ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 157

10.05. GAS EQUATION

The gas equation for an ideal gas is

PV= uRT
R is gas constant for 1 mole gas. It has same value for all gases. Hence it is called
Universal Gas Constant. Its value is

R-P_(76x13.6x980) x(22400)
RTo 273
= 8.31 x 10' erg mol-K=8.31 J mol-l K

EXPERIMENT 3

OBJECTTVE
To study the variation in volume with pressure for a sample ofan air at constant

temperature by plotting graphs between P and Vand between P and.

APPARATUS
Boyle's law apparatus, plumb line, a pair of set-squares, a thermometer and Fortin's
barometer.

THEORY
Boyle's Law. It states that the pressure (P) of an enclosed gas (i.e., for a given mass of
the gas) is inversely proportional to its volume (V) provided that the temperature of the gas

remains constant.
For an enclosed gas, at constant temperature (7T)

Po

PV = constant
OT
 158 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS-XI

DIAGRAM (Fig. 10.03.)

Reservoir
Set-square
B

Closed 4
tube

Rubber tube

Scale

888988

Fig. 10.03. Boyle's Law Apparatus.

PROCEDURE (Stepwise)
1. The apparatus is set with wooden board vertical with the help of
heavy metallic base. It is tested by a plumb line. levelling screws in the
2. See the air enclosed in the graduated tube A closed at the
3. Adjust the upper end.
height of other tube B, such that mercury level in it is in
with the level in A. Air horizontal line
pressure in A is equal to the atmospheric
in tube B. pressureon mercury
4. Note the atmospheric
pressure from Fortin's barometer hanging in
5. Also note the
temperature from the thermometer attached to thelaboratory.
barometer.
6. Note the reading of
mercury levels in tube A and B against scale S. It
7. Note volume of enclosed gas in will be same.
8. Move the tube B
graduated tube A.
upwards by about 2 cm. Mercury level in tube A will also rise a
little reducing volume of enclosed air. up
The reduced volume is noted.
9. Pressure of air in tube A increases and
10. Position of mercury level in tube B is mercury level in A remains lower than that in B.
as before. noted theagainst vertical scale using set squares
11. Repeat steps 8, 9, 10 two more times
12. Lower the tube B and hring tha
raising the tube B by 2 cm each time.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 159

13. Move the tube B downwards by about 2 cm. Mercury level in A will also come down a
little increasing volume of enclosed air. The increased volume is noted.
14. Pressure of air in tube A decreases and mercury level in A remains higher than that in
B. Step 10 is repeated.
15. Repeat steps 13 and 14 two more times lowering the tube B by 2 cm each time.
16. Repeat steps 4 and 5.
17. Record observations in tabular form as given ahead.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Initial atmospherie pressure, P1 . cm of Hg

Final atmospheric pressure, P2 . . cm of Hg

Mean atmospheric pressure, Pa =75.0 cm of Hg

2. Temperature almost remained same during observations and T=... "C.
3. Table for mercury levels in tube A and B3

Pressure Volume PV
Position of Hg level Pressure Difference
of air V
(p) (cm) ofAir
In Tube A In Tube B Tube A-Tube B P=Po+P
(cm of Hg (cm' cm
(cm) (cm)
(1a) (16) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

0 75.0 20 0.050 1500

20 20
+3.9 78.9 19 0.053 1499.1
19.5 15.6
83.3 18 0.056 1499.4
19.0 10.7 +8.3
+13.2 88.2 17 0.059 1499.4
18.5 5.3
3.6 71.4 21 0.048 1499.4
20.5 24.1
-6.8 68.2 22 0.045 1500.4
21.0 27.8
9.8 65.2 23 0.043 1499.6
21.5 31.3

(Note. The ideal observationsgiven above

are as sample.)

CALCULATIONS
(a) Through Table
tube B (column 1b) to find
1. Find difference of Hg levels in tube A (column la) and
and write it in column (2).
pressure difference (p)
cm of Hg) to pressure difference p to find total
2. Add atmospheric pressure Po (75.0
column (3).
pressure P(= Po + p) of
air in the tube A and write it in
A in column (4).
3. Write volume V of air enclosed in tube

4. Write value of and PVin columns (5) and (6) respectively.

 160 cOMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS-XI

(b) Through Graph

1.
Draw a graph between P (column 3) and V (column 4), taking P, along X-axis and v
along Y-axis. The graph is a hyperbola (Fig. 10.04).

1
2. Draw
another graph betweenP and (column 5), taking P along X-axis and along
Y-axis. The graph is a straight line with positive slope (Fig. 10.05).

Scale used on
X-axis 1cm Cm of Hg
y axis, Cm:22Cm

P n Hg);

Fig. 10.04. Graph between P and V. It is a

hyperbola.
.

Scale used on
Xaxis cm Cm
Yaxis cm Cm of Hg

1/N (in cm Volume

Fig. 10.05. Graph between P and 1/V. It is a
straight line.
RESULT
1. PV is constant (column 6). It is
2. P-V
according to Boyle's Law.
graph is a hyperbola. It satisfies the relation PV constant. =

3.
Pgraph is a straight line with positive slope. It satisfies the
relation P V
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 161

PRECAUTIONS (to be taken)

1. Air in tube A must be pure and dry.
2. The wooden board must be set vertical.
3. Position of mercury levels must be noted using set squares.
4. Atmospheric pressure must be taken in the beginning and at the end of the experi-
ment. Its mean must be used in calculation.
5. Graph must be plotted carefully.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The air in tube A may not be pure and dry.
2. Base may not be broad and heavy to keep the apparatus stable.

OlDA 0oCE

1. State Boyle's Law.

Ans. Read theory of Expt. 3.
Q.2. Why do we use the mercury in Boyle's law apparatus ?
Ans. Pressure difference (P) is in terms of difference of mercury levels in tube A and B. This differ
ence added algebraically to atmospherie pressure gives the pressure of air in tube A in cm of
Hg.
Q.3. Does Boyle's law hold good under all conditions?
Ans. No. Boyle's law is only hold good when temperature is high and pressure is low.
Q.4. Why is it necessary to make the Boyle's law apparatus vertical?
Ans. Ifit is not vertical, the reading of mercury column will not be accurate.
Q.5. For which gas have you verified Boyle's law?
Ans. For air.
Q.6. What is atmospheric pressure?
Ans. It is the pressure on earth surface due to air column
Pa 1.013x 10- Nm2
Q.7. What is nature of graph between pressure and volume for a gas at constant tempera-
ture.
Ans. Hyperbola.
Q.8. What is nature of graph for P vs. f o r a gas at constant temperature?

Ans. Straight line.

Q.9.
Q.9. How the pressure depend upon radius of tube A andB?
Ans. Pressure does not depend upon the radius (Area) of tube.
Q.10. What is ideal gas equation?
Ans. PV= nRT.
 167
SURFACE TENSION

EXPERIMENT 4

OBJECTIVE

To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.

APPARATUS
Three capillary tubes of different radii and a tipped pointer clamped in a metallic plate

with a handle, travelling microscope, clamp and stand, a fine motion adjustable height stand,
a flat bottom open dish, clean water in a beaker, thermometer

THEORY
Read Art. 11.9.

r(h +r/3) Ps
Surface tension, T=
2 cos 6

DIAGRAM (Fig. 11.03)

Tubes-

Handle Metallic
plate

Clamp

Pointer

Stand-

Dish

Adjustable
stand

Fig. 11.03. Measurement of surface tension by capillary rise.

 168 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS-XI

DIAGRAM (Figs. 11.04 and 11.05)

Horizontal
cross wire

Glass
wall
d
Needle
c

(a) (6)

Fig. 11.04. Water meniscus

through micrcoscope. Fig. 11.05. Measurement of internal diameter
of capillary tube.

PROCEDURE (Stepwise)
(a) Setting the apparatus
1. Place the adjustable height stand on the table and make its base
ling screws. horizontal by level-
2. Take dirt and
grease free water in an open dish with flat bottom and put it
of the stand. on the top
3. Take three capillary tubes of different radii
(ranging from 0.05 mm to 0.15 mm).
4. Clean and dry them, clamp the
capillary tubes in a metallic
ing radius. Also clamp a pointer after third capillary tube. plate
in order of increas-

5. Clamp the horizontal handle of the metallie

OB
plate in a vertical stand, so that the
capillary tubes and the pointer become vertical.
6. So adjust the height of metallic plate that the capillary tubes dip in water in open
dish.
7. Adjust the position of the pointer, such that its tip just touches the water surface.
(b) Measurement of capillary rise
8. Find the least count of the
travelling microscope for the horizontal and the vertical
scale. Record the same in the note-book. Cap
9. Raise the microscope to a suitable
towards the canillary tuhes
height, keeping its axis horizontal and pointed
 LOwer the m1croscope i

Repeat step 12.

(c) Measurement of the internal diameter of the capillary tube

19. Place the first capillary tube horizontally on the adjustable stand.
20. Focus the microscope on the end dipped in water. A white circle (inner bore) sur
rounded by a green circular strip (glass cross-section) will be seen (Fig. 11.05).
. Make horizontal cross-wire touch the inner circle at A. Note microscope reading on

vertical scale.
2 ase the microscope to make the horizontal cross-wire touch the circle at B. Note the
reading (the difference gives the vertical internal diameter AB of the capillary tube).
28. Move the microscope on horizontal scale and make the vertical cross wire touch the
inner circle at C. Note
microscope reading on horizontal scale.
24. Move the microscope to the right to make the vertical cross-wire touch the circle at D.
Note the reading (the difference gives the horizontal internal diameter CD of the
capillary tube).
25. Repeat steps 19 to 24 for other two capillary tubes.
26. Note temperature of water in dish.
27. Record your observations as given ahead.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of travelling microscope (L.C.) = . . . cm.
Table for height of liquid rise

Reading of Meniscus Reading of Pointer Tip

Serial
No. of
Height
Capillary M.S.R. V.S.R. Total M.S.R. V.S.R.
h-ha
Total h (cm)
tube Reading Reading
N n x (L.C.) N+ n(L.C.) N n x (LC.
N+n(L.C.)
(cm) (cm) h (cm) (cm) (cm) hg (cm)
(1) (2a) (2b) (2c) (3a) (36) (3c) (4)
1.
2 3
3. 6 A
 170 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS-XI

Table for internal diameter of the capillary tube

Microscope Reading jor cross Internal Diameter

Wire in Position Internal

Cerillcry A (B) (C) D) Vertical Horizontal Mean radius

AB+CDD d
AB CD
2 2
Cm
fem) (cm (cm) em) (cm) d (cm) r (cm)
1 2a) (2b) (2c) 2d) (3a) (36) (3c) (4)
lo 16
2
2 lo 2

Temperature of water, (t) = . . °C

Density of water at observed temperature, g cm3
P
Angle of contact of water in glass, 8°
.e cos =0.99027 taken as 1.

CALCULATIONS
From formula,

r(h +r/3) pg
=

2 cos 9

Put values of h (column 4-first table) and r (column

4-second table) for each capillary
tube separately and find the value of T (in
dynes cm).
Find mean value,

T-+T+T
3

dynes cm.
RESULT
The surface tension of water at t°C =
. . .
dynes cm.
PRECAUTIONS (6 be taken)
1. Capillary tube and water should be free from
grease.
2. Capillary tube should be set vertical.
3.
Microscope should be moved in lower direction only to avoid back lash error.
4. Internal diameter of capillary tube should be measured in
two mutually
dicular directions. perpen-
5.
Temperature of water should be noted.
THERMAL RADIATION 187

EXPERIMENT 6
OBJECTTVE

To study the relationship betwveen the temperature ofa hot body and time by plot*
ting a cooling curve.
APPARATUS
i
Newton's law of cooling apparatus (a thin-walled copper calorimeter suspenaeu
double walled enclosure), two thermometers, clamp and stand, stop clock/wateh.

THEORY
From Newton's law of cooling.
Rate of cooling o« Difference of temperature of body and surrounding provided the tem-

perature difference should not exceed by 30°C.

dQ
d(T-To)
dt
For a body of mass m, specific heat s, temperature T kept in surrounding of temperature To

Then Q msT

dQ dT
Rate of cooling, = ms
dt dt

Hence,
a
ms (T- To)
dt

OT dTe(T-1
dt
( ms = constant)

hence rate of fall of temperature

As time increase, T decreases,
(T- T) decreases,

must also decrease.

dt
DIAGRAM (Fig. 15.01)

PROCEDURE (Stepwise) put the enclosure

between double wall of
the enclosure with water and
1. Fill the space
on a laboratory table.
with water heated to about 80°C.
calorimeter two-third
2. Fill the with a stirrer in it. Cover it with
calorimeter inside the
enclosure along
3. Suspend the middle.
a hole in its
having
a lid
wooden
in enclosure water and the other in
thermometer
and stand, one
4. Suspend from clamp
calorimeter wate
the thermometers.
5. Note least count of count.
clock/watch at zero and note its least
6. Set the stop
 Clamp Thermometer

Stirrer
Lid
Calorimeter

Water
Stand Double
walled
enclosure

- -

- - - -

Fig. 15.01. Newton's law of cooling apparatus.

7. Note temperature (1,) of water in enclosure.
8. Start stirring the water in calorimeter to make it cool uniformly.
9. Just when calorimeter water has some convenient
temperature reading (say 70°C),
note it and start the stop clock/watch.

10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every one minute. The temperature
falls quickly in the beginning.
11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.
12. When fall of temperature becomes slow note
temperature at interval of two minutes
for 10 minutes and then at interval of 5 minutes.

13. Stop when fall of temperature becomes very slow.

14. Record your observations as given ahead.

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of enclosure water thermometer . "C
Least count of calorimeter water thermometer .. °C
Least count of stop clock/watch S.
THERMAL RADIATION
189

Table for time and temperature

Serial Time for cooling Temperature of Temperature of Difference
t(mt) water in calorimeter water in enclosure oftemperature
No.
To C) T-To (°C)
ofObs. TCC)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
(1)

30 40
1. 0 70
38
2. 1 68
36
3. 2 66
34
4 3 64
32
5. 4 62
30 31
6. 5 61
30
7. 6 60
29
8. 7 59
28
9. 8 58
26
9 56
10.
30 24
10 54
11.
23
12 53
12.
21
14 51
13.
19
16 49
14.
16
18 46
15.
30 14
44
16. 20
30 12
42
17. 25
30 8
38
18. 30
30 6
36
19 35
30 5
35
20. 40
30 4
34
21. 45

sample.)
(Note. The ideal observations given above are as

CALCULATIONS
remain same. If not then take its
in enclosure will be found to
1. Temperature of
water

mean as To. 5 of the table.

difference (T T)-
and record it in column
2. Find temperature (column 3), taking t along
(column 2) and temperature T
time t 15.02. It is called
3. Plot a graph between comes to be
as shown in Fig.

X-axis and T along

Y-axis. The graph
cooling curve' of the liquid.
 190 COMPREHENSIVE PRAcTICAL PHYSICS-xI

Graph between time and temperature

Scale
X-axis: 1 cm 5 minutes of t
Y-axis: 1 cm = 5° C of T
70

65

60 COOLING CURVE
E55
50

45

40

35
********
30 *****

O0 5 10 15 20 25 3035 40 45
******************** **** **** *
************* *
Time(t) in minute **** **
*********:***********************:***

Fig. 15.02. Graph between time (t) and

temperature (0)-cooling curve.
RESULT
The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly as difference of
ture goes on
decreasing. tempera-
This is an agreement with Newton's law of
cooling.
PRECAUTIONS (to be taken)
1. Double-walled enclosure should be used to maintain
perature.
surrounding at a constant tem-
2. Stirring should remain continuous for uniform cooling.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Surrounding temperature may change.