Motivation in sport[edit]

Motivation in field of psychology is loosely defined as the intensity and direction in which effort is
applied. The direction of motivation refers to how one seeks out situations or if they avoid things that
might be challenging. Intensity refers to how much effort one puts into any challenge or situation.
Motivation is tied closely to personality and can be categorized as a personality trait. There are three
general theories of motivation: participant/trait theory, situational theory, and interactional theory.
These theories are similar to those of personality [56].
Participant/trait theory[edit]
Motivation consists of the personality traits, desires, and goals of an athlete. For example, some
athletes might be extremely competitive and have the desire to improve and win constantly. These
athletes would be motivated by competition with themselves and others [56].
Situational theory[edit]
Motivation depends on the situation and environment. For example, some athletes might not feel the
desire to work hard when they are on their own, but are motivated by others watching them. Their
motivation would be dependent on whether or not there are other people around [56].
Interactional theory[edit]
This theory combines the ideas of participant/trait and situational, where the level of motivation of an
individual depends on his/her traits and the situation at hand. For example, if an athlete might be
intrinsically competitive and feels most motivated when participating in a match against many other
people.[56]
Depending on traits and situations, it can be easier for some individuals to find motivation than
others. That being said, those who are able to find motivation more easily are not guaranteed
success and athletes who struggle can adjust some things to improve their drive. Motivation can be
facilitated by coaching or leaders, changing the environment, finding multiple reasons or motives to
do something, and being realistic about what is achievable. High achieving athletes are more likely
to be motivated to achieve success rather than being motivated to avoid failure [56].

Arousal anxiety and stress[edit]

Although anxiety or stress are often believed to a negative thing, they are actually a necessary
response for the body to survive. It is natural for the body to exhibit certain levels of anxiety and
stress, however, it becomes a problem when it begins to inhibit activity. Arousal is the physiological
and psychological activation of the body in response to an event. Trait anxiety exists in an individual
when they experience unusually high response levels to a wide spread of situations that are not
threatening. State anxiety is the momentary feeling of nervousness or worry that accompanies the
arousal of the body. State anxiety can be defined cognitively, where nervous thoughts and worries
occur for a moment. There is also somatic state anxiety, where the body experiences a physiological
response to arousal. This sometimes manifests momentarily as a fluttering in the stomach or an
elevated pulse. There are four major theories of arousal and anxiety [30].
Drive theory[edit]
This approach considers anxiety to be a positive asset. In situations where anxiety is high,
performance increases proportionally. This theory is not well accepted because it is thought that
athletes can be psyched up, but they can also be psyched out. This simply means anxiety can work
to motivated some, but it can inhibit others. It is entirely dependent on the individual's personality, so
it can not be broadly applied to all athletes [30].
Inverted U theory[edit]
This approach proposes that the best performance occurs when stress is moderate (not too high or
low). This idea is demonstrated in a graph where physiological arousal is plotted against
performance. The curve resembles and inverted U because the performance is at its highest value
where the arousal is at half of its highest value. [30]
Zone of optimal functioning theory[edit]
This theory looks at each type each athlete and what level of arousal they need to perform best. This
suggests that each athlete requires their own level of stress and arousal to feel motivated and
perform well. This theory is specific but difficult to quantify. [30] One proposed model for optimal
functioning was proposed by Yuri Hanin. This model focuses on the interaction between natural
emotional experience and the repetition of athletics. The combination of these concepts creates an
emotional pattern that is stable to each individual. It takes into account positive, negative, optimal,
and dysfunctional emotional experiences and how they effect athletic performance. [57] Peak
performance is when an athlete experiences this zone of optimal functioning. This stage is described
as including dissociation and intense concentration to the point of being unaware of one's
surroundings, lack of fatigue and pain, perceptual time-slowing, and feeling power and control. This
state cannot be forced to happen, although athletes can develop control over several psychological
variables that contribute to achieving peak performance. [58] Sport psychologists try to give athletes
the tools to have more control over reaching this peak performance level. These interventions
targets controlling state anxiety and arousal level for the individual and task needs to maximize
performance abilities. Some of the strategies used include cognitive reappraisal, breathing and
relaxation, and hypnosis.[59]
The reversal theory[edit]
This theory states that the level of arousal entirely depends on the interpretation of the situation.
Athletes who view situations as more of a challenge rather than a threat, they will not have such a
strong level of stress and they will be able to perform better. The amount of stress is not as essential
to performance as way that the athlete interprets the event[30].
Stress can stem from trait anxiety, event importance, self esteem, or uncertainty of the situation.
Stress occurs in four stages: the environment presents an event or challenge (physical or
psychological), the individual analyzes the event and perceives the threat level, the stress response
occurs, and the behavior/outcome reflects the stress response. Some stress responses can be
physical, such as muscle tension or somatic state anxiety. Other responses can be psychological,
such as cognitive state anxiety or attention changes [30].
Practice-Specificity-Based Model of Arousal [edit]
The "Practice-Specificity-Based Model of Arousal" (Movahedi, 2007) holds that, for best and peak
performances to occur, athletes need only to create an arousal level similar to the one they have
experienced throughout training sessions. For peak performance, athletes do not need to have high
or low arousal levels. It is important that they create the same level of arousal throughout training
sessions and competition. In other words, high levels of arousal can be beneficial if athletes
experience such heightened levels of arousal during some consecutive training sessions. Similarly,
low levels of arousal can be beneficial if athletes experience such low levels of arousal during some
consecutive training sessions.[60]

Commonly used techniques[edit]

Below are some of the more common techniques or skills sport psychologists teach to athletes for
improving their performance.

Arousal regulation[edit]
Arousal regulation refers to entering into and maintaining an optimal level of cognitive and
physiological activation in order to maximize performance. This may include relaxation if one
becomes too anxious through methods such as progressive muscle relaxation, breathing exercises,
and meditation, or the use of energizing techniques (e.g., listening to music, energizing cues) if one
is not alert enough.[61] The use of meditation and specifically, mindfulness, is a growing practice in the
field of arousal recognition. The Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) Theory is the most
common form of mindfulness in sport and was formed in 2001. The aim of MAC is to maximize
human potential for a rich, full and meaningful life. [62] It includes specific protocol that involve
meditation and acceptance practices on a regular basis as well as before and during competition.
These protocol have been tested various times using NCAA men's and women's basketball players.
In a study done by Frank L. Gardner, an NCAA women's basketball player increased her personal
satisfaction in her performances from 2.4 out of 10 to 9.2 out of 10 after performing the specific MAC
protocol for several weeks. Also, the effect of mental barriers on her game decreased from 8 out of 8
to 2.2 out of 8 during that same time period as a result of the MAC protocol. [63] Another study of the
MAC protocol performed by Frank Gardner and Zella Moore on an adolescent competitive diver
showed that when the MAC protocol is tailored to a specific population, it has the potential to provide
performance enhancement. In this case, the vocabulary and examples in the protocol were tailored
to be more practical for a 12-year-old. After performed the MAC protocol for several weeks, the diver
showed between a 13 to 14 percent increase in his diving scores.[64] This finding is important
because previously the majority of tests performed using the MAC protocol had been on world class
athletes.