Introduction to

Environmental Science
ENV 101
Dr. Sylvia-Monique Thomas
Section 3003; Mon & Wed 7:30–8:50 pm
 Overview – Mineral Resources

1. Mineral Resources
2. What is a mineral?
3. Minerals in our daily live
4. Types of Mineral Resources
5. Mining
• Exploration
• Extraction
• Processing
• Cleaning
6. Regulations
7. Mining in Nevada
 Mineral Resources
• Mineral Resources: minerals or rocks mined from Earth and used
in products we use daily
• We extract raw minerals from beneath our Earth’s surface and
turn them into products we use everyday
• rock granite mined to make countertops
• mineral halite is mined, crushed, and sold as table salt
• minerals and brines are processed to extract specific elements
(mineral commodities)
• Aluminum: extracted from bauxite
• Beneficiation: process of extracting the desired mineral or element
from ore
• Rocks and resources from the lithosphere contribute to our
economies and lives
• Rock: solid aggregation of minerals
 Mineral
• Mineral - inorganic, naturally occurring homogenous solid with definite
chemical composition and ordered (crystalline) atomic arrangement
1. solid
2. inorganic (or identical to an inorganic mineral)
3. natural (or made in a way that mimics nature, has been found in
nature)
4. chemically homogeneous (that is, the mineral contains the same
chemicals throughout; one chemical formula describes the mineral)
5. crystalline (the atoms in a mineral are arranged in an orderly and
repeating pattern)

Minerals are nonrenewable --- they are finite and supplies are
decreasing
Ore: rock with an enrichment of minerals that can be mined for profit
 Examples of Minerals
Mineral Quartz Hematite Diamond Halite
Chemical SiO2 Fe2O3 C NaCl
formula
Elements in Si = silicon, O Fe = iron, O = C = carbon Na = sodium,
these = oxygen oxygen (two Cl =
minerals (two oxygen iron atoms for chlorine
atoms for every every three
one silicon oxygen atoms)
atom)
Crystal
structures

Na Cl

Si O Fe O C
 NOT Minerals
• “Minerals” in a bottle of vitamins and minerals are not real
minerals
• They are elements that may have been extracted from minerals
Elements in our Daily Life
Minerals are Everywhere in our Products
 Minerals in our Daily Life
1.
 Gold

Jewelry Investment Computers (Conductor)

Nuclear Medicine/Cancer Treatment Gold oxides and chlorides are used to color
Dentistry
some glass
 Silver

Jewelry Air Conditioning

Investment

Clothing-Silver inhibits growth of

Solar Power/Reflective bacteria and fungi so is
Coating Water Purification incorporated into the polymer
from which yarns are made
 Copper

Pipe & Tubing Coins Ammunition

Cooking Utensils Brass/Bronze Blue Pigments & Dyes

 Quartz

Glass Abrasives for Sanding & Polish in Toothpaste

Grinding

Fiber Optics
Porcelain Casting Metal Parts
 Fluorite

Manufacturing Fe, Optical Glass Enamel Paints

U, & Al
Lowers the melting point and
aids in removing impurities

Sodium Fluoride in
water & toothpaste Insecticides Refrigerant
(Sodium Fluoride, Cryolite, & Sulfuryl fluoride) One of the main elements in Freon
 Gypsum

Wallboard Bakery Tofu

(Calcined or dry gypsum quickly becomes very hard when water is (cuts down on stickiness) (Coagulator in the making of)
added again)

Wine Making Plaster of Paris Shampoo/Toothpaste

Controls tartness of wine (binding-thickening)
 Calcite

Cement/Mortar Nutritional Filler in Paper Products

(Hardens with Carbonated) Supplements (white pigment or glossy due to crystal
structure)

Carpet Backing White Pigment Antacids

(Adds strength to nylon or wool (Acid Neutralizer)
fibers)
 Minerals consist of Elements
• Availability of any mineral depends on the relative
abundance of certain elements in the Earth’s crust
• Over 98% of the crust is composed of 8 elements
What’s within the crust (by mass)
Elements in the crust Mass%
Oxygen (o) 46.6% All others Common metals (Al,
Silicon (Si) 27.72% Fe, Ca,
Aluminum (Al) 8.13% Na, K,
Iron (Fe) 5.00% Mg)
Calcium (Ca) 3.63%
Sodium (Na) 2.83% Oxygen
Potassium (K) 2.59%
Silicon
Magnesium (Mg) 2.09%
 Mineral Groups
• Elements combine in a variety of ways to make different minerals
• Most minerals contain silicon and oxygen (plus other elements) ----
silicates
• Minerals are divided into groups based on what elements they have
in their structure
• Examples:
• Silicates: SiO4
• Native Elements: composed of one element
• Carbonates: CO32-
• Oxides: O
• Hydroxides: OH-
• Sulfides: S bonded to another element
• Sulfates: SO4
• Phosphates: PO4
 Silicates
Biotite
Beryl
Rhodonit
e

Microcline
Quartz
 Native Elements
Au S
Graphite
(C)

Ag

Hope
Diamond
(C)
 Carbonates
Dolomite
Calcite

Malachite
and Azurite

Rhodochrosite

Smithsonite
 Oxides and Hydroxides

Corundum-Al
oxide

Goethite-
Fe oxide
hydroxide

Limonite-
hydrated iron
oxide
hydroxide
Magnetite-
iron oxide
 Sulfides

Sphalerite -
ZnS

Galena - PbS Cinnabarite -

HgS
 Sulfates
Anhydrite – CaSO4

Celestite
– SrSO4

Gypsum –
CaSO4 . Barite –
H2O BaSO4
 Ease of Use
• Silicate minerals tend to be refractory; they have high melting points and
low solubilities, so they hold onto the elements within them.
• the majority of Earth’s elements are found in silicate minerals
• found in higher quantities in nonsilicate minerals, commonly oxide or
sulfide minerals
• It is more efficient to mine elements when they are found in higher
concentrations.
• nonsilicate minerals are preferred for extraction because it is easier
• example, it is easier and more efficient to extract Fe from hematite
(Fe2O3)

Fayalite Hematite
 Value
• Natural concentrations of useful elements
• We use minerals every day
• Essential part of our society
• Availability of mineral resources affects living
standards, quality of life, and Gross Domestic Product
(GDP)
• 2016 Value
• Raw non-fuel minerals in U.S. ~ $74.6 billion
• Processed products from raw minerals ~ $697 billion
Production Value Minerals By State 2020
 Types of Mineral Resources - Metals
• Metal: an element that is lustrous, opaque, and malleable; can
conduct heat and electricity
• Ferrous (Fe) versus non-ferrous metals (lighter)
• Precious metals: gold, silver, platinum
Types of Mineral Resources -Nonmetallic minerals
• ~90% of use
• Building materials: Sand and gravel; Clay (ceramics)
• Decorative rocks: limestone, granite, marble
• Industrial use
• Agricultural use: Phosphate for fertilizer
• $7 billion/year of sand and gravel are mined in the U.S.
• Phosphates provide fertilizer
• Gemstones (Blood diamonds mined and sold to fund wars in Angola and
other areas)
• Coal, petroleum, natural gas are not minerals (they are organic)

Sand & gravel quarry

Phosphate Halite – salt

 Strategic Metals and Minerals
• Strategic metals and minerals: country uses them but cannot produce
itself; critical minerals
Wealthy
industrial nations
often stockpile
strategic
resources,
especially metals.

80 industrial
metals and
minerals:
between one-
third and one-
half are
considered
strategic
resources
 Strategic Metals and Minerals
• Strategic metals and minerals: country uses them but cannot produce
itself; critical minerals
Wealthy industrial nations often stockpile strategic resources, especially metals.

80 industrial metals and minerals: between one-third and one-half are considered
strategic resources
Extraction of Mining Products
 Strategic Metals and Minerals

“National Strategic and Critical Minerals Policy Act

of 2011.” … “Strategic and critical minerals are vital to
our everyday lives. They are essential components of
renewable energy, national defense equipment, medical
devices, electronics, agricultural production and
common household items. It is imperative that we
identify the roadblocks to meeting our national minerals
needs so that we can become less dependent on foreign
supplies, increase our national security, and create more
American jobs by securing our manufacturing industry
and revitalizing our economy.”
 Geologic processes that create Mineral Resources
• Hydrothermal – hot fluids moving through rocks
produce new minerals
• Igneous origin – crystals settling out of a cooling
magma body
• Metamorphic origin – minerals that physically and
chemically change in response to pressure &
temperature
• Sedimentary origin – created by physical processes or
chemical processes (cause minerals to precipitate out
of water)
 Economic Minerals
• Most economic minerals are metal ores (ores are
minerals with high concentrations of metals)
• Metals are elements that easily give up an electron and
thus have a positive charge (cations)
• Metals consumed in the greatest quantity by world
industry (metric tons annually) are:
• Iron (740 million)
• Aluminum (40 million)
• Manganese (22.4 million)
• Copper (8 million)
• Chromium (8 million)
• Nickel (0.7 million)
Economically useful mineral resources
Mineral Deposits in the U.S.
 US Minerals Net Import Reliance
This map shows the countries that supply mineral commodities for which the United States was more than 50% net
import reliant in 2020.
Critical Minerals
U.S. Import Reliance
Mineral Baby
Mineral Baby
 Per capita
consumption of
common mineral
resources in the
U.S.
 Mineral Availability
• Mineral resources are unevenly distributed across the
globe – controlled by geologic processes
• Demand for minerals is rising
1. Exponential increase in human population
2. Increase in the wealth (GDP) of industrial countries
(China, India, Mexico)
• Remember: minerals, just like fossil fuels, are non-
renewable natural resources
• Finite quantity on Earth
 Addressing Limited Availability
1. Continued exploration (find more)
2. Find a substitute
• Soda cans were originally composed of tin until tin became
scarce (switched to aluminum)
3. Conserve and increase efficiency
4. Recycle
• The amount of recycling is determined by the market –
minerals with a high price (gold) will be more widely
recycled
5. Do without
 Mining
Minerals are obtained by mining
• Mining
• broad sense, it is the extraction of any resource that is nonrenewable
(minerals, fossil fuels, and groundwater)
• in relation to minerals, it is the systematic removal of rock, soil, or ot
her material to remove the minerals of economic interest

Minerals and metals are extracted from ores:

• Ore: a rock in which a valuable or useful metal occurs at a concentration
high enough to make mining it economically attractive
• Economically valuable metals: include copper, iron, lead, gold, alumin
um
• Geologic resource extraction involves the physical processes of mining
and the physical or chemical processes of separating minerals, metals, and
other geologic resources from ores or other materials.
Mining
 Recovery Steps
• The typical steps in recovering a mineral resource and
converting it to a useable state include:
1. Locating it (Exploration)
2. Obtaining it (Extraction)
3. Concentrating it
(Beneficiation/Smelting/Refining)
4. Cleaning up during/afterward
(Remediation/Reclamation/Mine Closure)
Enrichment Factor (economical concentration)
• Enrichment factor: ratio of the metal concentration needed for an
economic ore deposit over the average abundance of that metal in Earth’s
crust
• Mining of some metals (Al and Fe) is profitable at relatively small
concentration factors, whereas for others (Pb and Hg), it is profitable
only at very large concentration factors
• Metal concentration in ore:
• 1000 kg = 690 kg Fe metal + 310 kg waste
• 1000 kg = 1 g Au + 999.999 kg waste
 1. Exploration is Key
• First phase in the mining process
• combination of methods to find suitable mining locations
and determine the location, size, depth, and the orientation/trend of the
deposit:
• Create and review geologic maps (surface and cross sectional).
• Compare area of investigation to similar geological environments
where the mineral has been found in appropriate concentrations
• Visit the potential mine site to complete field studies, which might
entail additional mapping, surface rock sampling, and chemical
analyses
• Enact “noninvasive” depth studies, such as a seismic, or magnetic,
surveys to get a sense of the rock below the surface
• Drill down through the surface to obtain samples (cores) and
confirm data from geologic maps
 2. Extraction
Actual financial viability of a site for resource extraction is
influenced by several factors:
– Concentration of mineral (ore grade)
– Depth to ore
– Technology available
– Potential environmental impact

– Transportation and/or water needs

– Regulations
– Politics and/ or political boundaries
– Social norms
– Human health concerns
 2. Extraction
In general, mining techniques are divided into two primary types:
Surface mining (pit, strip, mountain top, etc.) and underground
mining (shaft), although sometimes both techniques are used at a
single mine.

Sand mine. Bingham Copper Mine, UT. Section of an underground mine.

Underground mining was the most common method prior to 1900;

large-scale surface mining became more prevalent after
technologies were developed to move large amounts of earth.
 3. Processing/Beneficiation
Beneficiation: process through which the desired minerals are
concentrated.
• We process metals and minerals after mining ore
• After mining the ore is crushed and metals are chemically or physically
isolated
• material is processed to purify the metal
• Alloy: metal is mixed, melted, or fused with another
metal or nonmetal substance
• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon
• Smelting: heating ore beyond its melting point then
combining it with other metals or chemicals
• Processes vary depending on the mineral desired,
what form it is in the rock, and composition of the host
Rock (sometimes extraction of multiple commodities;
e.g., silver with copper).
 3. Beneficiation: Crushing

A conveyor belt (or a truck or a train) brings the ore to the crusher. Crushed ore ready for the milling process at Golden
Sunlight Gold Mine.

A conveyor belt may bring the crushed ore to a mill.

 3. Beneficiation: Milling
• crushed ore is placed into a rotating drum with steel rods or balls.
• This serves to break the ore down into individual mineral grains. The ore
becomes a fine-grained powder.
The motion is something like a clothes dryer, only much much louder (with rocks
and steel balls)!
Steel balls help crush ore into Rotating drum filled with crushed ore
individual minerals. and steel balls

Cell phone case for scale

~5 gallon bucket for scale
Water is added and the resultant rock slurry moves on to the next step in the
process (flotation or leaching).
 3. Beneficiation: Flotation
After milling, the fine-grained ore slurry may be subject to a process called
flotation.

This process mixes the slurry with a reagent and adds bubbles. Due to the
(specifically selected) chemistry, the desired minerals will attach to the
bubbles and both will float to the top where they can be skimmed off
and the mineral can be further concentrated.

Crushed ore and Air Froth +

pine oil added mineral Fan pushes..

The slurry remaining at the

Mineral
bottom of the tank is s cks to the
froth and
considered a waste product floats to top
of tank

called tailings. Bubbles Froth + mineral

Spinning paddle Unwanted rock pieces Tailings

Schematic of one method of flotation. Pine oil is a reagent that can be

used for copper beneficiation.
Based on: h p://www.st-augus nes.worcs.sch.uk/intranet/departments/sci2007a/Chemistry/NEWchemstart/metals%20stuff/copper%20stuff/copper%20extr/
froth%20float%20diag.gif
 3. Beneficiation: Leaching
• use of chemicals (such as sulfuric acid or sodium cyanide) to dissolve the
desired metals and transport them, in solution, to a collection area
• desired metals are precipitated out of that solution
• takes place in a vat after milling or instead of milling (pre- or post-
crushing) in large outdoor piles (heaps) or even within the ground itself
(in-situ).

heap leaching, in which the

solution (sodium cyanide,
here) will percolate down
through the pile and be
collected at the bottom.

• leach piles contain the remaining mineral components + chemical fluids and have
many of the same environmental concerns as the tailings/tailing ponds (with
additional chemicals added).
 3. Beneficiation: Smelting
• separates the metal from the
mineral through heating the
mineral until it melts in the Smelting gold.
presence of a material known as a
flux
• desired mineral settles to the
bottom of the melt and can be
separated out
• undesirable waste material is called
slag
The smelter may be off-site from
the mine.

Emissions from this process can be

a source of pollution
Increased regulation and improved Continued concentration of the
technologies in the U.S. have metal may occur at a refinery.
resulted in a reduction in the
amounts and types of dangerous
emissions.
 3. Beneficiation: Tailing
The waste product from the flotation process is called tailings.
These are pumped into impoundments called tailing ponds,
which are usually downhill from the mill (to use gravity to help
transport the material)
They can be thousands of acres in extent and a few hundred feet
thick.

Discharge of tailings slurry into tailings pond. Satellite image of the Berkeley Pit and mining area with tailings and
tailings pond (MT) (2006).
 3. Beneficiation: Tailing
acid mine drainage: sulfide minerals,
often associated with metal ores, can lead
to the development of acidic water
conditions
• influence local soil and water quality
and/or increase dissolved metals
within the water column.

• If tailings dry out, metals may be Above: Dried tailings become

windblown at the Yankee Doodle
transported in the air and inhaled tailings pond.

• accidental catastrophic release of a Left: Copper-laden tailings water at the

tailings pond occurs (i.e., dam failure) Anaconda Smelter Superfund site, ca.

can release much contamination over a 1992.

very short amount of time

• Plastic liners can be put down to

prevent drainage of these
contaminated waters into the
groundwater system
• water can be treated to neutralize it
• Full tailings ponds are covered with an
impermeable liner or soil Plastic liners put down to prevent tailings water from entering
the groundwater.
 Social Effects
• Mine blasting cracks foundations and walls
• Floods and rockslides affect properties
• Overloaded coal trucks speed down rural roads
• Coal dust and contaminated water cause illness
• Local politicians do not help
• High-efficiency mining reduces the need for workers
 4. Cleaning Up
• Reclamation:
• Backfilling
• Recontouring
• Replacement of top soil
• Reseeding or Revegetation
• Replace overburden
• Governments in developed countries require companies to reclaim (restore)
surface-mined sites
• Other nations (e.g., Congo) have no regulations
• U.S. 1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act mandates restoration
Companies must post bonds to ensure restoration
 4. Cleaning Up
Reclamation: restoration of land to either natural conditions or another
useful purpose, often involves stabilizing soils and slopes in an area through
grading and use of vegetation. Usually soil treatment, or addition of new
soil, is necessary prior to revegetation
Remediation: process of fixing, removing, or counteracting an
environmental problem. In mining, often the water leaving the mine must
be remediated before being released back into the natural system.
Sometimes the soil itself must be relocated to specialized repositories.

One method of Left: Acidic mine water

treating acidic flows along a channel
mine water is to containing limestone, to
add alkaline increase the pH (lower the
material, causing acidity) prior to treatment
iron and other in a wetland. Anaconda
metal to precipitate Mine, ca. 1997.
out of the water.

Cleaning up should be part of the mining plan and done as mining

happens.
 Federal regulations
• A series of federal regulations in the United States helped to protect the
environment and human health in regard to mining impacts. These were
primarily initiated starting in the late 1960s.

• States can enact more stringent rules in addition to the federal rules.
•

• Remediation of many mining and processing sites created prior to the

1970s is still ongoing. Many of these are hazardous waste sites
 General Mining Act of 1872
• Encourages metal and mineral mining on federal land
• Any citizen or company can stake a claim on any public land open to
mining for $5 per acre
• The public gets no payment for any minerals found

• Once a person owns the land, that land can be developed for any
reason, having nothing to do with mining

• Supporters say it encourages a domestic industry

that is risky and provides essential products

• Critics say it gives land basically free to private

interests
• Efforts to amend the act have failed in Congress
 Minerals are nonrenewable
• Minerals are nonrenewable and scarce
• Once known reserves are mined, minerals will be gone
• Indium, used in LCD screens, might only last 32 more years
• Gallium (for solar power) and platinum (fuel cells) are also scarce
• Reserve estimates are uncertain
(New discoveries, technologies, consumption patterns, and recycling affect mineral sup
plies )

• As minerals become scarcer, dem

and and price rise
• Industries will spend more to reac
h further deposits

Red: economically recoverable at

current prices
 Factors affecting how long deposits last
• Discovery of new reserves increases known reserves -
Minerals worth $900 billion were discovered in Afghanistan in 2010

• New extraction technologies reach more minerals at less expense

• Changing social and technological dynamics modify demand in unpr

edictable ways Lithium batteries are replacing cadmium-nickel ones

• Changing consumption patterns affect how fast we exploit reserves (e

.g., a recession depresses demand)

• Recycling extends the lifetimes of minerals

Sustainable Use of Minerals
• Recycling addresses:
• Finite supplies
• Environmental damage

• 35% of metals were recycled in 2008 from U.S. municipal solid waste
• 7 million tons
• Steel, iron, platinum, gold, nickel, germanium, tin, and chromium
• Reduces greenhouse gases by 25 million metric tons
 Sustainable Use of Minerals
• We can recycle rare metals from Electronic waste (e-
waste) from computers, printers, cell phones, etc. is rising

• Recycling keeps hazardous wastes out of landfills while conserving

mineral resources

• 1.2 billion cell phones sold each year contain 200 chemicals and precious
metals:
Phones can be refurbished and resold or dismantled and their parts re
used or recycled Only 10% of cell phones are recycled

• Recycling reduces demand for virgin ores and reduces pressure on ecos
ystems
 Nevada Mining
• Produced more than $8 billion
in gross revenue in 2016

• More than 2,000 local vendors

and service providers are
prepared to address mining
operation needs

• MORE THAN 20
MINERALS CRITICAL TO
OUR DAILY LIFE ARE
PRODUCED HERE IN
NEVADA
 Nevada Mining
• Silver State, Nevada’s past is rooted in mining
• In 1849, gold was discovered in a stream near Dayton, which later led to
the discovery of silver in the Comstock Lode in 1859.
• mining has played a vital role in Nevada’s economy
• No. 1 gold-producing state in the nation.
• Nevada produces 76% of the USA’s gold, while second-place Alaska
claims just 11%
• in global terms, Nevada ranks
higher than most countries. The
world’s top producers (in
descending order) are China,
Australia, the United States,
Russia, South Africa, and…
Nevada
 Gold Mining Companies in Nevada

• Barrick Gold
• Coeur Mining
• Hecla Mining
• KGHM Polska Miedź
• Kinross Gold
• Newmont Goldcorp
• SSR Mining
• Sprott Mining
 Summary
• We depend on minerals and metals to make the products we use

• Mineral resources are mined by various methods

• Contributing to material wealth

• Causing extensive environmental damage (habitat loss, acid drainage,

air pollution, soil and water pollution, war and exploitation of developing
countries, etc.)

• Restoration and regulations help minimize the environmental and soci

al impacts of mining

• Maximize recycling and sustainable use of minerals

•
Glossary
Acid mine drainage (AMD): When sulfides (such as pyrite) oxidize and create acid. Not all mining activities create AMD, but it is
often associated with metal mining because of the tendency for sulfides to be present in the rock. The acidity of the water can cause the
soil to mobilize other metals into the water.
• Beneficiation: Processes that separate the desired mineral from the rest of the rocks and minerals in the ore.
• Electroplating: A process that uses an electrical current to encourage precipitation of the desired element.
• Flotation: The beneficiation process in which bubbles of a reagent attract the desired mineral from the slurry and rise with it to the top
of the mixture. This froth can then be removed for further concentration.
• Leaching (in mining): The use of chemicals (such as sulfuric acid or sodium cyanide) to dissolve the desired metals and transport
them in solution to a collection area.
• Milling: The physical process of crushing and grinding the ore within the beneficiation process.
• Mountain top mining/removal: A type of surface mining in which an entire mountain or mountain top is removed to obtain the ore
within or underneath.
• Ore: A material that occurs naturally and that contains a mineral(s) that can be extracted for a profit.
• Ore grade: The concentration of the desired metal or element within the ore.
• Reclamation: The restoration of land to either natural conditions or another useful purpose; this often involves the process of
stabilizing soils and slopes in an area through the grading of slopes and use of vegetation.
• Refining/Refinery: The final process in purifying an ore to the desired concentration after previous beneficiation. A refinery is where
refining happens.
• Remediation: The process of fixing, removing, or counteracting an environmental problem.
• Slurry: A mixture of water and fine particulate material.
• Smelting: The process of melting the beneficiated ore (concentrate) to reduce the impurities and concentrate the desired element.
• Superfund: The program established to address hazardous waste sites with no owners. It enables the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) to fund and perform clean-ups as well as locate the responsible party if still in existence.
• Tailings: Waste material created from the beneficiation process.
• Waste rock: Rock that must be moved in order to obtain the ore. This rock does not have a high enough concentration of the desired
mineral to make it economically or technologically viable to extract.