What is Athletics?

Athletics - Is a group of sports such as track and field events.

Wednesday, February 23, 2022 8:33 PM

Track Athletics Events Field Athletics Events

1. 100-metre sprint 1. Long Jump
- Is one of the most popular and prestigious event at the Olympics. - During the long jump, athletes take a run-up to the take-off line, and jump as far as possible into
- The winner of this race at Olympics are labelled the "fastest woman or man in the world." the sandpit.
2. 400-metre sprint 2. Triple Jump
- Is another popular event and includes competitors running the full length of the athletics track. - Referred to as hop, step, and jump.
3. Relay - Is a field event, similar to the long jump.
- the aim is to cover a certain distance as fast as possible as a team. - The athletes runs down a track and takes off from a special board trying to get the furthest
- it involves passing a baton around a circuit. distance possible by performing a hop, step and then jump into a sand pit.
- The key to a successful relay team is good organization, timing, communication and smooth baton 3. High Jump
changeovers. - It involves athletes jumping over a horizontal bar, which is positioned at different heights, without
- The main relay events in athletics are the 4 x 100m and the 4 x 400m. knocking it off.
4. Hurdles 4. Pole Vault
- Act of running over an obstacle at high speed. - It is similar to the high jump.
- A highly technical event. - It requires athletes to take a run-up and jump over a bar without knocking it down.
- The runner's aim is to clear the obstacles - known as hurdles, in their running style or pattern too - Athletes use a long, flexible pole to vault themselves up and over.
much and crossing the finish line as fast as possible. 5. Shot put
- Involving putting a heavy spherical ball as far as possible.
- The shot put competition for men has been a part of the modern Olympics since their revival in
1896, and the women's competition began in 1948.
6. Discus throw
- It is a track and field event in which an athletes throws a heavy disc called a discus, aiming throw
further than their competitors.
7. Javelin throw
- Javelin was first used as a weapon in battle.
- Javelin has a long wooden spear with a metal tip.
- Today, they are made with lightweight material.
- Athletes are tasked with running up to the throwing line and throwing the javelin as far as possible
into the grass.
8. Pentathlon
- Is a content which features five events.
- The events included in a pentathlon have changed over the years and the last time it was featured
in the Summer Olympics was in 1980.
- The women's pentathlon in 1980 were the 100-metre hurdles, shot put, high jump, long jump, and
800 metres.
9. Heptathlon
- It consists of seven athletics events.
- The men's competition includes:
 A 60-metre sprint
 Long Jump
 Shot put
 High Jump
 60-metre hurdles
 Pole vault
 1000-metre run
- The women's competition includes
 100-metre hurdles
 High jump
 Shot put
 200 metre
 Long jump
 Javelin throw
 800-metre run

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 Badminton
Tuesday, March 1, 2022 7:24 AM

Brief History

• Badminton-like game was known in Ancient Greece and Egypt, a game called battledore and shuttlecock, in
which two players hit a feathered shuttlecock back and forth with tiny rackets.
• Badminton is invented in India in a version called "Poona."
• 1870 - the British army officers learned the game.
• 1873 - the duke of Beaufort introduced the sport at his country estate, Badminton, from which the game
derives its name.
• 1887 - the Bath Badminton Club was formed. It was replaced in 1893 by the Badminton Association of England,
which codified the rules that still govern competitive play.
• 1921 - the Badminton Canada was founded with the first national championships being held in Montreal.
• Canada is one of the nine founding members of the International Badminton Federation in 1934.
• Jamie Paulson of Calgary - wins gold medal in men's singles at 1970's Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh,
Scotland.
• 1992 - six Canadians contest badminton as a full medal sport at Barcelona Olympics.

Basic Rules and Regulations of Playing Badminton

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Basic Rules and Regulations of Playing Badminton

1. A Game of Two or Four

- Can be played as singles or doubles
- In a single rally, there will be two players, playing with each other.
- In a double rally, you can pair up with your friend and play a game of four but the players are a
set, like the set of cards.

2. Left or Right
- You cannot randomly choose your side as you wish.
- This is one of the basic badminton rule which needs to be followed for any rally.
- At the beginning of the game, when the server's score is even, then you are at the right service
court.
- If the scores is odd choose the left side.
- Be thorough with odd or even numbers, they do count.

3. Know your weapons

- Badminton is played with a stringed racket and a shuttlecock.
- The cock is topped with feathers and have a rubber base.
- The player should always hit the rubber base and not the feathered part.
- Each player can use a single stringed racket.

4. The Serve
- It is the basic of any badminton play.
- Serve is the term used according to badminton rules, to hit the cock during the beginning of each
rally.
- Serve should always be done underarm and below the server's waist.
- An overarm serve is against the rules of badminton, and would be considered a fault.
- Your physics rule of high velocity, does not suffice here.

5. Begin it by a toss
- The basic rule and regulation of any badminton rally, either Olympics or your family play is that
the game always begins with a toss.
- When playing with your friends, stop fighting for the first serve, because you are within the box of
badminton rules.
- The start is only hosted by a toss.
- The next serve depends on who wins the rally.
- If you win the first rally, then the next game begins with your serve.

6. The Net Trap

- The net is a vital and villainous equipment in the play.
- If the shuttle cock hits the net or even touches the net, disqualified.
- The point goes to your opponent.

7. Tame your Hands and your Feet

- While the play is on, your feet should never touch the white line bordered around you.
- Your hands are your rackets, a hand touch is foul play, which is beyond the shadow of any doubt.

8. That's a Foul Play

- According to the basic rules of badminton, if your cock touches the ground or if you hit it twice
from the same court, that's considered a foul play.
- So there's no replay or second chance,
- In this game, you either loose or win, there's never a chance.

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 9. Don't be a bully kid
- While a play you should never back or temp your opponent while he/she is serving, which may
ward off their concentration.
- Feinting the opponents or trying to bully them by any means is unpardonably offensive.
- Being a sportsman you will obviously never be the bullying little kid anymore.

10. The landing

- The shuttlecock which is either served or hit, should land inside the service court.
- Any cock which flew away the white boundaries will not be counted and yes, your opponent will
definitely score.

11. Dock Out

- If the following rules of badminton are continuously broken by a player, then the referee has the
undue right to dock out the player's point or the player from the game.
- Be alert! Your action rules your future.

12. 21 Steps Ahead

- To win the game of badminton you must core points before your opponent.
- Out of 3 sets of play you must win 2 to be the talented winner.

Advantages of Playing Badminton

- Good physique and toning of muscles.
- All of the sprinting, hand movements, and various postures used during the game assist tone your
muscles, particularly your buttocks, hamstrings, quadriceps and glutes.
- Concentration is improved.
- Helping you to remain attentive.
- It also enhances your coordination and makes you more agile.
- It improves your cognitive performance even further.
- It helps reducing stress.
- Badminton can help you de-stress in as little as 15 mins.
- It helps to relax your mind while also motivating you to perform better.

Disadvantages of Playing Badminton

- You can't play by yourself.
- It's not like jogging or swimming, which you can do alone.
- Sports injuries are inevitable once you play.

Typical Badminton Injuries are:

1. Sprained Ankle
- Damaged ligaments
2. Achilles Tendonitis
- The inflammation of Achilles tendon.
3. Tennis Elbow (Repetitive Motion)
- The overuse of the extensor muscles leads to pain.
4. Patella Tendonitis (Jumpers Knee)
- The inflammation of patella tendon.

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 Earthquake Hazards
Wednesday, February 23, 2022 9:22 PM
Seismic waves
- It is the wave energy that can travel through the
Earth layer. Through the interior.
Primary (P) waves
- Are the first waves that reach the surface of the
Earth and make the ground shake. First shaking if
there is intending earthquake. The shaking is very
light because it the wave is in a straight way.
Secondary (S) waves
- Are body waves that vibrate perpendicular to their
propagation direction, producing an up and down
movement. It moves slower and has strong
shaking.
The crust and upper most mantle it contains, tectonic
plates.
Tectonic plates are slowly moving but they will stuck at
their edges because of roughness of tectonic plates and
friction.
Surface Waves
- Type of seismic wave that trap near the surface of
the Earth.
Love Waves
- Are surface waves that have a horizontal motion
perpendicular to the direction they are traveling.
- Like a snake movement.
Rayleigh Waves
- Shake the ground in a rotational manner with no
transverse motion.
- The motion is same as secondary waves but under
the surface wave.
- It cause the ground to shake in an elliptical
pattern.
Earthquake in the Philippines happen more
frequently because of its geographical location.
Pacific Ring of Fire
Philippine Fault Zone
Seismometer - can detect vibrations from seismic
waves generated by earthquakes and volcanic eruption.
Richter Scale - is used to show the amount of energy
released during an earthquake.
- Used to determine the package of earthquake.
The severity of an earthquake is measured based on
the energy it releases, or its magnitude, and its effects
on people and man-made structures, or what we call
intensity.
Frequency is the number of times a movement such as
ground shaking is repeated within a certain amount of
time.
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An earthquake is a phenomenon caused by the sudden and rapid movement of Before, During, and After an
large volumes of rock along fractures on the surface of the Earth called faults.
The place must be assessed if your place have active fault zone.
Earthquake
When the geological stress (shear, compressional, confining) overcome the
fission and there is an earthquake that can produce energy. Before
 Prepare a survival kit.
 Avoid placing breakables on high
shelves or cabinets.
5 Potential Earthquake Hazards  Check regularly the stability of
hanging objects such ceiling fans
and chandeliers.
Ground shaking  Fasten heavy furniture to the
- is the primary cause of earthquake damage to man-made structures. walls or floor.
- It causes buildings and other infrastructures to collapse which may result to  Know the emergency numbers of
injury or casualties. the police, rescue and fire
- It is not possible to minimize the damage caused by ground shaking. departments.
How can you minimize?
- Through geologic site investigation, stricter building code implementations, During
and earthquake-resistant construction are some ways of doing this.  Stay calm. Duck under a sturdy
table and protect your head.
Ground Rupture Remember the DCH
- It is the visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the  (Duck, Cover, and Hold) method.
trace of a fault.  Stay away from glass windows
- There is no effective engineering measured for ground rupture. and doors, and heavy furniture.
- Any building or infrastructure resting on a fault or near it is susceptible to  Watch out falling debris or
ground rupture. objects.
How do you minimize it?  Never use an elevator to get out
- The best thing you can do is to avoid building structures on faults or within of the building.
the recommended minimum buffer zone of at least 5 meters from either
side of the active fault trace. After
 Expect, aftershocks, so remain
Liquefaction calm.
- Occurs when the ground loses stiffness and behaves like liquid in response  Check yourself and others for
to earthquakes. injuries.
- Denser infrastructure or more buildings in a certain area contributes to the  Stay away from downed or
weight of the sediments. damaged power lines.
- It is for this reason that the impact of liquefaction on populated centers is  Tune in to local radios stations
severe as compared with less populated or underdeveloped areas. and listen for any news and
danger reports.
Earthquake-induced Landslide  Stay out of damaged buildings
- Landslides may happen during or after the earthquake when a weakened and areas with broken glass and
section of land falls off primarily due to gravity. debris.
- Effects can be minimized by avoiding construction on or near steep slopes  Follow the emergency plan or the
and natural drainage ways. instructions of building personnel
- Knowing what kind of material your house is built on and if there are any if you are inside the building.
nearby faults or earthquake generating structures can help you plan what to
do and evacuate when necessary
Tsunami
- It is a series of waves generated by large-scale displacement of water which
are usually triggered by earthquakes or major submarine landslides.
- It is a Japanese word which translates to harbor wave, tsu meaning harbor
and nami meaning wave.
- If you find yourself in such a situation, evacuate to higher ground
immediately.
- Stay clear of any low-lying areas or coastal areas even after the first wave
has struck.
- Tsunamis arrive in series of waves that may be several hours apart.
 Volcano Hazards
Thursday, March 3, 2022 12:04 PM

Volcanoes are openings in Earth's crust that allows the energy from the interior of Earth to escape to
the surface.
- Literally in talks about the eruption of volcano.
- Why there is volcanic eruption? If the magma tried to escape on the surface and magma is
formed when the mantle melts and molten may happen because of the movement of tectonic
plates. If it continue to move, the magma level is rising up because

The energy in the magma that goes out are in the form of lava, ash and gas.

Potential Volcano-related Hazards

• Volcano Hazards are volcano related phenomena that pose potential threat or negative impact to life,
property, and the environment in a given period of time.

a. Lava Flow
 Lava is molten rock or magma that has reached the surface of the earth.
 Lava Flow occurs when magma contacts the surface of a volcano and erupts or
overflows downhill from different volcanic openings.
 Lava flows can be build or viscous depending on its composition, temperature, and
gas content.
 Lava with flow silica content, high temperature, and low gas content is considered
more fluid.
 Lava with high silica content, low temperature, and has a high gas content is more
viscous.
□ Negative Impacts of Lava Flow
- Lava flows seldom threaten human life as most lava flows as fast as a
human's normal walking pace.
- Lava flows are still hazardous because they can crush and bury structures
and livelihoods.
- They solidify over time making the areas buried by the lava useless.
- The solidification of lava also blocks roads and other pathways normally
used by people.
- Lava flows also burn surroundings because of its intense heat.
- Flammable resources such as wood, plants, and houses can get caught of
fire as lava flows along their path.
□ Mitigating the Negative Effects of Lava Flows
- Like other volcanic hazards, lava flow cannot be stopped.
- Some can be controlled, however, to minimize its effects on people's
lives.
- Artificial barriers can be constructed to prevent and divert lava from
flowing over a particular area.

b. Volcanic Gases
 Magma contains volcanic gases that try to escape to Earth's surface through volcanic
openings.
 This consists of Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
 The excessive composition of these chemicals in the air can cause acid rain.
□ Negative Impacts of Volcanic Gas
- Volcanic gas can cause respiratory problems and other health risks.
- Communities that are exposed to volcanic gases may experience asthma

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 - Communities that are exposed to volcanic gases may experience asthma
or difficulty in breathing.
□ Mitigating the Negative Effects of Volcanic Gas
- Volcanic gases are monitored using different techniques by volcano
observatories to frequently identify if a volcano is emitting hazardous
levels of volcanic gas.
- Those immediately surrounding the area would be adversely affected,
and wearing of masks is recommended.
- It is advisable to leave the vicinity immediately, once volcanic gases have
been released into the atmosphere.
- Public awareness of the different types of volcanic gas hazards is also one
of the most effective means to reduce risk.

c. Pyroclastic Flow
 This refers to the fast-moving fluidized mass of rock fragments and gases.
 It is hot, dry, turbulent mass mixtures of different pyroclastic materials.
□ Negative Impacts of Pyroclastic Flow
- It can easily incinerate, burn, and suffocate humans and animals.
- The gases that come with the pyroclastic flow can explode.
- Like lahar, the threat of pyroclastic flow is far reaching, they can travel to
long distances, thus producing greater hazards.
□ Mitigating the Negative Effects of Pyroclastic Flow
- There are no possible ways to stop a pyroclastic flow from happening.
- Pyroclastic flows cannot also be easily identified before an eruption.
- Early warning and evacuation before a potential volcanic eruption are the
only risk-mitigating actions pole for such events.

d. Ballistic Projectile
 This is a rock fragment that is ejected from a volcano during its explosive eruption.
 Volcanic projectiles can be bombs and blocks.
□ Negative Impacts of Ballistic Projectiles
- Ballistic projectiles can destroy properties and endanger lives because of
the force of impact as they fall into the Earth's surface.
- This can collapse roofs, destroy electrical lines, and destroy agriculture.
□ Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Ballistic Projections
- Strengthening of structures can also be done to lessen the effect of
projectile impacts and withstand the load of ash buildups.
- Humans can also wear masks or respiratory apparatuses that can
significantly reduce the inhalation of ash and poisonous gases.

e. Lahar
 It is an Indonesian term for mudflow that has been globally used as a term for a
specific type of a mudflow.
 Primary lahar - form during the eruption event.
 Secondary lahar - years after deposition of tephra.
□ Negative Impacts of Lahar
- Lahar flows have destroyed cities and killed countless lives in the past
decades.
- Their destructive nature can be attributed to their speed of flow, the
extent of reach, composition, and difficulty of prediction.
- Lahar can travel quickly especially on steep slopes where its speed can
reach more than 20km/h.
- Its speed decreases as it flows into gentler low-lying areas.
□ Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Lahar

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 □ Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Lahar
- Lahar flows cannot be predicted easily because they can occur with or
without any volcanic activity.
- Lahar hazard mitigation begins with education of the affected community
and the local government.
- This increases their awareness and interest in the disaster can be brought
about by the lahar.
- Depending on the gathered information on the community and gained
knowledge on the potential lahar hazard within the region, specific risk
reduction measures can be designed.

f. Ash Fall
 This is composed of bits and pieces of pulverized rock, minerals, and volcanic glass
generate from the volcanic eruption.
□ Negative Impacts of Ash Fall
- The ash can corrode building materials or destroy agricultural land.
- The most common health risk associated with ash fall is respiratory
diseases related to asthma, bronchitis and emphysema.
□ Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Ash Fall
- If outside seek shelter - use a mask or handkerchief for breathing and
wear protective clothing especially if working in the ash fall, the goggles
to protect the eyes.

Basic Risk Reduction Strategies

- Four basic risk reduction strategies can be done within a particular area depending on its
practicality.
- Hazard avoidance, hazard modification, hazard warning, and hazard response and recovery
planning are risk reduction options that can be used by communities.
○ Hazard Avoidance
 Or a complete ban of development in a lahar prone area, is the most effective way to
reduce risk.
 If this cannot be avoided due to reasons such as attachment to the area, livelihood
concerns, and lack of alternative settlements.
○ Hazard Modification
 If hazard avoidance cannot be done, this can be done.
 This is accomplished by engineering structures to protect the affected area by
diverting or blocking lahars, or weakening, or preventing lahar flows altogether.
○ Hazard Warning
 If hazard modification cannot be done due to some constraints such as budget or
practicality, this can be an alternative.
 Help in disseminating information to the community of an impending lahar flow
before it reaches and affects the community.
 Hazard warnings for lahar are difficult especially in areas near the lahar source.
 There will only be a limited time between the warning and the actual lahar flow.
○ Hazard response and recovery planning
- Unlike those first three strategies, this strategy focuses on the response to the lahar hazard
after it has occurred.
- This strategy plans on the rescue of those affected by the hazard, how they will be taken
care of, and the identification of long term plans for the affected community.

Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption

- Advancements in predicting and monitoring volcanic activity have significantly reduced volcanic
risk.

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 risk.
- There are number of warning signs when an active volcano is about to erupt.
- Occurrence of tremors.
- Deformation in the ground manifested by changes in ground elevation and formation of cracks or
openings.
- Increase in the amount of volcanic gases and in temperature, which may indicate that magma has
gone closer to the surface.
- Glow of volcanic crater due to the presence of magma.
- Thermal changes within the surroundings of the volcano.
- Change in the color of nearby vegetation and lakes.
- Landslides and rock fall not due to heavy rains.
- Drying up of springs and freshwater sources around the volcano.

Precautionary and Safety Measures BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER Volcanic Eruption

Before an Eruption
1. Stay updates with the local news.
2. Learn about your community warning systems and emergency plans.
3. Prepare an emergency supply kit.
4. Pack all important and essential items in light and waterproofs containers.
5. Secure livestock in enclosed shelters.
6. Listen to public safety announcements of local authorities. Follow the authorities' instructions If
they tell you to evacuate the area.

During an Eruption
1. Follow evacuation orders issued by local authorities and remind family members of your disaster
plan. Stay in the evacuation area/center until further instructions are given by authorities.
2. Stay indoors, place a damp cloth over your windows and if possible over your doors.
3. Make sure that all windows, doors and other vents are kept closed.
4. Wear long-sleeved shirts and long plants.
5. Use goggles to protect your eyes.
6. Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your face.
7. Avoid low-lying regions and river areas near the volcano. Volcanic debris and ash will be carried
by the wind and gravity.
8. Listen to a battery-operated radio for the latest emergency information.

After an Eruption
1. Wait for the announcement from local authorities that it is safe to return to your house.
2. Inspect your house carefully for any damage before you enter it.
3. If you or a family member has a respiratory ailment such as asthma and bronchitis, stay away
from volcanic ash fall areas.
4. Wear a dust mask, gloves, and goggles while cleaning the debris and ash fall on the roof of your
house to avoid further damage.
5. Check electrical wirings appliances, and gas tanks before using them.
6. Boil water before drinking it.
7. Stay informed and listen for emergency updates and news.

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 Rainfall-Induced Geologic Hazards
Monday, March 14, 2022 8:37 AM

Types of Rainfall-Induced Geologic Hazards

1. Landslide
○ It is a ground movement on a sloping terrain.
○ Water is a natural agent for erosion, and if rain or any source of water frequently flows down a
sloping area.
○ United States Geological Survey or USGS defines landslide as the,
"downslope movement of soil, rock, an organic materials under the effects of gravity and also
the landform that result from such movement."
○ Prolonged rain can saturate the topsoil and bedrock, making the soil foundation of buildings or
structures weak.
○ Without plants and trees whose roots can absorb water and hold the soil together, subsequent
rainwater can continue to loosen up the soils that anchor the building.
○ Factors that influenced landslide
 Geological factors - that influence landslide include properties of rock and soil that
renders them weak or sensitive to movement.
 Morphological factors - that influence landslide include the shape of land and its slope,
tectonic and volcanic activities, erosion and deposition, water, the amount of vegetation
on the rock and soil surface as well as the boundaries of the landmass involved.
 Human Factors - that affect landslide include development activities that modify the
geological and morphological factors of the land.
○ Signs of an impending Landslide
 Cracks or bulges on concrete or paved roads and sidewalks, broken water pipes and other
underground fixtures.
 Movement of normally fixed structures such as fences, telephone posts and other
structures that are on the ground.
○ If your area is prone to landslide
 Plant more trees, grasses, and other vegetation to prevent erosion and for compaction of
soil.
 Do not build your house on or near steep slopes, mountain edges, drainages, or natural
erosion valleys.
○ For landslides, we can use Abney level or a laser rangefinder equipped with a tiltmeter is used to
measure the slope angle, soil compaction, and soil strength of an area.
○ Before Landslide
 Be familiar with your surroundings. Watch for any changes in appearance or position of
these objects.
 Be updated on news regarding the condition of your area. Be aware of the disaster plans
of your local government.
 Learn and participate in emergency response and evacuation plans for your community.
○ During Landslide
 Be attentive to unusual sounds
 Stay away from the path of debris.
 Stay on an elevated and sturdy area.
 Find a structure that can serve to protect you from the flow of debris.
○ After Landslide
 Avoid the slide area.
 Listen for the latest emergency information.
 If the landslide is caused by rainfall, watch out for flooding as it will follow the same path
taken by the debris flow.
 Check for injured or trapped people near the slide and for damaged structures.

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  Check for injured or trapped people near the slide and for damaged structures.

2. Sinkholes
○ Depressions or holes on the ground that resulted from the collapse of the surface layer of the
soil.
○ A sinkhole can be described as the downward movement of earth's crust towards its gravity.
○ The United States Geological Survey (USGS) define ground subsidence as the
"loss of surface elevation due to the removal of subsurface support.
○ GPR is a good tool in determining whether sinkholes may occur or not because of the relatively
accurate determination of the soft ground underlying the ground surface.
○ If the sinkholes are not detected earlier and it appears suddenly, do the following:
 Find refuge in a stable ground or open area.
 Wait until the structures on and around the sinkhole stop moving.
 Wait for the local government's announcement when it is safe to go back.
○ After the sinkholes
 Stay away from the sinkhole.
 Monitor the damages on objects.
 Do not throw anything into the sinkhole.
 Secure whatever is left of your properties and relocate to safe ground.

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Properties of Well-Written Text
Wednesday, February 23, 2022 9:27 PM

Text Organization Coherence and Cohesion Mechanics

Definition: it is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged. It Definition: it makes your text easier for your readers. Definition: Language mechanics is a set of conventions on how to spell,
is said that ideas are well developed when there is a clear statement of abbreviate, punctuate, and capitalize.
purpose, position, facts, examples, specific details, definitions, Coherence is the connection of ideas to the central concept of the text. It is important to know and observe these conventions in writing to avoid confusion.
explanations, justifications, or opposing viewpoints. Cohesion is the relationship of ideas between sentences. More on rules.
If there is a lack of text organization, it leads to confusion. Both should be present in your text because having one without the other will still
create confusion for readers. Conventions in Writing
3 Prevailing Patterns in Writing
Coherence without cohesion
Chronological Pattern - it has a central concept or glue that holds all the different ideas together. Although Spelling
- This pattern arranges the ideas according to time, either backward or without cohesion, there is no apparent logic to the way these ideas are presented. ○ it refers to forming of words from letters according to accepted usage.
forward - ideas which occur first or which occur second, and so on. - Without a proper transition. ○ Make sure that you are consistently using one standard about the spelling of your words.
- Chrono comes from the Greek word means time. Cohesion without coherence Remember that there are slight differences in American and British English
- Transitional words like first, second, next, later, finally, and so on are - It has ideas that are logically sequenced in a way that is easy to follow for the
used to indicate the time or process. reader. Although without cohesion, no central concept links all these ideas American Spelling British Spelling
- It is very effective with the different modes of paragraph together. Color Colour
development like: - The main point is unclear.
Defense Defence
1) Narration - it tells a story
2) Process - step by step Organize Organise
3) Analysis Language Use Traveled Travelled
4) Cause and effect Good writing includes good choice of diction.
Diction is defined as the way in which words are used in speech or in writing. Theater Theatre
Spatial or Geographical Order If one's writing is good, that means that the writer used words that are accurate - meaning it is Meter Metre
- The order arranges information according to how things fit in a the right word based on his or her intention; appropriate for the situation where the word is used,
physical space. and can send or get the writer's intention across.
Subject Verb Agreement
- This could be any space like room or building in a university, an
organization, etc. Ex:
- It describe the structure of the building and the imagination was • A verb agrees with its subject in person and in number. A singular subject requires a singular verb; a
Hello my friend. You look thin!
plural subject requires a plural verb.
there. - You must correct the term thin, because some people are sensitive and you must use the
- Transitional words like above, beneath, in front, nearby, to the right, • Collective nouns are either singular or plural, depending on the context in which they appear.
terms that are euphemism.
• The verb agrees with the subject, not with the predicate noun.
underneath, etc. We asked the secretary to call the professor and get her permission for us to continue our
• Some nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning.
research.
• Some nouns are plural in form and in meaning.
Topical or Logical Order - Informal words such as ask, call, and get are frequently used, which is why it is informal.
- is used when the writer is to present several ideas that are • For compound subjects joined by or, either…or, neither…nor, the verb agrees with the subject
- When writing and speaking, use formal language.
nearer it.
interrelated.
- You'll be organizing the information in a logical manner according to Before writing, you have to think about and consider your target audience. The time tested
topic. principles in writing are:
- This organizational pattern can also be used in speech that discusses - Use clear and concise sentences. Use precise vocabulary.
several sub-topics under the banner of a primary topic - just attack Capitalization
- Avoid redundancies, jargon, slang, wordiness, cliches, and highfalut in language.
them all in a logical sequence. - Avoid excessive use of there and its structures.
- Pattern Development that is best to used are: - Be consistent with pronouns. Capitalize the first word in a sentence.
1) Examples - Avoid sexist language. Example: There were 50 participants who attended the seminar.
2) Comparison and Contrast Capitalize the pronoun “I” .
3) Definition Example: Jerick and I are leaving for Bohol in October.
4) Analogy Capitalize proper nouns
5) Process Analysis Example: The exchange student decided to enroll in Virgen Milagrosa University Foundation.
6) Classification Capitalize the names of God, deities religious figures and holy books.
- Transitional words like first, second, next, later, finally, and so on are Example: Maria has stopped praying to the Lord.
used to show the relatedness of each idea. Capitalize titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names.
Examples: Dr. Jayson Petras is the best doctor in town.
Features Jeck was able to interview Mr. De La Puerta, mayor of the city.
Physical Format Capitalize the names of God, deities religious figures and holy books.
- the format is an aspect of the organization that is immediately Example: Maria has stopped praying to the Lord.
apparent to the reader. It is seen in how the text physically appears Capitalize titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names.
like headings and subheadings, bullet points, or font emphasis. Examples: Dr. Jayson Petras is the best doctor in town. Jeck was able to interview Mr. De La
Puerta, mayor of the city.
Structure Capitalize the days of the week, months of the year, and holidays but not the season like spring,
- It refers to the complete framework (Proper arrangement of winter, summer and fall.
paragraphs) of the text. Example: Last spring, in the month of March, he received the highest award given to a civilian.
- It consist of: Capitalize the first word in a sentence that is a direct quote.
1) Beginning: Introduction, thesis statement Example: My mother said, “Be humble at all times.”
2) Middle: Supporting details Capitalize the first word in a sentence that is a direct quote.
3) End: Conclusion, summary, final message Example: My mother said, “Be humble at all times.”
Capitalize trademarks.
Signal Words Example: Those students prefer Apple than Samsung.
- Are the cue in the ordering of events and concepts. Capitalize the first word of the greeting or closing of the letter.
Examples: Dear Sir, Respectfully yours,

Punctuation

Comma
Uses: Examples
Before a conjunction that joins the independent clauses in I tried to call you last Saturday, but you were
a compound sentence already out of your office.
After the dependent clause at the beginning of a complex Because it rained hard, the streets are
sentence flooded.
To set off an appositive My professor, Mr. Zafra, is the best English
professor there.
At the end of a direct quotation that is a statement when it She asked, “Are you flying to Japan on
comes at the beginning of a sentence Sunday?”
With words that interrupt a sentence’s basic idea She, of course, said yes to the offer
presented to her by her boss.
To set off the name of the person you are speaking to Gino, can you get me a glass of water
please?
After the complimentary close Respectfully yours,
After the salutation in a friendly letter Dear Janine,
Between the day and the year in a date June 16, 2021
To separate adjectives that modify the same noun The tall, slim figure came nearer and nearer.
To separate three or more items I love mangoes, grapes, bananas and apples.
Period (.) - A period is used at the end of a declarative and imperative sentence that do not require
an exclamation point.
Dash (—)
a. Use after an introductory list
Example: Butter, flour, milk and eggs – these are what I need to bake a cake.
b. Use to separate elements in a sentence
Example: The front door – and no other doors – may be used by fetchers.
Colon (:)
a. Use it after a greeting in a business letter
Example: Dear Sir:
b. Use it to introduce a list
Example: Here are the things we need for the camping: water, flashlight, first aid kit, and
snacks.
c. Use it between numbers in time
d. To introduce an important quotation in a report, essay or news story.
Example: When interviewed, the manager stated: “Our company’s goal is to satisfy our
customer’s needs.”
Hyphen (-)
a. Used in two-part numbers between twenty-one to ninety-nine.
b. Used in spelled out fractions.

READING AND WRITING SKILLS Page 13

 b. Used in spelled out fractions.
Semi-colon (;)
a. Replaces a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between two closely linked
sentences.
b. Use it before words like namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, etc.
c. Use it to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas
Quotation Marks (“”) These are used to set off a direct quotation

Writings Numbers

When a number begins a sentence, spell it out.

Example: Fifty boxes of mangoes were bought by the restaurant manager.
Spell out numbers less than 10.
Example: There were six students who auditioned for the play.
Use figures and cardinals for dates
Example: The meeting has been rescheduled for August 23.
Use figures for 10 and above.
Example: Mr. Bautista bought 12 roses for her mom.
When numbers apply to the same thing, render them the same way.
Example: The customer ordered 6 boxes of condensed milk, 12 boxes of sardines, and kilos of flour.
Use figures when numbers need to stand out, even if less than 10.
Example: I have been working as an executive secretary for 9 years now.
Spell fractions when use to begin a sentence.
Example: One-fourth of the cake was eaten.
Centuries and decades should be spelled out.
Example: The couple love to listen to the music of the seventies.
Use the percentage symbol (%) for discounts and interests.
Example: The item was sold at a 15% discount

READING AND WRITING SKILLS Page 14

 Critical Reading: As looking for way of thinking
Monday, March 14, 2022 9:14 AM

Critical Reading as an Extension of Critical Thinking

• Critical Reading is engaging yourself in a text or any material that you are reading.
- Although the word “critical” means to express criticism or disapproval about something
like a book, movie or piece of art, etc., critical reading does not necessarily mean that you
have to be “critical” of something that you read.

• Critical Thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally, and the ability to understand the
relation of ideas presented.
- Similar to a critical reader, you as a critical thinker should be able to question ideas and
assumptions and should not just accept them without analyzing if there is truth to them or
not.

A critical thinker must possesses the following characteristics:

1. Understands the relation of one idea to another.
2. Determines the importance and relevance of ideas and arguments.
3. Recognizes, builds and appraises of ideas and arguments.
4. Identifies inconsistencies and errors in reasoning.
5. Approaches problems in a consistent and systematic way.
6. Reflects on the justification of his own assumptions, beliefs and values.

Critical Reading Strategies

Annotating
• It is underlining or highlighting the important ideas or points in a text like thesis
statement, topic sentence, supporting details, body of the material and the conclusion.
1. Circle important words. Add a synonym or 2-3 word explanation in the margin.
2. Mark new and/or big ideas. Summarize the idea in 2-3 words within the margin.
3. Draw arrows. To show related ideas. Label the connection in 2-3 words noted in the
margin.
4. Number 1 step. 2 list. 3 details. Note in 2-3 words what all the numbers represent.
5. LOL. Mark humorous words.
6. ?. Jot questions and confusions in the margin.
7. <-> Mark ideas/opinions that contradict what was previously read or learned. Summarize
the alternative viewpoint within the margin.
8. + Identify additional information learned about a previously-mentioned idea.

Contextual Reading
• A reader studies the author of the text, the time or period when the author wrote it and
the important events that occurred during the time the text was written.

Outlining
• An outline is an overview of a document in which information and ideas are arranged
according to hierarchy – the main idea being at the top followed by the rest of the
supporting ideas or subtopics.

Summarizing
• It is the condensing or writing of a material in the reader’s own words. It is shorter than
the original text, but contains the important ideas or information that a reader needs to
know.

Paraphrasing
• One way of understanding a text better is to paraphrase it. Paraphrasing is putting or

READING AND WRITING SKILLS Page 15

 • One way of understanding a text better is to paraphrase it. Paraphrasing is putting or
writing a text in your own words but maintaining the original information as given by the
author.

Comparing and contrasting

• Comparing is naming the similarities of two or more ideas or information. Contrasting is
naming their differences.

Evaluating an argument
• A critical reader must not accept anything on face value; instead, he or she must evaluate
whether the claim or the argument that the author is presenting is true and can be
supported by evidence.

Reflecting on challenges your beliefs and values

• There are reading materials that will affect your emotions: They may disturb, challenge or
confuse you. Other materials will inspire you. Some will even threaten, embarrass or
shame you.

Looking for patterns of opposition

• This strategy should not be confused with number 8 strategy. Some writers present
opposing issues or hints and these are what a critical reader or thinker may use in his or
her analysis of the text.

Judging the writer's credibility

• There are three questions that you can ask to check if the writer of the text is credible
enough to get your approval of what s/he has written.

Exploring the figurative language

• Figurative language is a language that uses words or expressions with a meaning different
from literal interpretation.

Recognizing emotional manipulation

• Some writers may become emotionally manipulative if they want their readers to agree
with them or to believe what they are saying and resort to false and exaggerated
statements or appeals

SQ3R Method
• This method was introduced by Francis Pleasant Robinson.
• Survey means to browse the book to identify headings and other features of the text.
• Question as term implies, is to formulate questions about the text.
• Read is to begin the reading material.
• Recite is to answer the questions that have been formulated in Q.
• Review is for the student to test himself by recalling the information he has learned.

Explicit and Implicit Information

As a critical reader, you should be able to use textual evidence when you are asked by your
teacher to support your analysis of what the writer has explicitly or implicitly stated in the text
you are required to read.

Explicit - It is a term which means fully revealed or expressed that there is no room for any
confusion on the writer.

Implicit - It is the opposite of explicit. The idea is not openly stated and is just suggested or
implied.

READING AND WRITING SKILLS Page 16

Interference - It is a conclusion or opinion formed or based on both information (explicit and
implicit) or evidence and reasoning.

Ex.
Dear father,
You asked me recently why I maintain that I am afraid of you. As usual, I was unable to
think of any to answer your questions, partly for the very reason that I am afraid of you, and
partly because an explanation of the grounds for this year would mean going into far more
details that I could even approximately keep in mind while talking. And if I now try to give you an
answer in writing, it will still be very incomplete, because even in writing this fear and its
consequences hamper me in relation to you and because (anyway) the magnitude of the subject
goes far beyond the scope of my memory and power of reasoning.

Explicit Information
1. The writer is afraid of his father.
2. The writer’s father recently asked the writer why he (writer) maintains being afraid of him.
3. The writer has a big reason why he is afraid of his father.

Implicit Information
1. The writer has had a bad experience with his father.
2. There are many reasons why the writer is afraid of his father.
3. The writer is afraid to even recall the instances that made him afraid of his father.

Interference
1. The writer’s father must have treated him badly when he was a young boy that makes him
fear his father that much.
2. The father is trying to patch things up between him and his son.

What is claim? What is fact?

- Claim is the writer’s point
or position regarding a
specific topic.
- It is the central argument
in the text where the
writer tries to prove by
providing explanation,
justification, and
evidences.
- It is an assertion, a
declaration or an
affirmation.
- It is a true piece of information, something that truly exists or happens.
What is opinion?
- It is a belief, a viewpoint or a way of thinking about something.
Claim in a text
1. Claim
2. Fact
3. Opinion
Good claims have the following characteristics:
1. Argumentative and debatable - triggers readers/listeners to raise objections.
2. Specific and focused – has direction and clear connection.
3. Interesting and engaging – encourages the readers to consider the writer’s
perspective.
4. Logical – results from reasonable weighing of support provided.

Three Types of Claims

a.) Claim of Fact b.) Claim of Policy c.) Claim of Value

- It is a statement that report,
describe, predict, and make
causal claims.
- Claim of policy is a specific
statement on procedures or
laws that need to be modified
based on certain issues or
- Claims of value are arguable
statements.
- Discussions normally happen
when one attempts to prove that
something is more or less

READING AND WRITING SKILLS Page 17

 - It is a statement that report,
describe, predict, and make
causal claims.
- It asserts that something has
existed, exists, or will exist
based on the data.
- It relies on reliable sources or
systematic procedure to be
validated through science or
history.
- Arguable/ debatable
- Can be objectively proven.
- Based on reasonable inference
- Can be justified and validated
Note: Do not be confused of the
claim of fact with fact.
A fact is a statement that has been
proven while Claim of Fact is an
inference, an interpretation of facts.
READING AND WRITING SKILLS Page 18
- Claim of policy is a specific
statement on procedures or
laws that need to be modified
based on certain issues or
conditions.
- It suggests that specific actions
should be done or chosen as
solution to a particular problem.
- Most of the time, claims of
policy ask for plans of action to
solve current problems.
- It proposes that an action be
taken or discontinued.
- It defends actionable plans,
usually answers “how”
questions.
- It contains auxiliaries such as
“should, ought to, must”.
- State your proposal clearly.
- Support your claim with enough
evidence.
- Prove that the current
conditions are less desirable and
that they should be changed.
- Show the suggested law or
policy is the best one that they
need to be adopted.
statements.
- Discussions normally happen
when one attempts to prove that
something is more or less
desirable than the other.
- Aesthetic and moral arguments
are value claims.
- You have to remember that
claims of value are almost
subjective; thus, you have to
prepare persuasive explanations
and arguments to defend and
prove your stand.
- One of the strategies that you
could use is to always touch on
the emotions of the people and to
consider their possible beliefs and
opinions on the issue.
 Text Development
Wednesday, March 16, 2022 8:11 AM
Hypertext
- digital text in which the reader may navigate related
information through embedded hyperlinks.
- One of the recent developments in reading has
been brought about by the advancement of
technology.
- Hypertext connects topics on a screen to related
information, graphics, videos, and music—
information is not simply related to the text.
- This information appears as links and is usually
accessed by clicking.
- The reader can jump to more information about a
topic, which in turn may have more links.
- This opens up the reader to a wider horizon of
information or to a new direction.
- It is a way to organize information in a digital format
that makes use of traditional text structures (words,
sentences, pages, articles or chapters, books, and
libraries) as enhanced by the multiple linkages
(words to words, words to sentences, sentences to
sentences, sentences to pages, pages to pages,
pages to chapters, and so on) possible in
cyberspace.
Why is hypertext important?
- One good thing that hypertext does is allowing
readers to shift to different web pages almost
instantly.
- When you get to navigate around the internet and
view several web pages in a matter of seconds or
minutes, you have a greater chance of getting a
better picture of the entire scenario in a fast
manner.
- Hyperlink
○ is an automated cross-reference to another
location on the same document or to another
document which, when selected by a user,
causes the computer to display the linked
location or document within a very short
period of time.
READING AND WRITING SKILLS Page 19
Intertext/Intertextuality Some of famous Filipino Artists
1. Francisco Balagtas
- reference to one text within another. ○ Florante at Laura
- Intertextuality is the modelling of a text’s meaning by another 2. Nick Joaquin
text. ○ The Woman With Two Navels
- It is defined as the connections between language, images, 3. Lualhati Bautista
characters, themes, or subjects depending on their similarities in ○ Bata, Bata, Pa'no Ka Ginawa?
language, genre, or discourse. 4. Jose Rizal
○ Noli me Tangere and El Filibusterismo
Types of Intertextuality
 Revision Context of the Text
 features a close relationship between anterior and - There is always an inspiration behind the writing of a text, and
posterior texts. often, it leaves clues about the situation or the reality that
 prompted by external circumstance - censorship, or served as its backdrop.
theatrical, legal, or material exigencies. - . This backdrop, this situation, this reality is known as the
 The films and television programs approved by the Movie context of the text.
and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB)
after obtaining appropriate rating. - creates meaning by providing precise and useful information
 Translation that can push forward a story or facilitate its understanding.
 transfers, 'carries across’, a text into a different language, - is important because it helps you connect and create a
recreates it anew relationship with the reader.
 The Bible publishing in different languages
 the latter text explicitly claims the identity of the original. Text Development
 Quotations 1. Purpose
 Literally reproduces the anterior text (whole or part) in a ○ It must have an aim or an objective.
later text. 2. Audience
 variously marked for reader recognition, by typographical ○ Remember that you cannot always resonate to every
signals, by a switch in language, for example single person in the world; you need to focus on a target
 Proverbs. audience.
 Parody 3. Context and Meaning
 an imitation of a particular writer, artist or a genre, ○ Your work needs to have substance.
exaggerating it deliberately to produce a comic effect
 Humorous, overstressing noticeable features of a famous
piece of literature
 Pooh’s imitation of Senator Pacquiao
 Pastiche
 a literary piece that Imitates another famous literary work
of another writer with the purpose of honoring it and not
mocking it.
 Imitation but the purpose is to respect or honor the
author.
 lighthearted but respectful in its imitation.
 Romeo and Juliet Play in Taylor Swift’s Love Story song
How to use intertextuality?
 How you employ another text in your work depends on your
purpose.
 Recognizing and understanding intertextuality leads to a much
richer reading experience which invites new interpretations as it
brings another context, idea, story into the text at hand. It also
provides one way for students to compose their own texts.
Coping with Stress in Middle and Late Adolescence
Wednesday, March 16, 2022 11:47 AM

What is stress?
- Some researchers define stress as the challenging stimulus or things that happen to people, like a
time-pressured exam, being in an unfamiliar place or the death of a loved one.

- other researchers also define stress as a person’s response to what happens to her/him.

- “Quarter life crisis is not an internal problem. It’s an internal reaction to external problems.” -
Aaron Atayde

- A more encompassing definition of stress would be the subjective experience of distress in

response to perceived environmental problems (Kring, Davidson, Neale & Johnson, 2007).

- Stress is characterized by feelings of tension, frustration, worry, sadness, and withdrawal.

- These feelings commonly last from a couple of hours to a few days, but for some, it may last
longer and may evolve to various forms of self-defeating thoughts and behaviors if left unchecked.

- It is important to become aware whether you are under stress, accept the feelings that come with
it, and try to find healthy and productive ways where you can release or deal with stress.

What Stresses Senior High School Students?

- Break up with a boyfriend or girlfriend and friends
- Increased arguments with or between parents.
- The pressure of expectations from self and others
- Change in parent’s financial status
- Serious illness or injury of a family member
- Pressure at school from teachers, coaches, grades etc.
- Relationships with family and friends
- Health and behavioral problems caused by unmanaged stress:
 Internalizing Difficulties (deep sadness & intense fears)
□ arises from coping with difficulties by turning against yourself within.
 Externalizing Behaviors (aggression & antisocial acts)
□ frustrations and disappointments are acted out in aggressive behavior against
other people.

Questions for interactive discussion:

1. How do you know you are feeling stressed?
2. What are the common causes of your stress?
3. Is there a common theme or area?
4. What are items you have control over?
5. What items are beyond your control?
6. What do you think is the purpose of stress?
7. What ways can you manage stress?

Coping Strategies for Stress

Coping is the way people try to deal with problems, including the problem of handling the typically
negative emotions produced by stress.

PerDev Page 20
negative emotions produced by stress.

Three (3) Broad Dimensions of Coping:

a. Problem-Focused Coping
 is dealing with the actual problems posed by a stressful situation.
 being issue oriented, it is objective and geared toward fixing what is out of order.
b. Emotion-Focused Coping
 is more subjective as it considers the difficulties challenging the feeling states of the
individual, and as such aims to comfort and soothe the stressed person.
 this coping style puts immediate importance to reducing distress and re-establishing
calmness or peace.
c. Avoidance Coping
 this is what happens when you would rather ignore the stressors or fantasize being in
a different non-stressful circumstance either of which does not solve the issue or truly
bring about true relaxation.
 is a refusal to accept and deal with the stressors which unfortunately prolongs and
even possibly worsen the problem.

Personal Ways of Coping with Stress

1. Tackle the problem
2. Create a stress journal or include the topic in your Personal Journal
3. Develop a “stress relief toolbox”

PerDev Page 21
The Challenges of Middle and Late Adolescence
Wednesday, March 16, 2022 11:18 AM

Types of Challenges for the Adolescent

1. Self-esteem
- is your subjective evaluation of your own worth.
- Do you sometimes feel badly about yourself? Try to reflect about what specifically causes you to
feel badly about yourself.
- Can you also see yourself in an objective and balanced manner?
- Can you equally notice your strengths as well as weaknesses?

2. Physical Appearance
- Do you sometimes feel bad about how you look?
- Do you compare yourself to models or celebrities?

3. Group belongingness
- Do you have a group of friends that you can easily relate to? Do you feel like you belong in that
group?
- What do you like and dislike about your group?
- Do you sometimes feel pressured to do things you do not want to do?

4. Relationship
- What’s your relationship like with your parents? How do you interact?
- What is your relationship like with your friends? How is it different from your relationship with
your parents?
- What about romantic relationships?

5. Sexuality and sexual relationships

- Has the view on sexuality and sexual behavior changed in the recent years? -
- Have Filipinos become less conservative, or more conservative about these matters?
- What about you?

6. Academic concerns
- How have your grades been in the recent years?
- Have you set a goal for the grade you wish to attain: Is this subjective? For the whole year?
- What usually motivates you to study?
- What keeps you from studying even when you know you need to do it?
- How important are grades in school for you?
- Do you think that your grades reflected what and how much you learned? If not, why not?

7. Choosing the right course and career path

- Have you decided which college you want to go to?
- How about what course to take up?
- Or what about what career path you want to take?
- What makes you excited to wake up each day?
- What would you be happy doing on a daily basis?

Freud's View of the Human Mind: The Mental Iceberg

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Freud's Defense Mechanisms
Defense Mechanism Description Example
Repression Unknowingly placing an Not remembering a traumatic
unpleasant memory or thought incident in which you
in the unconscious witnessed a crime.
Regression Reverting back to immature Throwing temper tantrums as
behavior from an earlier stage an adult when you don't get
of development your way.
Displacement Redirecting unacceptable Taking your anger toward
feelings from the original your boss out on your spouse
source to a safer, substitute or children by yelling at them
target. and not your boss.
Sublimation Replacing socially unacceptable Channeling aggressive drives
impulses with socially into playing football or
acceptable behavior inappropriate sexual desires
into art.
Reaction-formation Acting in exactly the opposite Being overprotective of and
way to one's unacceptable lavishing attention on an
impulses unwanted child.
Projection Attributing one's own Accusing your bf of cheating
unacceptable feelings and on you because you felt like
thoughts to others and not cheating on him.
yourself.
Rationalization Creating false excuses for one's Justifying cheating on an
unacceptable feelings, exam by saying that everyone
behavior, or thoughts. else cheats.

PerDev Page 23
Mental Health in Middle and Late Adolescence
Tuesday, March 8, 2022 5:12 PM

Mental Health in childhood and adolescence is defined as

"the achievement of expected developmental milestones and the establishment of effective coping skills, secure
attachments, and positive social relationships"
(Friedrich, Mendez, & Mithalas, 2010, as cited in URBIS, 2022).

achievement of expected developmental milestones

- Remember Erik Ericson's stages of psychological development that "there are things that we have to
accomplish as growing individuals."
- The more accomplishments you gather, the more healthier you are mentally.

effective coping skills

- Remember the coping mechanisms, those are your coping skills and remember that it's important the way we
cope must be productive and more importantly it must be effective if it works for you continue doing it and if it
doesn't work on you, yet look for other coping mechanics that would really bring about peace of mind.

secure attachments
- Growing up definitely our circle of friends will grow aside from family members, we we're having school
friends, childhood friends, church mates, and so on and so forth. These people are going to be the source of
our attachments and it is important that it is secured.
- Be friends with people who makes you feel secured about yourself and positive social relationships.
- Just because they're fun to be with, doesn't mean they are the right people in your life.
- It's going to reflect on you because on the type of friends you have, it's not going to define you but the more
time you spend on people who are more positive towards their view of life, definitely it will radiates towards
you and from you, you will radiates to your loved ones and people around you.
- So it is important to surround yourself with good people who are good to you and others.

To be mentally healthy as an adolescent, one thing to look for is if they are enjoying a positive quality of life, free of
psychopathology or mental illness and are able to function well at home, school, and in their communities.

Who are the people who will consider as mentally healthy individuals?
- The people who have positive quality of life.
- The better you are at handling or managing stress and solving problems, the less stress you experience and the
better quality way of living in a daily basis.

Mentally healthy people are free of psychopathology or mental illnesses and are able to function well.
- Not just function, but function really well.
- Include yourself in an organization that is your passionate about and events you want to support and have
same values as you and reflects how you want to view the society.

Psychological Well-Being
Dr. Seligman proposed PERMA:
Positive Emotions
- when you're going through something, you're not just dwelling in the negative feelings or emotions
incorporated with it, you look at it from the perspective of optimism or positivity.
- The more positive emotions you have, the better you are psychologically.
- We will get this by handling or managing stress really well and knowing how to solve problems that are coming
strategic way.
Engagements

PerDev Page 24
Engagements
- It is more on continually giving yourself tasks or activities that you could do that would really test your skills
and enhance your what you have.
- So the more you engage in a lot of different things the more better you are at handling situations especially
when you are in new environments.
- The more you engage yourself in a different activities, the more we become aware about who we are, the
more become aware of our strengths and weaknesses.
Positive Relationships
- If you surround yourself who are good to you and for you, definitely that would be the reflection of you
towards your loved ones whereas you spend more time with people who are negative or people who radiate
negative energy, toxicity, if you surround yourself with that, it will develop as a habit on you.
- You have to become mindful and sensitive on what kind of environment you expose yourself.
Sense of Meaning
- Meaning is defined as belonging to or surveying something you believe is bigger than the self.
- Look for something that's like bigger on you, joining an organization or supporting a political candidate.
- If you support political candidate and you think this political candidate really reflects the values and the norms
of the society, then you support the person more than that you're like campaigning that person to promote
that candidate.
- It is become bigger than you because you know that this kind of candidate that Philippines needs right now,
especially during the pandemic and you know that this candidate is really helpful because of this candidates
platforms.
- You're doing it for others.
Sense of Accomplishments
- You have to achieve something, accomplish something from time to time because it's going to be a
determining factor on your psychological well-being.
- The more you accomplishments you have the better you are on trusting yourself that you are capable that you
can do things and you can make changes, you have the ability to do what you want.
- So even in little accomplishment, they sum up together. They mean that you're a fighter or trying hard to
everything you could for accomplishing things.

Mental Health Concerns in Adolescence

- If you are not good on handling your stress, it's going to be the result of either internalizing difficulties or
externalizing behaviors.
- Result of not handling too much stress.

Depression
- It is the largest cause of the burden of the disease among young people.
- It is manifested as negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
- There is a deep sense of hopelessness and possible even despair.
- Feeling of emptiness, you don’t feel like you functioning really well or doing something good.

Anxiety
- One of the most common mental health concern in adolescence.
- It is more on feeling unease.
- Often leads to depression.
- You have to control yourself. Anxiety is stressful.
- What can you do? Do something you love and practice breathing exercises.

Conduct Disorder
- It is defined as repetitive and persistent patterns of behavior that violates social norms, human rights, and
rules.
- It is pattern of behavior that is harmful to the person.

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Eating Disorder (Anorexia Nervosa & Bulimia Nervosa)
- We've talked about that stress eating is a coping mechanism and it is not habit that you should practice.
- But if you stress eating something health, definitely let's allow ourselves to do that but not in moderate eating,
it should be regulated.
- Anorexia Nervosa - more on excessive restrictions of food intake. Less eating, like you are not eating and it
usually stemming in body conscious to achieve the standard of beauty in society which is another
manifestation of self-esteem.
○ If you have high self-esteem, then you'll not have stress in eating.
○ Be aware and avoid it.
- Bulimia Nervosa - binge eating, too much eating and you'll self-induce vomiting or taking laxatives that causes
a person to vomit of what he/she ate.
- They want to stay fit but they will become guilty later so they will vomit.

Self-injury
- It's more on intentional damage to the body tissues in connection with or to change a particular feeling of
emotion.
- Strong feeling or strong emotions and the person will not handle and cause self-injury
- It is externalizing behavior, he will take an action to hurt his or her body.

Risky Sexual Behavior

- It could be any form like unprotected sex, sexual intercourse, having multiple sexual partners.
- Premarital sex, intercourse before marriage; it is looked down by Catholic Church or religious sects who
believes in marriage.
- It is still inappropriate for us to engage sexual intercourse especially if you are not educated about it.
- That's why you are need to involved in this type of education even if you have not experience sex.
- It is an externalizing behavior.

Substance Abuse
- In this troubled world, they escape the problems by drinking, smoking, taking pills, and even using illegal drugs
to forget about their problems.

Antisocial Behavior
- Covers a wide range of actions from theft to burglary, physical abuse to substance abuse.
- Umbrella of which a lot of this mental health concern.

Post-traumatic stress
- More on continually relieving a trauma that has happen in person's life.
- Some traumas can be forever.
- a.k.a. PTSD or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.
- Bullying, early pregnancy, rape, killing are the example of this type of stress.
- It can cause hallucination, it distorts reality, it pushes the trauma down to the deeper area of your brain.
- Try to navigate, try to handle that trauma like a band aid.

Getting Support for Mental Health…

 Friends, Peers
○ First, it is important you stay in connection with your friends and peers.
○ Why they are in the top list in the support system that we need in order to have a mentality?
□ It's because your friends and peers - people in the same age as you or this are the people
who are in the same association or organization as you.
□ It's because they are the people who share the same experience with you.
□ They're much pretty relatable and relate to them more than any other age brackets.
□ The age bracket that we have with the same age as us like similar experience for what we
have.

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 have.
□ Especially difficulties or challenges.

 Family Members
○ It is important to encourage healthy and open communication inside the house.
○ It's really going to help your mental health
○ Reaching out to your family members, these are the first people that we are with them on the daily
basis.
○ If these are about difficulties, emotional baggages and so on and so forth.

 Teachers
○ Could be a great source of support.
○ Whenever you going through something really hard or something really difficult, they always here.
○ They are the second parents, they are here to help you.

 Counselors
○ Who you can run to when you experience problems like therapists and guidance counselors.
○ To whom we can talk about our difficulties or the challenges we are going through in life.
○ Along with having a strong like personality, when we say strong personality towards problems, it would
be easier to people who have strong personality to go through the problems on their life.
○ Remind yourself that there is a support system that you can rant to whenever you experiencing
problems.

The Road to Psychological Well-Being…

A. Improving social skills.
○ Social Skills
a. Try to understand different perspective.
 Do not just look at a situation from one perspective or from your point of view.
 Trying to put your feet on other people shoes.
 Try to look at how they perceive the problem.
 How would other people look at this problem? Why are other people find it easy to navigate their
way around this problem and I find it difficult maybe it's because you're not looking at the problem
from different perspective.
 In socializing, whenever you in this situation, try to think about how other people would feel.
 Try to think how other people would perceive on what you do.
b. Learn to listen with empathy.
 Do not listen with an intent to reply instead listen intent to understand.
 It is comfy if the people around you listen.
 You're not just hearing the story of others, you're listening with empathy.
 Be emphatetic towards other people' struggles.
 Pain is subjective, what you see in things are subjective.
c. Develop emotional intelligence.
 Emotional intelligence is another factor that could really affect your whole well-being.
d. Learn to read facial expressions
 Non-verbal signals are like supports in verbal expression of an individual.
 Non-verbal signals going to solidify the verbal expressions of other people.
 If the verbal and non-verbal expressions are not connected, it's definitely going to cause
contradicting thoughts on the end of the listeners.
 Try to read facial expressions especially if you look to their eyes, you can identify if it is true or not
or there's something off.
e. Learn impulse control
 Simply speaking without thinking.
 It is important to be self-aware.

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  It is important to be self-aware.
f. Learn to use the 'I' message
 Insert yourself in the conversation.

B. Problem Solving skills.

1. Identify the problem.
 What cause the problem?
 Look at the problem objectively.
2. Brainstorm possible solutions.
 Solution 1,2,3.
 Try and think about the possible solutions that you could use to solve the problem.
3. Evaluate the pros and cons of each solution.
 What is good in the solution 1?2?3?
 And what are the bad sides of it?
4. Choose the best option.
 Pick one solution.
5. Create a back-up plan.
 If the solution you have chosen didn't work, you should have back-up plan.
 Use plan a,b,c.
 It will help to boost our psychological well-being.

C. Developing self-esteem.
1. Make progress toward a goal.
 The matter is you make progress.
 Do not focus on achieving it, focus on the steps to achieve that.
 Allocating your energy to the important matters.
2. Learning things at school.
 Definitely boost your self-esteem if you learn new things on a daily basis.
 Your giving yourself that your smart and you can do those things.
3. Make friends and get along.
- You have to make friends to develop self-esteem.
4. Learn skills - music, sports, art, cooking, tech skills.
 It will boost your skills to make you feel you're capable, hat you're worthy because you can do
things.
5. Help, give, or be kind
 Through happiness is found from helping other people.
 You will become true happy if you know you're beneficial and helpful to other people.
6. Get praise for good behaviors
 Practice good behaviors from time to time and be aware on the behaviors that are inappropriate
that you have.
 The more you're in control of your misbehaviors, the more you develop your good behaviors, the
higher your self-esteem becomes.
7. Try hard at something.
 You're trying too hard because is what you desire, or what you want.
8. Do things you're good at and enjoy.
 Do things that your soul ignites.
9. Feel understood and accepted.
 Reminder that there are people loves us.
 Go to your support systems.
10. Get a prize or a good grade they know they've earned.
 Don't get discourage on grade you have because it is our reflection of our effort and attention.
 If you really give it your all, be happy for it.

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How A Society is Organized
Wednesday, March 16, 2022 10:55 AM

Groups within Society

Groups
- Are the smaller units that compose society.
- It have been responsible for the development and advancement of cultures, economics, politics, and
other aspects of human civilization.

“Man as a social animal”

- According to Plato, human being are naturally equipped with tools such as language and reason that
enable them to engage others in meaningful interaction

Social Group
- a collection of individuals who have relations with one another that make them interdependent to
some significant degree.
- Can be a collection of two or more people who interact with one another, share similar
characteristics , and collectively have a sense of unity.
- Characteristics:
 Reciprocal relationship.
 Sense of unity and feeling of sympathy towards each other
 We feeling: members defend their interest collectively.
 Similar behavior: for achieving the common goals and interest
 Group norms: every group has its own set of rules and norms
- Interdependence is a necessary condition that exists within social groups because it is what enables
its members to pursue shared goals or promote common values and principles

Primary Group
- A small, intimate, and less specialized group whose members engage in face to face and emotion-
based interactions over an extended period of time.
- Interdependence among members is characterized by a deep and profound relationship with each
other.
- Some of the examples include family, close friends, work-related peers, classmates and church
groups.

Secondary Group
- Are larger and less intimate, and more specialized groups where members engage in an impersonal
and objective- oriented relationship for a limited time.
- Mutual benefit, rather than emotional affinity, becomes the driving force that compel individuals to
stay together in a secondary group.
- Professional relationships between lawyers and clients, and a corporation that has hundreds of
employees are examples of secondary group.

In-groups
- a group to which one belongs and with which one feels a sense of identity.
- Characteristics:
○ Members of such groups devise ways to distinguish themselves from nonmembers. This may
come in the form of group titles, symbol and even rituals required for membership.
○ Members display positive attitudes and behavior toward their fellow members, while may
exhibit negative attitudes and views toward members of their out-groups.
○ Similarities and shared experiences foster unity and cooperation among group members

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Out-groups
- A group to which one does not belong and to which he or she may feel a sense of competitiveness
or hostility.
- It is a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition.
- It is a group that an individual identifies in negative direction.
- Sports teams, unions, and sororities are examples of in-groups and out-groups; people may belong
to, or be an outsider to, any of these.

Reference Groups
- A group to which an individual compares himself or herself.
- It is a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions individual
compares himself or herself.
- Such groups strongly influence an individual’s behavior and social attitudes whether he or she is a
member of these groups.
- Example of reference group include an individual’s primary group (family, work colleagues, etc.) or
his or her in-groups (church, fellow club members, neighbors in the community, etc.

Networks
- refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or and the larger social institutions to
which they all belong to.
- In the age of the Internet, a good example of networks are those provided by social media platforms
such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram.
- In traditional societies, networks are exclusive, limited, and mostly defined by kinship. Modern
societies feature more expansive , diverse, and overlapping social networks

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Looking Back at Human Bio-cultural and Social Evolution
Wednesday, March 9, 2022 6:23 PM

Growth and Development of Societies

Societies are said to have evolved as human beings learned to adapt to their environment.

Three Types of Societal Evolution

1. BIOLOGICAL
2. CULTURAL
3. TECHNOLOGICAL

Biological Evolution
- refers to the process whereby organisms undergo various and genetic and physical changes that pave
the way for biological diversity.

Evolution is defined as the process of growth and development or the theory that organisms have grown
and developed from past organisms.

According to Francisco Jose Ayala, a noted Spanish-American biologist, the theory of evolution in biology
suggests that "the various types of plants, animals, and other living things on earth have their origins in
other pre-existing types and the distinguishable differences are due to modifications in successive
generations."

Cultural Evolution
- It refers to the changes or development in cultures from a simple form to a more complex form of
human culture.

Technological Evolution
- as they learned to create various tools and equipment for their daily tasks such as planting crops,
domesticating animals, and trade.

The Evolution of Social and Political Institutions

In the 19th century

- The anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan came up with an evolutionary scheme that divided history
into three stages of development: savagery, barbarism, and civilization.

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 Scheme of Social Evolution 1818-1881
1. Civilization
2. Upper Barbarism
3. Middle Barbarism
4. Lower Barbarism
5. Upper Savagery
6. Middle Savagery
7. Lower Savagery

He stated that the…

Savage stage - is the lowest stage of development which is exemplified by the nomadic and hunter-gatherer
lifestyle.
Barbaric stage - it is the middle stage of development where people began learning agricultural techniques
and the domestication of animals.
Civilized stage - is the highest stage of development where people learned writing.

The evolution of human beings has given rise to the development of social organizations from hunting-
gathering groups to agricultural communities and industrial societies.

Hunting and Gathering Societies

- assigned the task of hunting to the men, while women were employed in gathering.
- the earliest societies were comprised of the hunters gatherers, and were referred to as band-level
societies or simply "bands."

Bands
- They were basically small and nomadic family groups and were plainly organized.
- These groups were believed to be highly egalitarian and nonhierarchical since distinctions were based
on age and sex, and division of labor was natural (i.e., the men hunted and the women gathered)
- Leader was based on qualities such as strength, intelligence, and trustworthiness.
- While the leader exercised a certain degree of authority or influence over band members because of
his skills, he did not exercise power to enforce rules and was not given special status in society.
- Decisions made were usually concerned with moving to another territory, food distribution, and the
settlement of interpersonal conflicts.
- Disputes between bands were rare because they lived far apart from one another. Because of these
characteristics, band-level societies were not considered as political organizations.
- The emergence of more complex social organizations came the advent of agriculture and the
organization of sedentary communities.
- The establishment of permanent settlements, the invention of tools, the introduction of new varied
task, and the increasingly complex social interaction and communication were significant changes in
human society that required new forms of social and political organization.
- This led to the emergence of social inequality, lineage and kinship ties, marking the introduction of
more complex relationships between members of society.

Tribe
- These changes brought about the establishment.
- This was a more formal social organization made up several bands and groups that were connected
through a clan structure or kinship.
- The leader of the of tribe or headman was a more formal and established leader.

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 - The leader of the of tribe or headman was a more formal and established leader.
- Headman
 had significant influence among the members of the tribe and was recognized as a person
of great importance.
 took advantage of the kinship ties among tribe members to assert his authority and
power.
 also performed other responsibilities such as resolving conflict; overseeing activities such
as planting harvesting and the movement of herds; and organizing feasts and
celebrations.
- Chiefdom
 The growth of tribes allowed them to increasingly interact with one another leading to
the establishment of a new political organization.
 which consisted of tribes united under one leader or chief.
 the more complicated interactions among member tribes as well as the large populations
and territories further transformed leadership roles and gave the chief more complex
responsibilities.

Industrial Revolution
- begin the mid-1700s until the 1800s, many societies in the world, particularly in Western Europe.
- This event introduce significant social, cultural, and political changes in the lives of the people in
Europe.
- Among the effects of the Industrial Revolution were increased migration, the growth of urban
populations, changes in lifestyle, production, technological increased advancement, and the rise of
the middle class.
- It is widely believed that the factors that influenced the Industrial Revolution were mainly
technological in nature.
- The inventions and technological breakthroughs that were achieved significantly altered economic
activities, paving the way for massive social, cultural, and political changes in society.
- The increased use of mechanical devices and the discovery of steam power led to the development of
the factory system, which brought about many changes in society.
- Flying Shuttle - John Kay
- Spinning Jenny - James Hargreaves
- Water Frame 1769 - Richard Arkwright

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Social Insitutions
Wednesday, March 9, 2022 8:01 PM

Social institutions
- refer to organized sets of elements such as beliefs, rules, practices, and relationship that
exist to attain social order.
- It also refers to well- established and structured relationships between groups of people
that are considered fundamental components of society’s culture.

Two Approaches
i. Institutional approach
□ tells us that social institutions are ordered sets or rules, norms, beliefs,
or values that organize human behavior.
ii. Relational approach
□ focuses on social relations rather than rules, norms, beliefs, or values.

Family
- The smallest social institution with the unique function.
- It is the basic unit of Philippine society and the educational system where the child begins to learn
his ABC or alphabet
- The basic agent of socialization because it is here where the individual develops values, behaviors,
and ways of life interaction with members of the family.

Kind of Families
1. Nuclear Family
○ Consist of father, mother, and children
2. Extended Family
○ Consist of parents, children, and other close relatives, often living in close proximity.
3. Reconstituted Family
○ This is a family where one or more parents have been married previously and they bring
with their children from their previous marriage (s).
○ This introduces various combinations of step-father, step-mother, etc.
4. Single Parent Family
○ This type of family is also known as the Lone Parent Family.
○ It consist of one parent, and a child or children residing in one household.
5. Cohabitation
○ Is an arrangement where two people are not married but live together.
○ They are often in a romantic or sexually intimate relationship on a long term basis.
6. Same-sex couples
○ Also known as gay marriage
○ Is the marriage of two people of the same sex or gender entered into in a civil and religious
ceremony.
○ LGBT parenting refers to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender people raising one or more
children as parents or foster care parents.

Kinship
- is a social structure defined by relations among individuals linked by blood or marriage ties.
- It has been found to have a significant influence in defining the social status of individuals in many
societies.

Kinship ties based on Descent:

1. Unilineal
○ affiliates an individual through the descent of one gender only, that is either through males
or through females.

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 or through females.
○ Types of Unilineal
i. Matrilineal Kinship
□ means that one's descent is based on the female line.
□ Common in Native American societies, notably the Crow and Cherokee tribes.
□ In these societies, children are seen as belonging to the women and, therefore,
one’s kinship is traced to one’s mother, grandmother, great grandmother, and
so on (Mails 1996).
ii. Patrilineal Kinship
□ means that one's descent is based on the male line.
□ Such as those in rural China and India, only males carry on the family surname.
□ This gives males the prestige of permanent family membership while females
are seen as only temporary members (Harrell 2001).
iii. Bilineal Kinship
□ Refers to a descent system based on both the male and female lines.
□ Most common in Southeast Asian countries, parents may choose to associate
their children with the kinship of either the mother or the father. (Lambert
2009).
2. Kinship by Marriage
○ Marriage is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that
establishes rights and obligations between them and their children, and between them in
their in-laws.
○ Trends in Marriage
i. Divorce - it is the legal separation of man and wife.
ii. Annulment - – it means to nullify, to make void by competent authority.
○ Ingredients of Happy Marriage
 Love
 Commitment
 Maturity
 Communication
 Honesty
 Growth
 Spiritual Sensitivity
○ Types of Marriage
i. Monogamy - is the practice of having only one spouse at one time or for an entire life
span.
ii. Polygamy - is the practice of multiple marriage. It is a marriage pattern in which an
individual is married to more than one person at a time.
> Types of Polygamy
 Polygyny - it is the practice of one man having more than one wife or
sexual partner at a time. It is the most common form of polygamy.
 Polyandry - – it is the less common form of polygamy. It involves one
woman having multiple husbands.
○ The Filipino Family
- They practice endogamy, the custom of marrying only within the limits of a local
community, clan, or tribe.
- Same tribe, same religion, same skin color. It depends on the same characteristics that
you have.
○ According to place of residence, the family may be classified as:
1) Patrilocal - when the newly married couple lives with the parents of the
husband.
2) Matrilocal - when the newly married couple lives with the parents of the wife.
3) Neolocal - when the newly married pair maintains a separate household and live
by themselves.
○ Kind of Family, According to Authority
i. Patriarchal - Father is considered the head and plays a dominant role.

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 i. Patriarchal - Father is considered the head and plays a dominant role.
ii. Matriarchal - Mother is considered the head and makes the major decisions.
iii. Equalitarian - both the mother and father share in making decisions and are equal in
authority.

Economy
- is a social science concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services.
- is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute
them among different people.

Basic economic problems

1. What goods and services to produce and how much?
2. How to produce goods and services?
3. For whom are the goods and services?

Saligan ng Ekonomiks
a. Adam Smith
- Itinuturing na ama ng ekonomiks.
- May akda sa libro na An Inquiry into the Nature and Cause of the Wealth of Nation.
- Ipinaliwanag sa libro ang konsepto ng laissez-faire na nagsasabing hindi dapat manghimasok ang
pamahalaan sa daloy ng ekonomiya.
b. Karl Marx
- May akda ng The Communist Manifesto
- Sa kanyang teorya, tinalakay niya ang konsepto ng Bourgeoisie at Proletariat.
- Bourgeoisie - ay mga kapitalista na mayroong kontrol sa yaman ng isang bansa.
- Proletariat - ay mga ordinaryong manggagawa na umaasa sa mga kapitalista.

Educational and Health Institutions

- Two institutions that uphold basic human rights are the educational and health institutions.
- Health institutions - ensure that individuals have access to health services to promote universal
public health.
- Educational and health services could be provided by either the state or by private entities.

 Educational institutions
○ ensure that individuals are functionally literate.
○ are also cultural institutions that serve as depositories and preservers of culture.
○ like schools do not only ensure a literate population; they also transmit culture. The beliefs,
norms, values, and practices of a society are taught in classrooms.
○ As such, schools and teachers are agents of socialization.
○ Schools also provide its students with a sense of history.
○ A shared national history and common national culture binds members of the society with
one another.
○ Schools can therefore be a means for the state to create a loyal citizenry.

 Health Institutions
○ are primarily established to ensure public health and to provide universal health services.
There are different kinds of health systems.

a. Western health systems

 are based on science and the skills of health workers are standardized and learned
from health sciences schools.
 Patients are treated based on standardized diagnostic practices.

a. Traditional or Alternative Health Systems

 there are still societies that make use of traditional or alternative health systems.

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  there are still societies that make use of traditional or alternative health systems.
 These health systems have been in existence even before the introduction of western
health systems.
 Illnesses that are not recognized by western health systems are usually referred to
traditional healers. This is therefore indicative that some illnesses are also culture-
specific.

Religion
- is an institution that involves a set of beliefs and practices of a particular social group.
- The beliefs of religious groups affect the behavior of their members.
- It is important therefore to know how the beliefs of a religion affect the actions of its members.
- It may be organized into a group that has universal membership called a church or it could also be
organized into an exclusive group called a sect.
- Two Types of Religion
 Monotheism
□ Is the belief in one god
□ A narrower definition of monotheism is the belief in the existence of only one
god that created the world, is omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient.
□ Christianity, Islam, Judaism are monotheism.
Religion Scripture Worship Place Name of God Founder Holy City
Christianity Bible Church/Chapel/ God Jesus Jerusalem
Cathedral
Judaism Torah Synagogue Jehovah Abraham Jerusalem
Islam(Muslims) Koran or Mosque Allah Muhammad Jerusalem and
Qur'an Mecca
 Polytheism
□ is the worship of many gods.
□ It comes from the word poly meaning, "many," and theism where we get the
word "God."
Hinduism Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu
 Animism
□ is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual
essence.
□ Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather
systems, human handiwork, and perhaps even words—as animated and alive.
□ Shintoism and Jainism are examples of belief systems that contain elements of
animism
□ Not a religion!

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