1

2 Reality and Perceived Reality

3 Perception of depth in an architectural space.

4 Godo Zabur Singh Ubhi

6 Technische Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe

7 godo.ubhi@stud.th-owl.de

8 Abstract: Vision has throughout history been ranked the highest of our senses, one of the reasons
9 for that the act of seeing is made from a distance, no other contact is needed.[1] But to see is also
10 to be deceived, the expression “you see what you want to see” is eminent because it is the brain
11 that processes the images into knowledge. With vision, the first impressions are of utmost
12 importance giving us a quick superficial idea. With first impressions also comes judgment, and
13 subjective understandings of reality. This paper explores the understanding of how we see and
14 how does the brain perceives depth in the context of architectural space. It will explore the
15 works of Ancient Greeks with a focus on their strategies to deceive the actual reality. It will
16 further explore the works of renowned artists which will be the foundation of our
17 understanding of Reality vs Perceived Reality and how we can implement these ideas while
18 designing in the modern era.

19 Keywords: Perception, Forced Perceptive, Visual Reality, Cognitive Architecture, Perception of

20 Depth, Neuroarchitecture, Illusions.
21
Academic Editor: Firstname
Lastname
22 1. Introduction
Received: date
23
Accepted: date
24 The visual system constructs a mental representation of the world around us. This contributes to
25 Published: date our ability to successfully navigate through physical space and interact with important individuals
26 and objects in our environments. [1] Whereas other animals rely primarily on hearing, smell, or
27 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays touch to understand the world around them, human beings rely in large part on vision. A large
28 neutral with regard to jurisdictional part of our cerebral cortex is devoted to seeing, and we have substantial visual skills.
29 claims in published maps and
30 institutional affiliations. As you can see in Figure 1.1, “Anatomy of the Human Eye,” light enters the eye through
31 the cornea, a clear covering that protects the eye and begins to focus the incoming light. The light
32 then passes through the pupil, a small opening in the center of the eye. The pupil is surrounded by
33 Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. the iris, the colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil by constricting or dilating in
34 Submitted for possible open access response to light intensity. When we enter a dark movie theatre on a sunny day, for instance,
35 publication under the terms and co muscles in the iris open the pupil and allow more light to enter. Complete adaptation to the dark
36 may take up to 20 minutes.[2]

37 Behind the pupil is the lens, a structure that focuses the incoming light on the retina, the layer of
38 Citation: Ubhi, Godo Zabur Singh. tissue at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells. As our eyes move from near objects
39 Title. Reality and Perceived Realisty.). to distant objects, a process known as visual accommodation occurs.
40

3 Reality and Perceived Reality godo.ubhi@stud.thowl.de

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41
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48
49
50 Figure 1 Anatomy of the Human Eye.
51
52 Once this visual information reaches the visual cortex, it is processed by a variety of neurons that
53 detect colors shapes, and motion, and that create meaningful perceptions out of the incoming
54 stimuli. [3]
55

56 2. Perceiving Depth

57 Human Beings are 3D creatures, living in a 3D world but our eyes can show us only two
58 dimensions.  The depth we can see is merely a trick that our brains have learned; a byproduct of
59 evolution putting our eyes on the front of our faces. [4]

60 The problem of perceiving depth based on two-dimensional information on the retina by focusing
61 on two points on the retina, N, and F, is shown in Figure 2. These points represent where rays of
62 light have been reflected onto the retina from the tree, which is near (N), and the house, which is
63 farther away (F). If we look just at these places on the retina, we have no way of knowing how far
64 the light has traveled to reach points N and F. The light stimulating either point on the retina
65 could have come from 1 foot away or from a distant star. We need to expand our view beyond
66 single points on the retina to determine where objects are located in space.[5]
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79 Figure 2 (a) The
80 house is farther
81 away than the
82 tree, but (b) the
83 images of points
84 F on the house
85 and N on the
86 tree both fall on
87 the two-
88 dimensional
89 surface of the
90 retina, so (c) these two points, considered by themselves, do not tell us the distances to the house and the tree.
91
92
93 When we expand our view from two isolated points to the entire retinal image, we increase
94 the amount of information available to us because now we can see the images of the house and the
95 tree. However, because this image is two-dimensional, we still need to explain how we get from
96 the flat image on the retina to the three-dimensional perception of the scene. One-way researchers
97 have approached this problem is to ask what information is contained in this two-dimensional
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98 image that enables us to perceive depth in the scene. This is called the cue approach to depth
99 perception. [5]
100
101 The cue approach to depth perception focuses on identifying information in the retinal image
102 that is correlated with depth in the scene. For example, when one object partially covers another
103 object, as the tree in the foreground covers part of the house, the object that is partially covered
104 must be at a greater distance than the object that is covering it. This situation, which is called
105 occlusion, is a signal, or cue, that one object is in front of another. According to cue theory, we
106 learn the connection between this cue and depth through our previous experience with the
107 environment. After this learning has occurred, the association between particular cues and depth
108 becomes automatic, and when these depth cues are present, we experience the world in three
109 dimensions. Several different types of cues that signal depth in a scene have been identified. We
110 can divide these cues into three major groups: [5]
111
112 1. Oculomotor. Cues are based on our ability to sense the position of our eyes and the tension in
113 our eye muscles.
114 2. Monocular. Cues that work with one eye.
115 3. Binocular. Cues that depend on two eyes.[5]
116
117 2.1 Oculomotor Cues
118
119 The oculomotor cues are created by (a) convergence, the inward movement of the eyes that
120 occurs when we look at nearby objects, and (b) accommodation, the change in the shape of the
121 lens that occurs when we focus on objects at various distances. The idea behind these cues is that
122 we can feel the inward movement of the eyes that occurs when the eyes converge to look at nearby
123 objects, and we feel the tightening of eye muscles that change the shape of the lens to focus on a
124 nearby object. You can experience the feelings in your eyes associated with convergence and
125 accommodation VL 1 by doing the following demonstration. [5]
126
127
128
129
130
131 Figure 3
132 (a)

133 Convergence of the eyes occurs when a person looks at something very close. (b) The eyes look straight ahead when the
134 person observes something that is far away.
135
136
137
138 The feelings you experience as you move your finger closer are caused by (1) the change in
139 convergence angle as your eye muscles cause your eyes to look inward, as in Figure 3(a), and (b)
140 the change in the shape of the lens as the eye accommodates to focus on a near object. If you move
141 your finger farther away, the lens flattens, and your eyes move away from the nose until they are
142 both looking straight ahead, as in Figure 3(b). Convergence and accommodation indicate when an
143 object is close and are useful up to a distance of about arm’s length, with convergence being the
144 more effective of the two. [5]
145
146 2.2 Monocular Cues
147
148 Monocular cues work with only one eye. They include accommodation, which we have described
149 under oculomotor cues; pictorial cues, which is depth information that can be depicted in a two-
150 dimensional picture; and movement-based cues, which are based on depth information created by
151 movement. [5]
152
153 2.2.1 Pictorial Cues
154
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155 Pictorial cues are sources of depth information that can be depicted in a picture, such as the
156 illustrations in this book or the image on the retina [5]
157 Occlusion occurs when one object hides or partially hides another from view. The partially hidden
158 object is seen as being farther away, so the mountains in Figure 4 are perceived as being farther
159 away than the hill. Note that occlusion does not provide information about an object’s absolute
160 distance; it only indicates relative distance. We know that the object that is partially covered is
161 farther away than another object, but from occlusion alone, we can’t tell how much farther. [5]
162
163 Relative Height According to the cue of relative height, objects that are below the horizon and
164 have their bases higher in the field of view are usually seen as being more distant. Notice how this
165 applies to the two motorcycles in Figure 10.3. The base of the far motorcycle (where its tires touch
166 the road) is higher in the picture than the base of the near motorcycle. When objects are above the
167 horizon, like the clouds, being lower in the field of view indicates more distance. There is also a
168 connection between an observer’s gaze and distance. Looking straight out at an object high in the
169 visual field, near the horizon, indicates greater depth than looking down, as you would for an
170 object lower in the visual field. [5]
171
172 Relative Size According to the cue of relative size, when two objects are of equal size, the one that
173 is farther away will take up less of your field of view than the closer one. This cue depends, to
174 some extent, on a person’s knowledge of physical sizes—for example, that the two telephone poles
175 in Figure 10.3 are about the same size, as are the two motorcycles. [5]
176
177 Perspective Convergence When parallel lines extend out from an observer, they are perceived as
178 converging—becoming closer together—as distance increases. This perceptual coming-together of
179 parallel lines, which is illustrated by the road in Figure 4, is called perspective convergence. [4]
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190 Figure 4
191 A scene in
192 Tucson,
193 Arizona,

194 containing several depth cues: occlusion (the cactus occludes the hill, which occludes the mountain); perspective convergence
195 (the sides of the road converge in the distance); relative size (the far motorcycle and telephone pole are smaller than the near
196 ones); and relative height (the far motorcycle is higher in the field of view; Bruce Goldstein the far cloud is lower).
197
198
199 Familiar Size We use the cue of familiar size when we judge distance based on our prior
200 knowledge of the sizes of objects. We can apply this idea to the coins in Figure 5. If you are
201 influenced by your knowledge of the actual size of dimes, quarters, and half-dollars, you would
202 probably say that the dime is closer than the quarter. An experiment by William Epstein (1965)
203 shows that under certain conditions, our knowledge of an object’s size influences our perception
204 of that object’s distance. The stimuli in Epstein’s experiment were equal-sized photographs of a
205 dime, a quarter, and a half-dollar, which were positioned the same distance from an observer. By
206 placing these photographs in a darkened room, illuminating them with a spot of light, and having
207 subjects view them with one eye, Epstein created the illusion that these pictures were real coins.
208 [5]
209
210 When the observers judged the distance of each of the coin photographs, they estimated that the
211 dime was closest, the quarter was farther than the dime, and the half-dollar was the farthest of
212 them all. The observers’ judgments were influenced by their knowledge of the sizes of real dimes,
213 quarters, and half-dollars. This result did not occur, however, when the observers viewed the
214 scene with both eyes, because the use of two eyes provided information indicating the coins were
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215 at the same distance. The cue of familiar size is therefore most effective when other information
216 about depth is absent (see also Coltheart, 1970; Schiffman, 1967). [5]
217
218
219
220
221
222
223 Figure 5
224 Drawings of the
225 stimuli used in
226 Epstein’s (1965) familiar-size experiment. The actual stimuli were photographs that were all the same size as a real quarter.
227
228
229 Atmospheric Perspective Atmospheric perspective occurs when more distant objects appear less
230 sharp and often have a slight blue tint. The farther away an object is, the more air and particles
231 (dust, water droplets, airborne pollution) we have to look through, making objects that are farther
232 away look less sharp and bluer than close objects. Figure 10.5 illustrates the atmospheric
233 perspective. The details in the foreground are sharp and well defined, but as we look out at the
234 rocks, details become less and less visible as we look farther into the distance.[5]
235
236
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245
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247
248
249 Figure 6 A
250 scene on the
251 coast of Maine showing the effect of atmospheric perspective.

252

253 3. Forced Perspective

254 3.1 Introduction

255 Forced perspective is a technique that employs optical illusion to make an object appear farther
256 away, closer, larger, or smaller than it is. It manipulates human visual perception through the use
257 of scaled objects and the correlation between them and the vantage point of the spectator
258 or camera. It has uses in photography, filmmaking, and architecture. [6]

259 3.2 Forced Perspective in Architecture

260 The special feature in the field of architecture is the use of optical illusions to make buildings
261 appear different from what they actually are. In ancient Greece, an ideal building was seen as a
262 whole object, with parts that fit perfectly. Today, this approach is still valid. Architects see
263 buildings as a whole and keep the human eye as experiencing factor in their mind. Elements such
264 as windows, doors, and the facade can never be considered in isolation, but how they work
265 together in their overall arrangement. This task becomes all the more complex the bigger buildings
266 are. If a person stands directly at the foot of a building, they will perceive it differently than if they
267 look at it from far away. Forced perspective can be used to make buildings and objects look
268 taller than they actually are, they can manipulate perceived distance between objects.  In many
269 cases, architects use forced perspective as a means due to the lack of physical space. [7]
270
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272

273 3.2.1 Parthenon

274 Greek and Romans wanted to achieve certain
275 architectural effects with temples. Primarily the
276 goal in antiquity was to reflect ideal forms of
277 nature, for example by following the concept of
278 Golden proportions and creating symmetrical
279 structures. They quickly understood that buildings either are perfect or look exactly perfect. [8]
280
281 Figure 7 Parthenon

282 3.2.1.1 Tilt to Fix Perspective

283 All the members which are to be above the

284 capitals of the columns, that is, architraves,
285 friezes, coronae, tympana, gables, and acroteria,
286 should be inclined to the front the twelfth part of
287 their height, for the reason that when we stand in
288 front of them if two lines are drawn from the eye,
289 one reaching to the bottom of the building and the other to the top, that which reaches to the top
290 will be longer.

291 Hence, as the line of sight to the upper part is

292 longer, it makes that part look as if it were leaning
293 back. But when the members are inclined to the
294 front, as described above, they will seem to the
295 beholder to be plumb and perpendicular.”  [9]

296 Figure 8 Tilt to Fix Perspective.

297 3.2 .1.1 Incline Columns Inward

298 The facade elements are tilted outward, but the columns are tilted inward. This emphasizes their
299 ability to hold up the ceiling. Vertical columns
300 under the heavyweight of the entablature appear
301 like they are about to tip over toward the viewer,
302 but an inward tilt to the columns makes them
303 look more stable when viewed from below. This
304 gives “the whole building an appearance of
305 greater strength.”

306 In this case, Greek architects did not seek to

307 counteract perspective distortion but to use it to
308 their advantage. This “imposing effect of high
309 relief” suggests structural stability, something
310 more important than strict proportion. This
311 inclination is very subtle; on the Parthenon, the
312 columns lean inward just 2 3/8 inches. The tilted
Figure 9 Incline Coloumn Inward.
313 axis of these columns converges 1 1/2 miles into
314 the sky. [9]

315

316

317
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318 Q3.2.1.3 Curved Floor

319 The stylobate floor of the Parthenon is curved upward. A perfectly flat floor would appear to sag
320 inward. The face of the earth is curved and the hill
321 on which the Parthenon stands is curved,
322 therefore viewers instinctively expect a slight
323 curvature to all horizontal planes. Straight edges
324 look off. [10]

325 “This horizontal curvature begins not in the

326 stylobate, but below the stylobate in the
Figure 10 Curved Floor.
327 foundations. But the curvature is most noticeable
328 in the stylobate, which directly receives the
329 downward thrust of the column drums.”  [10]

330 3.2.1.4 Column Spacing

331 In perspective, the distance between columns

332 normally appears smaller as they proceed toward
333 a vanishing point in the distance. But the Parthenon
334 has more robust columns and greater spacing
335 between them at the ends. When viewed from a
336 distance the spacing and size appear equal. Along
337 with proportions, this also makes the structure
338 appear more stable. “Hence in the Parthenon, the
339 spacing between each corner column and the
Figure 11 Coloumn Spacing.
340 column next to it is less than the space between
341 other columns, and this gives a feeling of extra
342 support at points of extra stress.”  [10]
343

344 3.2.2 Palazzo Spada

345 The 17th-century Palazzo Spada, designed by

346 Francesco Borromini, also uses the medium of forced
347 perspective. To comply with the Classical Ideal of
348 harmony of his time (based on mathematical
349 calculations), the portico was designed to look like a
350 standard Italian corridor — 33m long and with a Figure 12 Percieved Reality
351 life-sized statue at its end.[11]

352 In reality, however, the architect had not that much space available — the corridor was only 9m
353 long. Therefore, he used visual illusion in equipping
354 the corridor with decreasing columns, at the
355 optically rising floor, narrowly standing columns
356 and a kid-sized statue at the end of the
357 corridor. Achieving this level of illusion required
358 precise mathematical calculations. [11]

359

360 Figure 13 Reality

361 3.2.3 Potemkin Stairs

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362 With the Potemkin Stairs in Odessa, a similar trick was applied to create a perspective effect: The
363 staircase was designed much wider at the top 21.7m than at the bottom 13.4m. Standing at the foot
364 of the stairs, the staircase looks as if was much longer and seems to be endless due to the short
365 height of the entire staircase. This calculated perceptual distortion underlines the effect that the
366 staircases seem to end in the sky. [11]

367 Viewed from above, the staircase looks the same

368 width over its entire length, which makes the Figure 14 Potemkin Stairs
369 urban backdrop at the foot of the staircase look
370 mightier. [11]
371

372 3.2.4 Sleeping Beauty Castle at Disneyland

373 The method has perfected by the creators of

374 Disneyland. The Sleeping Beauty Castle is only 23
375 meters high but looks majestically large for each
376 visitor. To do this, Disneyland’s engineers' team placed large bricks at eye level and then lowered
377 the size of the bricks with each successive story, so that the smallest bricks are on top of the castle
378 look much taller than it is. This effect is underlined by the fact that with each level the window
379 seems to be taller than in reality.

380 The first floor of a Disney building is to scale, but the second floor of the building's façade is only
381 5/8 the size of the first floor. And if there is a third floor, it stands at 1/2 the size of the base floor.
382 When guests are standing on the ground looking up, the building looks like it stands three stories
383 tall, when in fact it shrinks with each floor. [11]
384

385

386

Figure 15 Percieved hieght of Disney castles with forced perspective [12]

387 4. Strategies to apply Forced Perspective.

388 The following are the ways to use forced perspective based on the above research to increase or
389 decrease the scale of the building visually according to the needs.
390
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391 4.1 Changing the Vanishing Point.

392
393 Forced perspective can be created if we change the angle of walls or roofs converging
394 towards the vanishing point. This way we can create the same effect of a long corridor with very
395 little space available. The same effect can be seen in Palazzo Spada and Disney world. The
396 opposite effect was used to create a visually never-ending staircase named Potemkin Staircase.

397
398
399
400
401 Normal Perspective
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
Forced Perspective (plan)
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419 Forced Perspective (Section)
420
421 Figure 16 Changing Vanishing Point
422
423
424

425 4.2 Changing the Surroundings of the Building.

426 Humans use the cue of familiar size when we judge distance and size based on our prior
427 knowledge of the sizes of objects. The surroundings play an important role in deciding the size of
428 the building. Elements like trees based on our prior knowledge can be used to increase or decrease
429 the scale of the building visually. A similar effect can be seen in Disneyland to increase the scale of
430 the main castle.
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442

443
444 4.3 Changing the size of openings with the increase in height.
Figure 17 Changing Surroundings of the Building

445 In perspective, the building gets smaller as it goes to the top. We are subconsciously used to this
446 effect. With this effect, we can decrease the size of openings as we go up to create forced
447 perspective and as a result, the building will look tall. This method is used for Pavilions, Movie
448 sets, and Disney castles.
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449
450
451

452 `
5 3
4

454

455

456

457

458

459
Normal elevation (No Perpective). Normal elevation with Perpective.

460 Altered building openings ( No Perspective) Altered building openings ( Forced Perspective)

461
Figure 18 Changing size of opening with increase in height.

462

463

464 4.4 Changing the level of detail with an increase in height.

465 This is an example of an atmospheric perspective. It occurs when more distant objects appear less
466 sharp and often have a slight blue tint. We can create less sharp detail and color gradient to make
467 the building look taller.
468
469
470

Figure 19 Changing level of detail with increase in height.

472

473 4.5 Changing the distance while keeping the angle of vision the same.
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474 This method employs optical illusion to make an object appear farther away, closer, larger, or
475 smaller than it actually is. It manipulates human visual perception through the use of scaled
476 objects and the correlation between them and the vantage point of the spectator or camera. It has
477 uses in photography, filmmaking, and architecture.
478
479

480 Conclusion

481 The sense of vision is responsible for most of the information we absorb from our five combined
482 senses. Many of the movements we perform, tasks we complete, and personal interactions we
483 make rely on vision in some way. With vision, the first impressions are of utmost importance
484 giving us a quick superficial idea. With first impressions also comes judgment, and subjective
485 understandings of reality. It can be deceived by using the methods of Forced perspective. It can
486 make buildings and objects look taller or smaller than they actually are, they can manipulate
487 perceived distance between objects. These strategies can be used by the designers to create more
488 economical and efficient structures in temporary installations, theatre setups, movie sets,
489 pavilions, and amusement parks.

490
491
492

493 References
494
495 1. Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett, and Marion Perlmutter.; Title of the article. Psychology.
496 Available online: https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology.
497
498 2. Geldard, F.
499 A.
500 (1972). The
501 human
502 senses (2nd Figure 20 Changing the distance while keeping the angle of vision same.
503 ed.). New
504 York, NY:
505 John Wiley
506 & Sons.
507
508 3. Kelsey, C.A.
509 (1997).
510 Detection
511 of visual

512 information. In W. R. Hendee & P. N. T. Wells (Eds.), The perception of visual information (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer
513 Verlag
514
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515 4. Available online: http://scecinfo.usc.edu/geowall/stereohow.html. Visited on 03.01.2022.

516
517 5. E. Bruce Goldstein (1999). Sensation and Perception, Eighth Edition. Chapter-10 Perceiving Depth and Size. Pg-229-250.
518
519 6. Daniela Bertol; David Foell (1997).  Designing Digital Space: An Architect's Guide to Virtual Reality. John Wiley & Sons.
520 pp.  34–.  ISBN  978-0-471-14662-9
521
522 7. "Forced Perspective". Duchess of Disneyland. 2014-06-05. Retrieved 2020-04-23.
523
524 8. Vitruvius, Ten Books on Architecture Book III, Chapter 1, v. 4, 1 A.D.
525
526 9. William Bell Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1950, p. 165
527
528 10. Ian Jenkins, Greek Architecture and Its Sculpture, Harvard University Press, 2006, p. 27
529
530 11. Available online: https://medium.com/archilyse/1-how-architecture-photography-can-trick-our-perception-e3391ae1063
531 Visited on 17.10.2021.
532
533 12. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqefjmRVLTM&t=322s Visited on 18.01.2022.
534
535
536