamentals of CIM The removing of metal by advancing a workpiece against a rotating multiple point
tool is known as Milling. Milling operation is generally divided into 2 types :
(a) Slab Milling
(b) Face Milling
Slab Milling
Producing the slot on the surface of workpiece is called slab milling
operation. The geometry of the chip generated by slab milling depends upon
the path followed by the cutting edge. The milling cutter rotates at uniform
velocity and the workpiece feed linearly under the cutting edge. As a result
the tip of the cutting tool traces a trochoid.
Feed Per Tooth

O′ O
B′
B
φc
φ C
d Tool Tooth

Figure 1.5 : Slab Milling

In the up milling operation the chip starts with zero thickness at A and
reaches the maximum thickness at B′. The length of the chip AB′ in case of
up milling is given by
D φc f d (D − d )
AB′ = + . . . (1.5)
2 πD
In case of down milling, the chip length is given by
D φc f d (D − d )
AB′ = + . . . (1.6)
2 πD
The difference in the chip length is relatively small and depends upon the
increase in feed rate.
Example 1.2
A 100 mm diameter cutter having 8 teeth cuts steel at 20 m/min. the depth of cut is
taken as 4 mm and the table feed rate is 150 mm/min. Find the length of the chip in
up milling operation.
Solution
(1000 × 20)
Spindle speed =
(π × 100)
= 63.66 rev/min
150
Feed rate of the cutter =
63.66
= 2.35 mm/rev.
⎡ (50 − 4) ⎤
Tooth contact angle φ = cos −1 ⎢ ⎥
12 ⎣ 50 ⎦
 = 23.074 degree = 0.406 radians. Introduction to Tool
Engineering and
In up milling, the chip length is Management

100 × 0.403 1.57 4(100 × 4)

AB′ = +
2 π × 100
= 20.2479 mm.
Face Milling
Removal of thin layer of material from flat workpiece is called face milling
operation. In order to arrive at chip thickness, we have considered
Figure 1.6 where the top view of face milling is shown. It is again assumed
here that the face mill is located symmetrically above the workpiece to
simplify the analysis.
Feed Per Tooth

W= Width of Job
D = Diameter of
Cutter

φc O′ O

W D
φ

Figure 1.6 : Cross-section for the Chip Produced by Milling using

a Face Milling Cutter with Symmetrical Cut

The tooth angle, φc, in case of face milling is given by

⎛W ⎞
⎜ ⎟ W
sin φc = ⎝ ⎠ =
2
. . . (1.7)
⎛ ⎞ D
D
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
The chip thickness at any section is given by
tx = ft Sin φ . . . (1.8)
where, ft = feed per tooth.
The smallest chip thickness is at the edge of the workpiece while the
maximum is at the centre of the workpiece. The angle at the minimum chip
thickness is
π φc
φ= − . . . (1.9)
2 2
Hence, tmin = ft cos φc
Similarly, tmax = ft
Example 1.3

13
Fundamentals of CIM A 100 mm diameter cutter having 8 teeth cuts steel bar with a width 80 mm and
feed rate160 mm/min. The depth of cut is taken as 4 mm. Find the minimum and
maximum chip thickness in face milling operation.
Solution
The tooth angle φc in case of face milling is given by
W 80
sin φc = = = 0.8
D 100
φc = 53.13 degrees = 0.927 radians
Feed rate per tooth, ft = 160/8 = 20 mm/min
tmin = ft cos φc = 20 − 0.6 = 12 mm
tmax = ft = 20 mm.
Shaping Operation
Shaping is the machining operation used to produce flat surfaces. It is carried out
by shaper. In shaping operation, workpiece is kept stationary while the cutting tool
is given a reciprocating motion. The cutting action takes place during forward
stroke only while the return stroke is made idle to avoid damage to tool and
workpiece. To reduce machining time, the return stroke has higher velocity than
forward stroke. This is achieved by Whitworth Quick Return motion mechanism.
In shaping operation, velocity is maximum at the middle of the return stroke and is
minimum at the beginning of forward stroke. Figure 1.7 shows principle of
shaping operation.

Quick Return
Direction Tool
Machined Surface

Feed
Chip
Workpiece

Figure 1.7 : Shaping Operation

Planing is similar to shaping operation. Only difference being that the tool is
stationary and workpiece is reciprocating to achieve the cutting. It is used for
producing flat surfaces on workpiece that are too large.
Slotting
Slotting is also similar to shaping. It is carried out by slotting machine. Slotting
machine is generally vertical shaper. Slotting machine has vertical ram to slot
holes, keyways and grooves.
Grinding
It is a machining operation in which a multi-edged rotating abrasive tool called
grinding wheel removes excess material from translatory workpiece (i.e. Surface
Grinding) or a rotating workpiece (i.e. Cylindrical Grinding). Nature of relative
motion of various cutting operations is explained in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 : Nature of Relative Motion of Various Cutting Operations

14
 Operation Motion of Job Motion of Cutting Tool Introduction to Tool
Engineering and
Turning Rotary Translation Management
Shaping Intermittent Translation Translation
Planing Translatory Intermittent Translation
Drilling Fixed Rotation, Translatory
Boring Forward Translation Rotation
Milling Translatory Rotation
Hobbing Rotation Rotation and translation
Surface Grinding Translation Rotation

Hobbing
Hobbing is a process to produce gear. It is a machining operation, which is carried
out by hob. Hob is used to produce tooth and other profiles such as helical gear,
worm gear, spline shaft, spur gear (external) etc.
Forming and Parting Off
Forming operation involves the formation of complex profile on the workpiece by
using tool with the cutting edge of required profile. It is carried out by form tool.
Form tool is fed into the peripheral surface of the bar in a radial direction and
categorized as a special purpose tool.
Honing
Honing is a fine finishing operation. In honing operation, rotating and
reciprocating bonded abrasive sticks, and slowly abrades the workpiece to the
desired finish and accuracy.
Lapping
Lapping is also fine finishing operation. In this, laps are made of metal that is
softer than the workpiece and it lightly rubs the abrasive particles against the
workpiece. Figure 1.8 shows the principle of lapping.

Upper Lap

Lower Lap

Figure 1.8 : Principle of Lapping Operation

Superfinishing
Superfinishing is also the fine finishing operation in which, a fairly large, boned
abrasive stone, is kept pressing lightly against rotating workpiece. The workpiece
is given a reciprocating motion in axial direction. Generally, flat surfaces are
finished by superfinishing operation.
Blanking
In blanking operation, a punch cuts through unprocessed workpiece and striped
metal can be treated as scrap. Blanking operation results in a formation of a blank.
Blanking is done by shearing and tearing operation. Principle of blanking
operation is illustrated in Figure 1.9. 15
Fundamentals of CIM Piercing
Piercing is a machining operation in which, a punch cuts through unprocessed
workpiece and the resulting slug (i.e. blank) is treated as scrap. Piercing results a
hole in workpiece. Piercing is done by shearing and tearing operation. Principle of
piercing operation is also illustrated in Figure 1.9.

Punch

Hole

Blanking Piercing

Blank

Figure 1.9 : Principle of Blanking and Piercing Operation

Lancing
This is combined bending and cutting operation along the line in a work material.
The punch is designed to cut two or three sides and bend along the fourth side.
Figure 1.10 shows the principle of lancing operation.

Punch

Figure 1.10 : Principle of Lancing Operation

Cutting Off and Parting

A cut-off operation separates the work material along a straight line in a single line
cut. It is used to separate the workpiece from the scrap strip and is also used to
break the scrap strip skeleton as it leaves the die, enabling it easier to handle.
When the operation separates the work material along the straight line in double
line cut, it is called parting operation. Parting is used to separate the workpiece
from the scrap strip.
Notching
The operation which removes material from either or both edges of strip are called
notching. Notching is used to shape the outer counter of workpiece in a
progressive die. It also removes excess material before drawing or forming
operation in a progressive die. Figure 1.11 depicts the principle of parting and
notching operations.

Perforating

16
 Introduction to Tool
Engineering and
Management

Figure 1.11 : Various Sheet Working Operations

Shaving
The operation in which the surface of previously cut edge is finished smoothly to
accurate dimension is called shaving. Shaving is a secondary operation as it is
usually done after punching. Figure 1.12 illustrates the principle of shaving
operation.

Edge after
Blanking

Figure .12 : Principle of Shaving Operation

Trimming
In trimming, the distorted excess material is removed from drawn shapes and it
results in smoothing the edge obtained after blanking operation.
Nibbling
In nibbling, a machine called nibbler moves a straight punch up and down rapidly
into a die. The sheet metal is fed through the gap and a number of overlapping
holes are made. This operation is similar to making a large elongated hole by
successfully punching holes with a taper punch. Sheet can be cut along any desired
path by manual control. This process is economical for small production. This
process is useful for making complex contour.
SAQ 3
(a) What are the various types of single point cutting tools? Discuss in detail.
(b) Explain the various types of machine tools.
(c) Differentiate between following :
(i) Facing and Turning
(ii) Drilling and Trippaning
(iii) Broaching and Milling
(iv) Blanking and Punching
(v) Notching and Shaving

17
Fundamentals of CIM
1.6 SUMMARY
Tool engineering includes metal cutting, pressing, and various work holding devices.
Metal cutting is commonly associated with industries like automotive, aerospace, home
appliance etc. Cutting tool involves single point cutting tool and multipoint cutting tool.
The various types of single point cutting tools such as solid type tool bit, brazed tip tool,
long indexable insert, and throwaway indexable inserts are used as per requirement.
Machine tools are classified as general purpose, production and special purpose machine
tools. Various operations such as facing, turning, drilling, planing, shaping, milling,
boring, grinding are discussed in this unit. Various fine finishing operations are also
explained in this unit.

1.7 KEY WORDS

Jigs : Jig is workpiece holding and locating device that
positions and guides or controls a cutting tool.
Fixtures : Fixture is workpiece locating and holding device
used with machine tools, inspection, welding and
assembly.
Total Approach Allowance : Distance travelled by tool in drilling operation
beyond the actual hole is termed as the total
approach allowance.

18
 Design of Single
UNIT 2 DESIGN OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING Point Cutting Tools

TOOLS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives

2.2 Design of Tool Shank

2.3 Design of Tool Geometry
2.3.1 Basic Elements
2.3.2 Influence of Various Angles on Tool Design

2.4 Selection of Tool Material

2.4.1 Desirable Properties of Tool Material
2.4.2 Characteristics of Some Important Tool Material

2.5 Calculation of Forces and Design for Cutting Forces

2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Design of single point cutting tool is an important aspect of tool engineering. This unit
deals with the design of tool shank, design of single point cutting tool, and various forces
involved during machining of the workpiece. Strength and rigidity of tool is also taken
into account while designing single point cutting tool.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• design tool shank,
• design single point cutting tool,
• select appropriate tool material, and
• calculate and analyze the forces acting on tool.

2.2 DESIGN OF TOOL SHANK

The shank of a cutting tool is generally analyzed for strength and rigidity. Tool is
assumed to be loaded as a cantilever by tool forces at the cutting edge as shown in
Figure 2.1.
F

L0
B
Lc

Figure 2.1 : Forces Acting on Tool Shank

19
Design of Cutting
Tools and Holding
Devices

Figure 2.2 : Deflections and Frequency of Chatter for Several Overhung Values

The notations used in design of shank is given below :

F = Permissible tangential force during machining, N
f = Chatter frequency, cycle per second (c.p.s)
H = Depth of shank, mm
B = Width of shank, mm
L0 = Length of overhung, mm
d = Deflection of shank, mm
E = Young’s modulus of material, N/mm2
I = Moment of inertia, mm4
hc = Height of centres, mm
σut = Ultimate tensile strength, N/mm2
σper = Permissible stress of shank material, N/mm2
Lc = Length of centres, mm
The main design criterion for shank size is rigidity. The deflection at the cutting edge is
limited to a certain value depending on the size of machine, cutting conditions and tool
overhung. The tool overhung (L0) is related also to the shank size as well as to the end
support conditions. Figure 2.2 shows graph of the amplitude and frequency of chatter for
several overhung values. It is seen from Figure 2.2 that only below L0/H = 2, the
amplitude is practically zero. The recommended value of (L0/H) lies between 1.2 and 2.
For the given value of chatter frequency f, the shank deflection can be calculated from
the (Eq. 2.1) given as follows.
(15.76)
f = c.p.s. . . . (2.1)
d
where, d is deflection in mm.
Now as chatter frequency ranges from 80 to 160 c.p.s.,
Let f = 100 c.p.s
d = (15.76/100)2 ≅ 0.025 mm . . . (2.2)
20
The permissible deflection of shanks ranges from 0.025 mm for finish cuts to 0.9 mm for Design of Single
rough cuts. Considering shank as a cantilever, Point Cutting Tools

FL30
d=
3EI
FL30 ⎛ 12 ⎞ 4 FL30
d= ⎜ ⎟ = . . . (2.3)
3E ⎝ BH 3 ⎠ EBH 3
= 0.025 mm
It can be noted that the same value of d has been obtained from Eq. (2.2) also.
The shank size can be estimated with respect to machine tool size by the following
method :
(a) The force F for given size of lathe is given by
F= f × t × C
where, f is the feed in mm,
t is the depth of cut in mm, and
C is cutting force constant.
(b) Nicolsons Manchester experiments have set a standard area of cut for lathe
design given by
Ac = f × t
Let, f = hc/180 mm and t = hc/25 mm
h h
Ac = c × c
180 25

hc2
= mm2
4500
where, hc is height of centre in mm,
Let, σut = 440 N/mm2
C = 4σut
= 4 × 400 = 1760 N/mm2

hc2
When F= mm 2 × 1760 N/mm 2
4500

= 0.4 hc2 N

On substituting the value of F = 0.4hc2 in Eq. (2.3), we get

4(0.4 hc2 ) L30

d=
EBH 3

4(0.4 hc2 ) L30

0.025 =
EBH 3
As, d = 0.025 from Eq. (2.2). Thus,

(1.6 hc2 ) L30

=
EBH 3
B = 0.6 H for rectangular shanks
21
Design of Cutting
hc2 ED
Tools and Holding Then, 4
= 0.6
Devices H L03

Let L0 = 3 mm, E = 200 kN/mm2

and d = 0.025 mm, (From Eq. (2.2))

hc2 ED
On substituting these values in above equation, i.e. 4
= 0.6 , we get
H L03

hc2
4
= 1000 mm− 2
H
Table 2.1 shows the standard shank size according to this rule.
Table 2.1
Height of Centres Shank Size
hc (mm)
H (mm) B (mm)

250 20 12

300 30 20

350 40 25

Usually the shank size is also checked for strength.

1
Noting, FL0 = BH 2 σ1
6
6FL0
∴ σ1 =
BH 2
When the effect of Fx included,
6 FL0 L0
σ = σ1 + σ2 = + 6 Fx . . . (2.4)
BH 2 HB 2
Fx = Component of force F acting in x direction (in Newton)
Fx = 0.3 to 0.40 F

6 FL0 ⎛ 0.4 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Hence, σ= ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ < σper . . . (2.5)
BH ⎝ B ⎠ ⎝ H ⎠
This can be expressed as

⎧ ⎫
⎪⎪ BH ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎪⎪ σper
F =⎨ + ⎜ ⎟⎬ . . . (2.6)
⎪ ⎛⎜ 0.4 ⎞⎟ ⎝ H ⎠ ⎪ 6 L0
⎪⎩ ⎝ B ⎠ ⎪⎭

where, F is permissible tangential force during machining.

The maximum depth of shank (Hmax) must be less than the value hk as shown
in Table 2.2.

22 Table 2.2
 hk (mm) 11 14 22 28 45 56 Design of Single
Point Cutting Tools
Hmax(mm) 10 12 20 25 40 50

SAQ 1
(a) Which parameters are considered for designing tool shank?
(b) How one can design tool shank?

2.3 DESIGN OF TOOL GEOMETRY

2.3.1 Basic Elements
The basic elements of tool are shown in Figure 2.3.
Error!

Tool Point
End Cutting Edge

Nose Ce
Radius

Face
Cs

Side Cutting Edge

αs
αb
θe Shank
Lip Angle

Flank

θs Heel Cutting Angle Base

Figure 2.3 : Single Point Cutting Tool

Symbol used in figure are :

αb – Back rake angle
αs – Side rake angle
θe – End relief angle
θs – Side relief angle
Ce – End cutting edge angle
Cs – Side cutting edge angle
Size
It is determined by the width of shank, height of shank and overall length.
Shank
Shank is main body of a tool. It is held in a holder. 23
Design of Cutting Flank
Tools and Holding
Devices Flank is the surface or surfaces below and adjacent to cutting edge.
Heel
Heel is intersection of the flank and base of the tool.
Base
Base is the bottom part of the shank. It takes the tangential force of cutting.
Face
Face is surface of tool on which chip impinges when separated from workpiece.
Cutting Edge
Cutting edge is the edge of that face which separates chip from the workpiece. The
total cutting edge consists of side cutting edge, the nose and end cutting edge.
Tool Point
That part of tool, which is shaped to produce the cutting edge and the face.
The Nose
It is the intersection of side cutting edge and end cutting edge.
Neck
Neck is the small cross section behind the point.
Side Cutting Edge Angle
The angle between side cutting edge and side of the tool shank is called side
cutting edge angle. It is also called as lead angle or principle cutting angle.
End Cutting Edge Angle
The angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the shank of
tool is called end cutting edge angle.
Side Relief Angle
The angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side cutting
edge and line perpendicular to the base of tool measured at right angles to the side
flank is known as side relief angle. It is the angle that prevents interference, as the
tool enters the work material.
End Relief Angle
End relief angle is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately
below the end cutting edge and the line perpendicular to the base of tool, measured
at right angles to end flank. It is the angle that allows the tool to cut without
rubbing on the workpiece.
Back Rake Angle
The angle between face of the tool and a line parallel with the base of the tool,
measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge is called back rake
angle. It is the angle which measures the slope of the face of the tool from the nose
toward the rear. If the slope is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake
angle. And if the slope is downward from the nose, it is positive back rake angle. If
there is not any slope, back rake angle is zero.
Side Rake Angle

24
 The angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with the base of the tool, Design of Single
measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and side cutting edge is called side Point Cutting Tools
rake angle. It is the angle that measures the slope of the tool face from cutting
edge. If the slope is towards the cutting edge, it is negative side rake angle. If the
slope is away from the cutting edge, it is positive side rake angle.
All the tool angles are taken with reference to the cutting edge and are, therefore,
normal to the cutting edge. A convenient way to specify tool angle is by use of a
standardized abbreviated system called tool signature. Sometimes it is also called
as tool character. Tool signature also describes how the tool is positioned in
relation to the workpiece.
The signature for single point tool is listed in the order as rake angles (back and side),
relief angles (end and side), cutting edge angles (end and side) and nose radius.
Example 2.1
Tool signature of High speed steel tool: 0-7-7-7-15-15-0.5
Solution
This implies that HSS tool has
Back rake angle = 0°,
Side rake angle = 7°,
End relief angle = 7°,
Side relief angle = 7°,
End cutting edge angle = 15°,
Side cutting edge angle = 15°, and
Nose radius = 0.5 mm.
2.3.2 Influence of Various Angles on Tool Design
Back Rake Angle
The rake angle of single point cutting tool is useful in determining the direction of
chip flow across the face of the tool.
(a) A positive back rake angle is responsible to move the chip away from
the machined workpiece surface.
(b) The tool penetrates the workpiece easily and tends to shear the
material off rather than compressing. So the cutting efficiency is best
with positive back rake angle.
(c) Forces and power consumption reduces with increase in positive back
rake angle.
(d) If positive back rake angle increases, resisting area of tool decreases.
Generally, for softer workpiece, back rake angle of 25° to 30° is preferable and for harder
workpiece back rake angle of 7° to 10° is preferable. Negative back rake angle is
preferable for carbide tool. Carbide tools are very brittle in nature, so deformation occurs
if we provide positive back rake angle. To avoid deformation, negative back rake angle is
provided.
Positive back rake angle is used for machining low tensile strength and non ferrous
materials. They are also used during machining of long/small diameter shafts or material
that is work hardened during machining. Negative back rake angles are used for
machining high tensile strength material, heavy feed and interrupted cuts.
Side Rake Angle 25
Design of Cutting Side rake angle should be positive. The significance of side rake angle is that it is
Tools and Holding used to avoid rubbing action between tool and workpiece.
Devices
Relief Angle
The main significance of relief angle is that it prevents rubbing action below
cutting edge. Small relief angle gives maximum support below the cutting edge
and is necessary while machining hard and strong workpiece. Too much relief
angle weakens the cutting edge and failure of tool may takes place. Relief angles
generally lie between 5° to 15°.
Side Cutting Edge Angle
It may vary from 0 to 90°. On increasing side cutting edge angle, the full length of
cutting edge is not in contact with workpiece when the tool enters the cut. The tool
takes a little shock load and gradually reaches the full depth of cut without any
impact.
If side cutting edge angle is 0°, the full length of cutting edge is in touch with
workpiece at once and produces severe initial shock. If side cutting edge angle is
less, forces on tool will reduce as a result of which less power consumption occur.
Also with increase in side cutting edge angle, surface finish increases and
vice-versa.
End Cutting Edge Angle
End cutting edge angle vary from 4° to 30°. End cutting edge angle prevents
rubbing between the end of the tool and the workpiece. If end cutting edge angle is
less, it will cause vibration because of excessive tool contact with workpiece. With
end cutting edge angle, surface finish decreases and vice-versa.
Nose Radius
Nose radius is provided to increase strength of tip of the tool. This is done by
thinning the chip where it approaches tip of tool and by enlarging the chip over a
larger area of the point. It is also provided to increase the surface finish. If the
radius is more, the surface finish will be good. But due to too large nose radius,
contact between tool and workpiece increases, which in turn increase friction.
Thus, power consumption increases, along with increase in vibration and chatter
occurs.
SAQ 2
(a) Define the basic elements of tool geometry.
(b) What do you understand by tool signature? Illustrate with an example.
(c) How back rake angle influences the tool design?

2.4 SELECTION OF TOOL MATERIAL

The tool engineer is required to select material for variety of products such as cutting
tools, jigs, punches, dies, special machine etc. A tool engineer must possess the
knowledge of these materials and understand their properties. In addition, the various
aspects of tooling, material cost, fabrication, manufacturing methods and the proper
functioning of product should be considered.
2.4.1 Desirable Properties of Tool Material
The desirable properties of tool material are as follows :
Wear Resistance
26
 Wear resistance should be as high as possible. Wear of tool is caused by abrasion, Design of Single
adhesion and diffusion. Wear resistance refers to the ability of tool material to Point Cutting Tools
retain its sharpness and shape for longer duration while machining is continued.
Hot Hardness
It is the measure of the ability of tool material to retain its hardness at high
temperature. Hot hardness should be as high as possible especially at high
temperature.
Toughness
It is the ability of material to absorb energy and deform plastically before failure
and fracture. Tougher the material more is the ability to withstand external load,
impact and intermittent cuts. Hence, toughness should be as high as possible.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Coefficient of thermal expansion determines the influence of thermal stresses and
thermal shocks on a material. It should be as low as possible so that tool does not
get distorted after heat treatment, and remains easy to regrind and also easy to weld
to the tool holder. Carbide have lower coefficient of thermal expansion than high
speed steel and they develop lower thermal stress but are more sensitive to thermal
shock because of their brittleness.
Hardness
It is the ability of material to resist the penetration, scratching, abrasion or cutting.
Hardness of tool material should be as high as possible. Generally it should be
higher than workpiece.
Thermal Conductivity
It should be as high as possible with a view to remove the heat quickly from chip
tool interface.
2.4.2 Characteristics of Some Important Tool Material
Following are the tool materials in increasing order of their hardness :
High Carbon Steel
These are usually plain carbon steel containing 0.6 to 1.5 % C. Method of
fabrication for High Carbon Steel (HCS) is forging. HCS has hot hardness
temperature of about 250°C. Also, its maximum cutting velocity is about 5 m/min.
Hence, HCS is generally used for machining soft materials like aluminum, copper,
magnesium etc. HCS is harder and the cheapest tool material.
High Speed Steel
High Speed Steel (HSS) is usually carbon steel containing 1.5 to 2% carbon, 18 %
tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium and rest is iron. Tungsten is added to
increase hardness. Chromium is added to increase hot hardness. Vanadium is
added to increase wear resistance. Method of fabrication for HSS is forging.
Cutting velocity of HSS is 40-60 m/min. It gives higher speed than HCS. Hot
hardness temperature of HSS is about 600°C.
Sometimes 18% molybdenum is added instead of tungsten to increase the wear
resistance of tool. Then this HSS is called as molybdenum based HSS. But
tungsten based HSS is commonly used. HSS has only disadvantage that during
machining of pure carbon work material, diffusion of carbon atoms into iron is
much more because iron has stronger affinity to attract carbon.
Stellite
These are non-ferrous cast alloys. Stellite contains 40-45% cobalt, 30% chromium,
14-25% tungsten and 2% carbon. Method of fabrication for stellite is casting. Its
27
Design of Cutting hot hardness temperature is about 800°C. Its hardness is same as that of HSS. It is
Tools and Holding a substitute for HSS during machining of pure carbon work material.
Devices
Carbide
Carbides are either tungsten carbide or cemented carbide. It contains 85-95%
tungsten carbide and 5-15% cobalt. Hot hardness temperature of carbide materials
is about 1000°C, and its cutting speed is 10 times greater than HSS. Since the cost
is high, hence only tip is made by carbide, and regrinding is also not possible.
Fabrication for carbide is carried out by employing powder metallurgical
techniques.
Ceramics
These are also called as cemented oxide. Its major constituent is aluminum oxide
and hot hardness temperature is about 1200°C. It also has higher cutting speed of
about 300 to 400 m/min. It has better resistance to abrasion than cemented carbide.
It also exhibits low coefficient of friction with most of work materials. These are
used for higher production rate and for continuous operation only. The
disadvantages of ceramic are very low toughness and highly brittle in nature.
Fabrication for ceramic is done through powder metallurgical techniques.
Cermets
This is combination of ceramic and metal. It is substitute for ceramics. It contains
90% ceramics and 10% nickel. The method employed for fabrication of cermet is
also powder metallurgical technique. Its hot hardness temperature is about 1000°C
and cutting speed is about 250 m/min. Cermet gives better toughness than ceramic.
It gives very good wear resistance.
Diamond
Diamond possesses all the desirable characteristics but has very high cost.
Diamond is made by graphitization technique. Its hot hardness temperature is
about 2000°C. Its hardness is higher than any other material. It is chemically inert
and has high thermal conductivity. Its cutting speed is about 500 m/min. Diamond
is extensively used for machining of non-ferrous alloys such as aluminum,
magnesium, copper, brass etc. Diamond is not used for machining of ferrous
material because diamond is basically pure carbon and diffusion of carbon into
iron takes place due to affinity of iron atoms toward carbon.
Cubic Boron Nitride
Cubic Boron Nitride consists of atoms of boron and nitrogen. It is hardest material
next to diamond. It is substitute for diamond during machining of ferrous alloys. It
has high hardness and thermal conductivity.
UCON
It is combination of columbium, titanium and tungsten. It contains 50%
columbium, 30% titanium and 20% tungsten. Method of fabrication is rolling. Its
hardness is 2500 to 3000 Vickers. The speed range for UCON is 250 to 500 m/min
of steel of 200 BHN. Cost of UCON is higher than diamond and is used only for
very hard material. It has excellent shock resistance, resistance to diffusion and
adhesion wear.
Sialon
It contains silicon, aluminum, oxygen and nitrogen. It is even costlier than ucon.
Sialon is used during machining of interrupted cuts. Sialon tips are used for
machining of aerospace alloys.
SAQ 3
(a) What are the desirable properties of tool material? Discuss their effects also.
(b) State some of the important characteristics of following tool material.
28
 (i) High carbon steel Design of Single
Point Cutting Tools
(ii) High speed steel
(iii) Stellite
(iv) Carbide
(v) Ceramics
(vi) Cermets

2.5 CALCULATION OF FORCES AND DESIGN FOR

CUTTING FORCES
The forces acting on the tool are an important aspect of machining. The knowledge of
force is required for determination of power and also to design the various elements of
machine tool, tool holders and fixtures.
The cutting forces vary with the tool angle and accurate measurement of forces is useful
in optimizing tool design. Dynamometers are capable of measuring tool forces with
increasing accuracy. The component of forces acting on the rake face of tool, normal to
the cutting edge is called cutting force, i.e. in the direction of line YO in Figure 2.4.
Y
Y

Fc, Cutting Force

Ft, Feed Force X

X

ZZ

Figure 2.4 : Forces Acting on the Workpiece

Cutting force Fc, is largest of three forces acting on workpiece and its direction is in the
direction of cutting velocity.
The force component acting on tool in direction of OX, parallel to the direction of feed, is
feed force, Ft. It acts tangential to main cutting force, Fc.
The forces involved in machining are relatively low as compared to those in other metal
working operations such as forging. This is because the layer of metal being removed
(i.e. the chip) is thin, so forces to be measured are less in case of machining.
Here Fc is cutting force, Fs is shear force, φ is shear angle, β is frictional angle and α is
rake angle, t1 is uncut chip thickness, and t2 is chip thickness.
Figure 2.5 shows Merchants Circle for calculation of forces. Merchants force circle is
used to determine various forces.

29
Design of Cutting
Tools and Holding
Devices
Tool

Fs

Fc

(β – α)

R
F (90 – β)
β

Figure 2.5 : Merchant’s Force Circle

Coefficient of friction between chip-tool interface is given by

μ = tan β
Now from merchants circle,
F N
R= = . . . (2.7)
sin β cos β
where, R = Resultant force
Fc Ft
Also, R= = . . . (2.8)
cos (β − α) sin (β − α)

FS FN
and, R= = . . . (2.9)
cos (φ + β − α ) sin (φ + β − α )
From Eqs. (2.7), (2.8), and (2.9)
Fc Fs
=
cos (β − α ) cos (φ + β − α)

Fs cos (β − α )
Fc = . . . (2.10)
cos (φ + β − α)
From Eq. (2.8), we get,
Ft
tan (β − α ) =
Fc

⎡F ⎤
(β − α ) = tan −1 ⎢ t ⎥
⎣ Fc ⎦
⎡F ⎤
β = α + tan −1 ⎢ t ⎥ . . . (2.11)
⎣ Fc ⎦
Fs
Now, Shear Stress =
As
From Figure 2.6(a), Shear area, As = b × (AB)

30
 t1 Design of Single
AB = Point Cutting Tools
sin φ
t1 b
As =
sin φ
Fs sin φ
Shear stress, τ= . . . (2.12)
t1 b
If shear stress is greater than ultimate shear stress then only cutting takes place.
Chip

C A

Figure 2.6(a) : Force Analysis

Total work done is given by

W = Fc Vc + Ft VFeed
But VFeed = f N = very less (since linear velocity is low.)
Thus, W = Fc V c
But work done is equal to power.
So, Power = Fc Vc
Now from Eq. (2.10),
cos (β − α )
Fc = Fs
cos (φ + β − α )
cos (β − α)
Power = Fs × Vc
cos (φ + β − α)
Various forces acting on orthogonal cutting when producing continuous chip is shown in
Figure 2.6(b).
vf

t2

α
Fs

Fc

Figure 2.6 (b) : Force Analysis

But from Eq. (2.12),

τ t1 b
Fs =
sin φ
31
Design of Cutting ⎡ τ t b ⎤ ⎡ cos (β − α) ⎤
Tools and Holding Power = ⎢ 1 ⎥ × ⎢ ⎥ × Vc
Devices ⎣ sin φ ⎦ ⎣ cos (φ + β − α) ⎦
For minimum energy,
dP
=0
dφ
On solving this, we get
2φ + β − α = 90
(β − α )
φ = 45 − (Theoretical)
2
If friction between chip-tool interface is 0, we get
α
φ = 45 +
2
FN
Normal stress =
AS

FN sin φ
=
t1 b
Example 2.1
In an orthogonal cutting operation, the cutting velocity is 30 m/min and the chip
velocity is 15 m/min. If the rake angle of the tool is 10o, calculate the shear angle
and shear velocity.
Solution
Given :
Cutting velocity, Vc = 30m/min
Chip velocity, Vf = 15 m/min
Rake angle α = 100
Shear Velocity = Vs
We know that
Vf 15
Chip reduction ratio, r = =
VC 30

⎛ r cos α ⎞
Shear angle, φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 − r sin α ⎠

⎛ 0.5 cos 10 ⎞
= tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 − 0.5 sin 10 ⎠

⎛ 0.49 ⎞
= tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.9131 ⎠
= 28.33o

Vf

Vs
32 90-α φ

Vc
B
 Design of Single
Point Cutting Tools

Velocity Vector Diagram

From velocity vector diagram,

Vs Vf
=
cos α sin φ

Vf
Vs = cos α ×
sin φ

15
Vs = cos 10 ×
sin 28.33

∴ Vs = 31.12 m/min

Example 2.2
In an orthogonal cutting operation, the depth of cut is 2 mm, width is
15 mm, cutting speed is 0.5 m/s and the rake angle is 0o. The cutting force and
thrust force are 900 N and 600 N respectively. Shear angle is 30o. Calculate
coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool. Calculate power required in
watt. Calculate length of shear plane.
Solution
Given data :
Depth of cut, d = 2 mm
Width b = 15 mm
t1
Rake angle, α = 00
φ
Cutting force, Fc = 900 N
Thrust force, Ft = 600 N
Cutting speed Vc = 0.5 m/s
Ft
tan (β − α ) =
Fc

600
∴ tan (β − 0) =
900
∴ tan β = 0.67 = μ

∴ μ = 0.67

We know that,
Power = Fc × Vc

Substituting the value of Fc and Vc from given data

Power = 900 × 0.5
= 450 watt
Length of shear zone :

33
Design of Cutting t1 2
Tools and Holding Length of shear zone, Ls = = = 4 mm
Devices sin φ sin 30
SAQ 4
(a) Discuss various forces involved in machining operation.
(b) How one can design tool shank?
⎡F ⎤
(c) Derive Frictional angle, β = α + tan −1 ⎢ t ⎥ .
⎣ Fc ⎦
(d) Derive expression for power required during machining.
(e) Following data obtained during machining of mild steel with single point
HSS tool rake angle of tool = 10o, uncut chip thickness = 0.3 mm, width of
cut = 2 mm, shear plane angle = 36o, shear strength of mild steel
= 450 MPa. Using Merchants analysis find out the coefficient of friction
between the chip and tool. Also calculate shear force in cutting.
(f) A 0.2% carbon steel is machined with a triple carbide cutting tool having
0-10-6-6-8-75-1mm ORS shape, a feed of 0.15 mm/min have been
employed. A chip thickness of 0.36 mm has been obtained. Calculate chip
thickness coefficient and shear angle.

2.6 SUMMARY
Strength and rigidity are the important parameters while designing the shank of the
cutting tool. Forces and power consumption decreases with increase in positive back rake
angle. A positive back rake angle is responsible to move the chip away from the
machined workpiece surface. The tool material should have high wear resistance, hot
hardness, hardness, toughness, thermal conductivity, and low coefficient of thermal
expansion. Cutting force, feed force and shear force acts on the workpiece and cutting
force is the largest of these three forces. Dynamometers are used for measuring tool
forces with great accuracy.

2.7 KEY WORDS

Back Rake Angle : It is the angle between face of the tool and a line
parallel with the base of the tool. It moves the chip
away from the machined workpiece surface.
Cutting Force : The component of forces acting on the rake of
tool, normal to the cutting edge and in the
direction of cutting velocity. It is the largest of
three forces of component.
Merchants Circle : Used to determine forces.

2.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant text in this unit for answer to SAQ.
SAQ 4
(e) μ = 0.531, shear force = 460 N.
(f) chip thickness coefficient = 2.64, shear angle = 21.76o.

34