Reviewer in Geography -Biosphere is the global ecological system.

It
integrates all living organisms and the
PLATE TECTONICS
relationship to the abiotic or nonliving
-scientific theory that considers the Earth' s components of earth.
lithosphere to comprise a number of large
COMPONENTS OF BIOSPHERE
tectonic plates which have been slowly
moving since about 3.4 billion years ago  Lithosphere- land
 Hydrosphere- water
-separated into plates that move over the
 Atmosphere- air
asthenosphere, the molten upper portion of the
mantle. BIOGEOGRAPHY
Earth’ s surface layer, 50 to 100 km thick, is -the distribution of various species and
rigid and is composed of a set of large and ecosystems geographically and throughout
small plates. Together, these plates constitute geological time and space.
the lithosphere, from the Greek lithos,
TYPES OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
meaning “ rock.”
 Historical biogeography
EARTH’S LAYER
 Ecological biogeography
 CRUST  Conservation biogeography
 MANTLE
THE EIGHT BIOGEOGRAPHIC
 INNER CORE
REALMS
 OUTER CORE
 The Eight Biogeographic Realms-
CONTINENTAL DRIFT TEORY
Antarctic is actually exposed land.
Alfred Wegener ' s theory that the continents This realm is home to plant species
were once a single supercontinent called such as: lichens, mosses, Antarctic
PANGEA (all land).Over time this super hair grass, and microfungis.
continent slowly broke apart into what we  Oceania Biogeographic Realm-
have today. Oceania is known for its large
amounts of coral reef, the most
EVIDENCE
famous of which is the Great Barrier
 PUZZLE Reef. Because of the isolated nature of
 FOSSILS the islands within this realm, each
 ROCK TYPES location has very unique plant and
animal life.
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARY  Indo-Malayan Biogeographic
Realm-primarily covered in tropical
 DIVERGENCE-plate are moving
and subtropical forests that have been
apart.
further divided into 3 bioregions:
 CONVERGENCE- plate are moving
Indochina, Indian subcontinent, and
toward each other.
Munda Shelf and the Philippines.
 TRANSFORM FAULT
 Australasian Biogeographic Realm-
BOUNDARY- plate are slide past to
sits between the Antarctic realm and
one another.
the Indo-Malayan realm; it is
BIOSPHERE separated from the Asia realm by the
Wallace Line. Because of this
Greek word ·[bios – life, sphaira = sphere]
position, some of the plant and animal
-The space on or near the earth’ s surface that species of this realm can also be found
contains and supports living organisms and in the Indo-Malyan and Antarctic
ecosystem. realms as well.
  Neotropical Biogeographic Realm-
The plant and animal species of this
realm are distinct from those found in
North America, which is why the two
regions are characterized separately
 Afrotropical Biogeographic Realm-
has a tropical climate, although it is
diverse in ecological habitats,
including: deserts, highlands,
savannahs, and forests (coastal,
montane, and lowland). It is home to
over 200 endemic fish species, 12
endemic plant families, 7 endemic bird
families, and 3 endemic mammal
families.
 Nearctic Biogeographic Realm-
divided into 4 ecological regions
including: eastern, western,
southwestern (which includes the
northern part of Mexico), and the
Canadian Shield. Each of these
regions has distinct environmental
habitats that support a diverse range of
plant and animal species.
 Palearctic Biogeographic Realm-
divided into 7 ecoregions, which
contain boreal forests, Mediterranean
climates, coastal deserts, river basins,
and mountainous terrain. The
Palearctic is home to several endemic
animal families, including: red pandas,
mouselike hamsters, and accentor
birds.
BIODIVERSITY and
ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION
-important for supporting
plant and animal communities and
ensuring our longterm survival
The main threats facing biodiversity
globally are
1. destruction, degradation and
fragmentation of habitats
2. reduction of individual survival
and reproductive rates through
exploitation, pollution and
introduction of alien species.
3. Land-use change: Humans may
destroy natural landscapes as they
mine resources and urbanize areas.
This is detrimental, as it displaces
residing species, reducing available
habitats and food sources
4. Pollution: Pollution can occur from
the runoff or disposal of chemical
substances, or from energy sources
(noise and light pollution).
5. Introduced species: Humans may
unintentionally, or intentionally,
introduce a non-native species into an
ecosystem. This can negatively effect
an ecosystem because the introduced
species may outcompete native
organisms and displace them.
6. Resource exploitation: Humans
consume large amounts of resources
for their own needs. Some examples
include the mining of natural
resources like coal, the hunting and
fishing of animals for food, and the
clearing of forests for urbanization and
wood use
CONSERVATION -protect species and the
places in which they live.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF
CONSERVATION EFFORTS
 Species protection-way to help
combat extinction
 Creation of local, national, and
international legislation can help
prevent the loss of endangered
species.
 Habitat protection, preservation, and
restoration is essential in protecting
biodiversity. This ensures that the
protected species have places to live
that can support them.
 saving one habitat can have a
cascading effect, and help to protect
an entire ecosystem.
PATTERNS OF LIFE BIOMES
BIOMES- A biome is a large area
characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate,
and wildlife. Biome, also called major life
zone, the largest geographic biotic unit, a
major community of plants and animals with
similar life forms and environmental
conditions.
The flora and fauna are adapted to that
particular temperature, and any small change
in temperature can lead to an increase or
decrease of a certain species of plant or
animal.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BIOMES AND
ECOSYSTEM An ecosystem includes all of the
biotic and abiotic factors that are found in a
given environment. A biome is a collection of
different ecosytems which share similar
climate conditions. The ecosystem is an
interaction of the living and non- living
components in an environment. It comprises a
large geographical area covering a vast
distance.
AQUATIC BIOMES
the largest of all the world' s biomes
—it occupies about 75 percent of the Earth' s
surface area
TYPES OF AQUATIC BIOMES
 Freshwater Biomes (lakes and
rivers)
 Freshwater wetlands (swamp,
marshes, bogs)
 Marine Biomes
 Coral reef Biomes
 Estaries Biomes
LAND BIOMES
-its name comes from the Finnish word
tunturi, meaning treeless plain. It receives
even less rainfall than most deserts, although
it remains wet because the cold temperatures
delay water from being evaporated. Plants,
such as mosses and lichens, adapt to these
frigid conditions by having a shorter growing
season
 A desert is a zone where almost no
life exists, primarily due to an absence
of water. There are two main types of
desert that you can find: hot and dry,
and freezing and cold. Cold deserts
are found near the Arctic part of the
world where temperature can go till
26 ° C during summers.
 Grassland This inland biome is made
of tremendous regions of green fields.
Tropical grasslands called Savannas
and Temperate Grasslands.
 Tropical rainforests are found in Asia,
Africa, South America, Central
America, and on a significant number
of the Pacific islands. They are
frequently found along the equator. A
large portion of the world’s tropical
rainforests is in the South American
nation Brazil, the Amazon Rainforest
 Coniferous woodland biome is found
in the south of the arctic tundra
 Boreal forest, also known as taiga.
Boreal forests, one of the world’s
largest land biomes, are found across
siberia, scandinavia, and north
america (alaska and canada). Boreal
forests have a significant role in
removing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
 Deciduous forest are found in eastern
North America, Europe, and East Asia.
The word “Deciduous” means “out at
a certain season.” This is why
Deciduous means a forest where
leaves fall out of the trees during
winters.
In the Philippines, you can find a land biomes
it a tropical rainforest. Northern Sierra Madre
National Park is considered one of the most
important of the protected areas system of
the Philippines. It is the largest protected area
in the country and the richest in terms of
genetic, species and habitat diversity. The
plants and animals of the Philippines are so
biodiverse. In fact, it boasts a staggering
52,177 species.
THE FLUVIAL SYSTEMS
-are dominated by rivers and streams.
-fluvial processes sculpt the landscape,
eroding landforms, transporting sediment,
and depositing it to create new landforms.
FLUVIAL EROSION
-weathered sediment is picked up for
transport, and movement to new locations.
-sediments are laid down by another process
called deposition
DEPOSITION
-material in a new spot
DRAINAGE BASIN
-drainage divides define the watershed
catchment (water receiving) area of the
drainage basin.
-high ground that separates one valley from
another and directs sheetflow is termed an
interfluve.
DRAINAGE PATTERN
the arrangement of channels in an area as
determined by the steepness, variable rock
resistance, variable climate, hydrology, relief
of the land, and structural controls imposed
by the landscape
RIVER EROSION AND TRANSPORTATION
Kinds of Processes:
a. Hydraulic action- the work of turbulence in
the water.
b. Abrasion
c. Solution- the dissolved load of a stream
SUSPENDED LOADS- consists of fine-grained,
clastic particles held aloft in the stream
BED LOAD -coarser materials that are dragged
along the stream bed by
 TRACTION
 SALTATION
 AGGRADATION
With excess sediment, a stream becomes a
maze of interconnected channels that form a
BRAIDED STREAM PATTERN
FLOW CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS
- Where the slope is gradual, stream channels
develop a sinuous form called a meandering
stream.
- The outer portion of each meandering curve
is subject to the fastest water velocity. While
inner portion of a meander experiences the
slowest water velocity
STREAM GRADIENT
- Every stream develops its own gradient and
establishes a longitudinal profile.
-An interruption in a stream’s longitudinal
profile is called a knickpoint
STREAM DEPOSITION
- Floodplains have been an important site of
human activity throughout history. Rich soils,
bathed in fresh nutrients by floodwaters,
attract agricultural activity and urbanization.
- The flat, low-lying area along a stream
channel that is subjected to recurrent flooding
is a floodplain.
- During floods when the river overflows its
banks, it loses velocity as it spreads out and
drops a portion of its sediment load to form
levees.
- Alluvial terraces are giant steps on each side
of a river formed by the entrenchment of a
river into its own floodplain
RIVER DELTA
consists of fine-grained, clastic particles held
aloft in the stream.
KINDS OF DELTAS:
a) The Nile river (Africa) and Danube river
(Europe) have an Arcuate Delta (arcshaped).
b) The Seine river (France) has an Estuarine
Delta, seaward mouth of a delta.
c)The Mississippi river has a bird-foot delta.
FLOODS AND RIVER MANAGEMENT
- A flood occurs when high water overflows
the natural or artificial levees of a stream and
spreads out into its flood plain. Both floods
and the floodplains they might occupy are
rated statistically for the expected time
interval between floods.
- A graph of stream discharge over time for a
specific place is called a hydrograph.
- Collective efforts by government agencies
undertake to reduce flood probability. Include
the construction of artificial levees, bypasses,
straightened channels, etc
OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
DEPTHS OF THE BLUE
Marine
-of or pertaining to the sea; existing in or
produced by the sea is defined as something
related to water or the sea relating to ocean
and water
Ecosystem
-a biological community of interacting
organisms and their physical environment.
-An ecosystem is a geographic area where
plants, animals, and other organisms, as well
as weather and landscapes, work together to
form a bubble of life.
Marine Ecosystem
Marine ecosystems are aquatic environments
with high levels of dissolved salt. These
include the open ocean, the deep-sea ocean,
and coastal marine ecosystems, each of which
has different physical and biological
characteristics. Marine ecosystems are
aquatic environments with high levels of
dissolved salt, such as those found in or near
the ocean. Marine ecosystems are defined by
their unique biotic (living) and abiotic
(nonliving) factors
-Marine waters cover two third's of the
Earth's surface, making them very important
to the health of both aquatic and terrestrial
environment. Phytoplankton perform about
40% of all the photosynthesis that occurs on
the planet and are very important to the food
chain. Deeper down in the ocean where there
is no light from the sun, lots of naturally
occuring minerals exist.
EUPHOTIC ZONE
The euphotic zone is the layer closer to the
surface that receives enough light for
photosynthesis to occur. The upper,
illuminated zone of aquatic ecosystems: it is
above the compensation level and therefore
the zone of effective photosynthesis. The
depth of this zone is around 200 meters
down.
DISPHOTIC ZONE
The middle layer of the world's oceans
receives only faint, filtered sunlight during the
daytime. This is because the seawater absorbs
the sunlight. This barely-lit ocean layer is
called the twilight zone or the disphotic zone
APHOTIC ZONE
The aphotic zone contains no algae or
phytoplankton, and its inhabitants are
exclusively carnivorous animals or organisms
that feed on sediment or detritus. The region
of a lake or sea where no light penetrates.
MARINE PLANTS
There are two main types of marine plants:
seagrasses and algae. Like plants on land,
most plants under the sea need sunlight for
photosynthesis. This means that they
normally live in the top-most layers of the
ocean. However, some marine plants, such as
kelp and coralline algae, are adapted to live in
deeper waters. Unlike terrestrial (land) plants
marine plants get their nutrients from the
water around them, not through their roots.
Instead, their roots are used to anchor them
to the seafloor and stop them floating away.
SEAGRASSES
Seagrasses evolved 100 million years ago and
get their name from their long, grass-like
leaves. With around 72 different species, they
can be found in many parts of the world, living
in shallow salty and brackish waters. Like
flowering plants that you can find on land,
they have roots, stems and leaves and even
produce flowers and seeds. They provide food
and shelter to many different types of
animals, from tiny invertebrates to marine
birds.
ALGAE
The term 'algae' refers to many different
organisms that can produce oxygen through
photosynthesis. With about 27,000 different
species, ranging from single-celled to
multicellular organisms, algae (singular 'alga')
are the main source of food for fish and other
aquatic life. Because it forms the foundation
of the food chain and can be found in both
saltwater and freshwater, it is essential for
balanced ecosystems.
SEAWEED AND KELP
Seaweed and kelp are a type of larger marine
algae that are made up of many cells. They all
contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis, but
some types of seaweed can look brown or
red, not green. This is because they contain
extra pigments that give them a different
colour. Kelp grow in cold seas around the
world and can form huge underwater forests
that provide a habitat for snails, sea urchins,
seals and sea otters.
PHYTOPLANKTON
Although too small to see with the naked eye,
these tiny single-cell organisms clump
together to form visible groups floating on the
top of the ocean. This microscopic marine
algae can be found in all water environments.
In the right conditions, they can multiply very
quickly which makes the water go green or
red. Phytoplankton is an essential source of
food for almost all marine life, so it's a really
important part of the food web.
Are Corals animals or plants?
Corals 'take root' like plants do, but unlike
plants, they cannot make their own food.
Instead, they have tiny, tentacle-like arms to
catch their food from the water. But unlike a
typical animal, they don't have a face or body
parts. So are corals plants or animals?
-Well, coral is actually a sessile animal (an
animal that is rooted to the spot). It is made
up of tiny polyps which secrete a hard, outer
limestone skeleton that attaches to a rock or
the dead skeletons of other polyps. But here's
where it gets exciting. A type of algae called
zooxanthellae resides in the tissue of lots of
types of coral.
-This algae uses the coral's waste products for
photosynthesis while the coral benefits from
the oxygen and organic products produced as
a result of this photosynthesis. This helps the
coral to thrive and grow. In this sense, corals
comprise a unique partnership that benefits
both marine plants and animals.
ANIMLAS IN MARINE ECOSYSTEM
The marine biome has the most biodiversi ty
of all the biomes. Many of the animals, such
as fish, have gills that allow them to breathe
the water. Other animals are mammals that
need to come to surface to breathe, but
spend much of their lives in the water.
Another type of marine animal is the mollusk
which has a sof t body and no backbone.
ANIMLAS IN MARINE ECOSYSTEM
Fish - Sharks, swordfish, tuna, clown fish,
grouper, stingray, flat fish, eels, rockfish,
seahorse, sunfish mola, and gars.
Marine mammals - Blue whales, seals,
walruses, dolphins, manatees, and ot ters.
Mollusks - Octopus, cut t lefish, clams, conch,
squids, oysters, slugs, and snails.
ENDANGERED MARINE ANIMALS
Our eco-system is comprised of
interdependent animals and plants which
constitute a complex web of life. This variety
of life on earth, the biodiversity that features
numerous interactions among the species, is
most vital to the existence of our planet and,
particularly, of humanity. Thus, indeed the
extinction of a single species may affect the
whole biological system pertaining to life and
living things.
-Unfortunately, the improper interventions of
human beings in nature are pushing several of
the species in the ecosystem to the brink of
extinction. The unprecedented unnatural
extinction of these species has not only the
endangered functioning of the ecosystem but
also affected the ecological issues to a large
extent.
EARTH HISTORY AND EARTH
INTERIOR
EARTH HISTORY
Earth
The earth is a minor planet bound to an
extraordinary star in the outskirts of a galaxy
known as the Milky Way, far out in the
measurable universe.
Origin of the Universe
-4.6 billion years ago, a giant cloud of gas,
called a Nebula, collapsed into itself because
of its mass and crushed all the gassy material
in it into a plane, even as it was constantly
spinning. This disc of material is called the
Protoplanetary disc.

ENDANGERED MARINE ANIMALS Big Bang Theory

Hawksbill Turtle

Vaquita

Blue Whale

Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle

Steller Sea Lion

Hammerhead Shark

Fin whale

Hector’s Dolphin

Hawaiian Monk Sea

Green Sea Turtle

WATER POLLUTION
Things that highly affected of Water
Pollution
People's Life
Marine Life
Work in the field of water
The big-bang theory proposes the universe
was formed from an infinitely dense and hot
core of material. The bang in the title suggests
there was an explosive, outward expansion of
all matter and space that created atoms.
Spectroscopy confirms that hydrogen makes
up about 74% of all matter in the universe.
Since its creation, the universe has been
expanding for 13.8 billion years and recent
observations suggest the rate of this
expansion is increasing
-Approximately 4.54 billion years ago, a Mars-
sized body slammed into the newly formed
Earth, partially liquifying the surface and
ejecting molten debris into space. This ejecta
remained as a ring around our planet for a
few months, before coalescing and forming
the Moon.
-Earth was still cooling from the formation of
the Moon, and the period of bombardment
kept it agitated and volcanically active. At
some point, asteroids or comets containing
water ice slammed into the Earth, thereby
bringing a lot of water vapor to the Earth.
Origin of Earth Crust
-As Earth cooled from its molten state,
minerals started to crystallize and settle
resulting in a separation of minerals based on
density and the creation of the crust, mantle,
and core. The earliest Earth was chiefly
molten material and would have been
rounded by gravitational forces so it
resembled a ball of lava floating in space.
-Scientists generally assume this crust was
oceanic and mafic in composition, and littered
with impacts, much like the Moon’s current
crust. There is still some debate over when
plate tectonics started, which would have led
to the formation of continental and felsic
crust.
Origin of Earth’s Water
Explanations for the origin of Earth’s water
include volcanic outgassing, comets, and
meteorites. The volcanic outgassing
hypothesis for the origin of Earth’s water is
that it originated from inside the planet, and
emerged via tectonic processes as vapour
associated with volcanic eruptions. Since all
volcanic eruptions contain some water vapor,
at times more than 1% of the volume, these
alone could have created Earth’s surface
water.
Origin of the Continents
In order for plate tectonics to work as it does
currently, it necessarily must have continents.
However, the easiest way to create
continental material is via assimilation and
differentiation of existing continents
First Life on Earth
Life most likely started during the late Hadean
or early Archean Eons. The earliest evidence
of life are chemical signatures, microscopic
filaments, and microbial mats. Carbon found
in 4.1 billion year old zircon grains have a
chemical signature suggesting an organic
origin.
Life Evolves
Based on chemical evidence and evolutionary
theory, scientists propose this life would have
been single-celled photosynthetic organisms,
such as the cyanobacteria that created
stromatolites. Cyanobacteria produced free
oxygen in the atmosphere through
photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria, archaea, and
bacteria are prokaryotes—primitive
organisms made of single cells that lack cell
nuclei and other organelles.
EARTH INTERIOR
DIRECTEVIDENCE
Geologists have drilled holes. The drills bring
up samples of rock. These rocks give
geologists clues about earth's structure and
conditions deep inside Earth, where the rocks
formed.
INDIRECTEVIDENCE
When earthquakes occur, they produce
seismic waves. Geologists record seismic
waves and study how they travel through
Earth. The speed of the seismic waves and the
paths they take reveal the structure of the
planet.
EARTH LAYERS
CRUST
-The crust is the layer of the rock that forms
earth’s outer skin. The crust is a layer of solid
rock that includes both dry land and the
ocean floor. This layer of the earth is much
thinner than the layers beneath it.
The earth'scrust is generally divided into
two:
Oceanic crust and Continental crust The crust
beneath the ocean is called the oceanic crust,
which consists mostly of rocks such as basalt.
Basalt is a dark rock with a fine texture.
Continental crust, the crust that forms the
continents, consists mainly of rocks such as
granite. Granite is a rock that usually is light in
color and has a coarse texture.
MANTLE
Below earth’s crust is the mantle. It is the
largest layer of the earth, 1800 miles thick.
The mantle is composed of very hot, dense
rock. This layer of rock even flows like asphalt
under a heavy weight. This flow is due to
great temperature differences from the
bottom to the top of the mantle.
CORE
Beneath the mantle is Earth’s core. The core is
made mostly of the metals iron and nickel. It
consist of two parts- a liquid outer core and
solid inner core.
The outer core is a layer of molten metal that
surrounds the inner core.
The inner core is a dense ball of solid metal.
VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES
What is volcano?
A volcano is an opening in the earth’s crust
through which lava, volcanic ash, and gases
escape.
How Volcano form?
Constructive Plate Boundaries
At constructive plate boundaries, the tectonic
plates are moving away from one another.
The earth's crust is pulled apart to create a
new pathway for rising hot magma to flow on
to the surface. Volcanoes can sometimes form
in these settings.
Destructive Plate Boundaries
Destructive or convergent plate boundaries
are where the tectonic plates are moving
towards each other. Volcanoes form here in
two settings where either oceanic plate
descends below another oceanic plate or an
oceanic plate descends below a continental
plate.
Hot spot volcanism
Volcanoes can also form above a column of
superheated magma called a mantle plume.
This may happen in areas that are distant
from plate boundaries. It is also referred to as
hot spot or intraplate volcanism.
Types of Volcanic Eruption
Explosive eruptions
If a lot of gas is trapped within the magma,
pressure will build and build until eventually
the magma erupts explosively out of the
volcano.
Effusive eruptions
If a magma has low viscosity (it is runny), gas
can escape easily, so when the magma erupts
at the surface it forms lava flows.
What causes a Volcanic Eruption?
Effects of Volcanic Eruption
-Many lives can be lost as a result of a volcanic
eruption.
- Lava flows and lahars can destroy
settlements and clear areas of woodland or
agriculture.
- If the ash and mud from a volcanic eruption
mix with rain water or melting snow, fast
moving mudflows are created. These flows
are called lahars.
- Human and natural landscapes can be
destroyed and changed forever.
Principle Types of Volcanoes
1.Cinder cones
2.Composite Volcanoes
3.Shield volcanoes
4.Lava domes
Cinder Cones
Cinder cones are the simplest type of volcano.
It was built from particles and blobs of
congealed lava ejected from a single vent.
Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater
at the summit and rarelyn rise more than a
feet or so above their surroundings.
Composite Volcanoes
Composite volcanoes are also called
stratovolcanoes. Composite cones are large
volcanoes generally composed of lava flows,
pynoclastic deposits, and mudflow deposits,
as well as lava domes. Composite volcanoes
are active over long periods (tens to hundreds
of thousand of years) and erupt periodically.
Shield Volcanoes
Shield volcano is a type of volcano named for
its low profile, resembling a warrriors shield
lying on the ground. It is created by the
eruption of very fluid lava, ehich travels
farther and generate thinner flows that
stratovolcano.
Lava Dome
Lava dome is a circular mound-shaped
protrusion resulting from the slow extrusion
of viscous lava from a volcano. Around 6% of
eruptions on Earth are lava dome forming.
Dome-building eruptions are common,
particularly in convergent plate boundary
settings.
Classification of Volcano
1. Active volcanoes have a recent
history of eruptions; they are likely
to erupt again.
2. Dormant volcanoes have not erupted
for a very long time but may erupt at
a future time.
3. Extinct volcanoes are not expected to
erupt in the future.
What Is Earthquake?
An earthquakes is the vibration of earth,
produce by the rapid release of energy
Elastic rebound
As hard as they seem, rocks act in much
the same way when forces push or pull on
them. If enough force is applied, rocks
becomes strained, which means they
change shape. They may even break, and
the ends of the broken pieces may snap
back. This snapping back is called elastic
rebound.
Faults
Faults Movements that produce earthquakes
are usually associated with large fractures
Earth's crust called faults.
Types of faults:
1. Normal Fault
2. Reverse Fault
3. Stike-slip Fault
1. Normal Faults -When rocks are pulled
apart under tension forces, normal
 faults form. Along a normal fault, rock
above the fault moves down
compared to rock below the fault.
2. Reverse Fault
Compression forces squeeze rocks
together, like an accordion.
Compression might cause rock above
a fault to move up compared to rock
below the fault.
3. Strike-slip Fault
Rock experiencing shear forces can
break to form a strike-slip fault. Shear
forces cause rock on eithier side of a
strike-slip fault to move past one
another in opposite directions along
Earth’s surface.
SEISMIC WAVES
Seismic Waves Earthquakes also release
waves. Earthquake waves are transmitted
through materials in Earth and along Earth's
surface. Eartquake waves are called seismic
waves.
Types of seismic waves
PRIMARY WAVES
Primary waves, also known as P-waves, travel
the fastest through rock material by causing
particles in the rock to move back and forth,
or vibrate, in the same direction as the waves
are moving.
SECONDARY WAVES
Secondary waves, known as S-waves, move
through rock material by causing particles in
the rock to vibrate at right angles to the
direction in which the waves are moving.
How to measure an earthquake?
Seismologists are scientists who study
earthquakes and seismic waves. The
instrument they use to obtain a record of
seismic waves from all over the world is called
a seismograph. One type of seismograph has a
drum holding a roll of paper on a fixed frame.
A pendulum with an attached pen is
suspended from the frame.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAGNITUDE AND
INTENSITY
Magnitude
The shaking that it causes has many values
that vary from place to place based on
distance, type of surface material, and other
factors.
Intensity
Describing the severity of an earthquake in
terms of its effects on the earth's surface and
on humans and their structures.
The Ritcher Scale Method
- Magnitude is based on measurements
of amplitudes , or heights, of seismic
waves as recorded on seismographs.
- Ritcher magnitude describes how
much an earthquake releases.
- For each increase of 1.0 on the
Ritcher scale, the amplitude of the
highest recorded seismic wave
increases by 10.
Mercalli Intensity Scale
- Measures the intensity of the
earthquake.
- The intensity spans Roman Numerals I
until XII.
Tsunamis
When an earthquake occurs on the ocean
floor, the sudden movement pushes
against the water and powerful water
waves are produced. The wave height of
tsunamis are less than a meter deep
water, and large ships can ride over them
without them even knowing. But it is
different when it approach the land.
 WEATHERING AND MASS
MOVEMENTS
What is Weathering?
-It is the process that takes place as rocks,
and other parts of Geosphere are broken
down into smaller pieces.
-Dissolving of rocks and minerals.
Causes of Weathering
Water , ice, acid, plants
Factors that Influences Weathering
1.Bedrock Properties:
-Hard/solid bedrock with few joints/cracks (to
let water in) is resistant to weathering. In
contrast, soft/porous bedrock with many
joints/cracks (to let water in) is less resistant
to weathering. Granite – a hard rock with few
joints, is very resistant to weathering.
Sandstone, a softer, more porous rock with
many joints, is much more easily weathered.
2. Geographic orientation:
-Bedrock that faces north or east receives less
heating/cooling effects from the sun, a key
factor in weathering. Thus, in the Northern
Hemisphere (including Canada) north- and
east-facing rocks weather more slowly than
south- or west-facing rocks. South- or west-
facing rocks weather more quickly.
3. Climate
-Climate plays a definitive role in the
breakdown of rocks into soils and sediment, a
process known as weathering. Rocks found in
equatorial climates and exposed to lots of
rain, humidity and heat break down or
weather faster than similar rocks do when
located in areas of the world with dry and cold
climates.
4. Vegetation
-Plant roots grow in cracks in rocks. As they
grow, they expand, slowly fracturing the rock;
this is called root wedging. Plants also
produce acids which gradually dissolve rock.
Although this is not a direct effect of weather,
it is included under the general heading of
weathering.
Where did Weathering occurs?
Location
-Physical weathering happens especially in
places where there is little soil and few plants
grow, such as in mountain regions and hot
desserts.
Types of Weathering
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
-Chemical weathering changes rock
composition, often transforming them into
different chemical reactions when water
interacts with minerals. Chemical weathering
is a gradual and ongoing process as the rock
mineralogy adjusts to the environment near
the surface.
- The rock’s original minerals develop new or
secondary minerals. The oxidation and
hydrolysis processes are most important in
this. Chemical weathering is enhanced by
geological agents such as water and oxygen,
as well as biological agents such as microbial
and plant-root metabolism acids. rock’s
original minerals develop new or secondary
minerals.
Chemical Reactions Involved in Weathering
Chemical weathering involves a variety of
chemical reactions including hydrolysis,
hydration, oxidation, and carbonation.
* Hydrolysis is the chemical breakdown of a
compound due to reaction with water.
* Hydration is the process of combining with
water to a molecule.
* Oxidation is the process of combining
element with oxygen ions. A mineral that is
exposed to air may undergo oxidation.
* Carbonation is saturation with carbon
dioxide (as soda water).
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
-Physical weathering, also known as
mechanical weathering or disaggregation, is
the process class that causes rocks to
disintegrate without chemical change.
Abrasion (the process by which clasts and
other particles are reduced in size) is the
primary process in physical weathering.
-Due to temperature, pressure, frost etc.,
physical weather may occur. For instance,
cracks exploited by physical weathering will
increase the surface area that is exposed to
chemical action, thereby increasing the rate of
disintegration.
Landforms created by Weathering
a. Mountains
- These are land forms higher than the
surrounding areas they’re formed due to the
tectonic movements earthquakes volcanic
eruptions and erosion of the surrounding area
caused due to wind, ice and water.
b. Hills
- The hills are lower than mountains but are
the higher than their surrounding areas. Hills
occur on every continent in variety of the
environments they’re usually covered with
grass and make perfect tourist destinations
c. Valleys
-The Valleys are lowing-areas of land between
hills and mountains that are formed due to
the actions of rivers and glaciers over millions
of years.
d.Dessert
-The Desert Landforms is a place that gets
little to no rain the climate can be either hot
or cold and sometimes both.
- It also each desert landforms has one thing
in common it has less than 10 inches of rain
per year
-Generally Desert have a lot of wind because
they’re flat and have no or less vegetation to
block out the wind.
e. Plains
The Plains are flat or the low relief areas on
the surface of the earth. It might be formed as
a result of the sedimentation of eroded soil
from the top of the hills and mountains or
might be due to the flowing lava deposited
buy the agents of wind, water and ice.
f. Plateaus
- The Plateaus are flat highlands that are
detached or separated from the surroundings
due to sleep slopes they’re formed by
collisions of tectonic plates and magma action
that causes the elevations in earth’s crust
Rates of weathering
The weathering rate for rocks depends on the
following:
Surface Area
- larger rocks weather slower than smaller
rocks
Composition of the rock
- Rock that is softer and less weather-resistant
tends to wear away quickly. What is left
behind is harder, more weather-resistant
rock.
Climate of the area
- climates that are wet have more weathering
than dry
- Climates that warm have more chemical
weathering
- Climates that are cold have physical
weathering
The topography of the land
- the higher the elevation, the increased
amount of weathering
Mass Wasting/Movements
Mass wasting
- which is sometimes called mass movement
or slope movement, is defined as the large
movement of rock, soil and debris downward
due to the force of gravity.
- Mass wasting is a type of erosion, and it is
capable of making big changes to the side of a
mountain. These changes can happen
suddenly, as in one minute the rock is there
and the next it is gone, or it can happen more
slowly over time.
Mass wasting processes
1. Slope Failures - a sudden failure of the
slope resulting in transport of debris
down hill
- Slumps also called rotational slides
which often form as a result of human
activities, and thus are common along
roads where slopes have been over
steeped during construction. They are
also common along river banks and
sea coasts, where erosion has under-
cut the slopes. Heavy rains and
earthquakes can also trigger slumps.
Falls - Rock falls occur when a piece of
rock on a steep slope becomes
dislodged and falls down the slope.
Debris falls are similar, except they
involve a mixture of soil, regolith,
vegetation, and rocks. An
accumulation of fallen material
termed talus.
Slides (also called Translational Slides)
result when rocks or debris slide
down a pre-existing surface, such as a
bedding plane, foliation surface, or
joint surface
2. Sediment flows - debris flows down
hill mixed with water or air.
Slurry flows - considered water-saturated
flows.
Granular Flows - not saturated with
water.
Types of Mass wasting/movements
Mass movements can be divided into four
main classes. These are falls, slides, creeps
and flows. The classes are based on how
quickly the rock and sediment moves and
how much water there is.
A fall or topple happens when rocks and
other sediments fall through the air and
land at the bottom of a slope. The pile of
rubble at the base of the slope is called a
talus cone. New talus cones don’t have
any plants growing on them. Old talus
cone can have weeds and even trees on
them. Falls happen very quickly and they
don’t need any water for lubrication.
Flows are a mixture of water, rock and
sediment. They move very quickly. Large
flows can bury entire villages. Smaller
flows can block roads. Some volcanoes
are covered with snow and ice. If they
erupt, melted snow and ice mixes with
mud and volcanic ash and flows down
mountain. Volcanic flows are called lahars
A slide happens when a section of soil or
rock suddenly gives way and moves down
a slope. The material moves as a single
mass along a slippery zone. The slippery
zone is often made up of wet sediment.
Types of Mass wasting/movements
Translational slides move along a flat
slippery zone.
Rotational slides move along a concave
(bowl shaped) slippery zone.
Creep is a very slow mass movement that
goes on for years or even centuries. You
can’t see creep happening but leaning
fences and poles and broken retaining
walls show where it has taken place.Some
hills are covered with long narrow steps
called terracettes. Terracettes are built by
soil creep. The process is sped up by
animals walking along the tops of the
terracettes. When sediment expands,
individual particles are lifted up at right
angles to the slope. Sediments can expand
when they freeze, get wet or are heated
up in the sun. When the sediments shrink,
the particles fall straight back down.
Mass-Wastingin Cold Climates
Mass-wasting in cold climates- is
governed by the fact that water is frozen
as ice during long periods of the year. Ice,
although it is solid, does have the ability
to flow, and freezing and thawing cycles
can also contribute to movement.
Frost Heaving – this process is large
contributor to creep in cold climates.
When water saturated soils freeze, they
expand, pushing rocks and boulders on
the surface upward perpendicular to the
slope. When the soil thaws, the boulders
move down vertically resulting in a net
down slope movement.
Gelifluction – Similar to solifluction, this
process occurs when the upper layers of
soil thaw during the warmer months
resulting in water saturated soil that
moves down slope.
Rock Glaciers – a lobe of ice-cemented
rock debris (mostly rocks with ice
between the blocks) that slowly moves
downhill
Coastal Processes and
Landforms
Coastal Landforms
Coastal landforms are the landforms
along the coastaline that are mostly
formed by erosion and sediments from
waves, longshore currents, rip currents,
tides and climatic factors like wind and
rainfall and temperature nclude
headlands, cliffs, bay, spits, salt marshes,
and beaches.
Waves
Waves are the result of the wind blowing
over the sea.
Formation of Coastal Landforms
Coastal landforms can be formed either
by erosoion or by deposition.
Types of Erosion by Waves :
● Abrasion
● Hydraulic Action
● Corrosion
● Attrition
● Abrasion – waves carry material
which thrashes against the cliff and
progressively disintegrate it.
● Hydraulic Action - waves while
approaching the coast trap air and
push it into breaks of the cliff. This
eventually makes the rock weak.
● Corrosion - – the rock salts gradually
get corroded by acids in seawater
over thousands of years. This is also
known as a solution.
● Attrition - – waves make the rocks to
smash against each other, which
breaks them down into smaller and
rounded parts.
● Sea Current - The longshore currents
are created when waves are refracted
while entering into shallow water.
● Rip Current - It is formed when the
water rises along a slight but
important slope due to some net
shoreward transport of water when
the waves move towards the beach.
Tides
● Tides are the regular movement of
seawater due to astronomical
conditions. They are micro-tidal (less
than two meters), meso-tidal (two to
 four meters), and macro-tidal (more
than four meters).
● 1. Tidal currents transport massive
quantities of sediments and even
erode the rock bed.
● 2. The tides help shape the shoreline
by changing the depth of water along
with it.
Wind acts both as an element that erodes
the rocks and a force that determines the
direction of the waves. The seasonal
pattern of the winds gets directly
translated into different kinds of sea
currents that are, in turn, responsible for
diversity in the coastal landforms.
Rainfall is responsible for transportation
of sediment to the coast through the
runoff in the form of streams.
Physical weathering of the rocks in warm
regions and fragments in the rock in the
cold areas when water freezes inside the
holes of the rock and expand to create a
crack in it and thereby yield sediments.
Gravity
Gravity directly determines the
downslope movement of sediment and
rock.
Different Types of Coastal Landforms
The coastal landforms resulting out of
erosion include :
Headlands and Bays -When there are
different types of rock along a coastline,
the weaker or softer rock, like clay, erode
fastest leaving more resistant rock types
such as granite, sticking out to create
headlands.
Caves, Stacks, Arches, and Stumps -
Headlands are highly vulnerable to further
erosion by water and wind and other
features such as caves, stacks, arches, and
stumps may emanate from them
Wave-Cut Platforms - Waves usually hit
the bottom of the cliff hard during storms
and at high tide. The weathering weakens
the uppermost part of the cliff, which
subsequently falls off in the sea. The
process continues till a rocky platform at
the base gets formed. This is called the
wave-cut platform.
The coastal landforms resulting out of
deposition include
• Spits - Spits are created through a
process called longshore drift, which
moves the material along the coastline.
Spurn Head at the north of the Humber
Estuary in the northeast of England is an
example of spit.
• Salt Marsh
Behind the spit, salt marshes are formed.
The area behind a spit is usually a
sheltered area where water movement is
slow and hence more material gather
there as deposits.
• Beaches
Deposits of sediment are the leading
cause behind the formation of beaches.
Other coastal landforms are:
Delta landforms
The river mouths are often deposited with
an excess supply of sediments and form a
triangular shape landscape like the Greek
capital letter delta (Δ).
Estuary Landforms
The word “estuary” is a derivation from
the Latin word “aestuarium,” meaning
tidal. A natural estuary is a landform that
is semi-enclosed, extended coastal basin
receiving an inflow of freshwater as well
as saltwater. These are short-lived and
usually, get ruined quickly by rapid
sedimentation.
Lakeshore Landforms
Small landforms created by the waves and
sediments from lakes are termed
lakeshore landforms. These are also
temporary landforms that quickly gets
filled with sediments.

Rocky Coast Landforms

Resulting primarily from erosion, the

rocky coasts are typically situated at
active boundaries with slender
continental shelves. These coasts are
composed of different types of rocks,
namely igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic and are filled with complex
tectonic landforms like folds, faults, and
igneous intrusions and extrusions.

Sandy Coast Landforms

The sandy coast landforms, mostly

located in the passive margins, have
extremely dynamic environments that are
subject to rapid and severe changes. The
primary characteristics of this landform
are low-wave energy, strong offshore
sediment influence, and a full continental
shelf. The beaches are generally
dominated by waves. Barrier islands,
barrier spits, beaches, tombolos, and
dunes are typical features of the sandy
coast landforms.