M1.1.6. Manual Metal Arc Welding

Professional Welding Personal Training Course
International Welding Inspector

(IWI)
M1.1.6. Manual Metal Arc
1
Welding (MMA)
Lectured by : Muhammad Syukri

Training Objectives:
“To gain an general outline of MMA welding fundamental,
including equipment, application & common problem”.
Training Scope:
 Process principles & arc characteristics
 Effect of current type & polarity
 Equipment & accessories
 Process application range & typical problem
 Function of covered electrode coating.
 Handling & storage of electrode as well as classification
 Welding parameter, joint preparation.
 Welding procedure & technique.
Learning outcomes:
 Outline MMA welding principle, arc striking method & their
application
2  Outline the handling & storage of each type of consumables
 Give example the welding parameter selection
 Give example of MMA application, joint preparation & potential
problem overcome
 Outline potential hazards & method of safe working
Syukri, B4T IWI Training course
1. WHAT IS A WELD?
Welding is most the effective method of joining materials. The term
"WELD" is unfortunately, ambiguous because it is used in so many
ways. Technically, it refers to the area of coalescence produced by
the welding process.
1.1. Welded Joint (=Weld)
A localized coalescence of metals or nonmetals produced either by
heating the materials to suitable temperatures, with or without the
application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone and
with or without the use of filler material. — (AWS/ASM) –

1.2. Weldment
This term normally means an assembly, large or small, which
contains one or more welded joints.
1.3. Manual Metal Arc Welding (AWS/ASM=Shielded Metal

Arc Welding = SMAW)
An arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by
heating them with an arc between a covered metal electrode and
the work. Shielding is obtained from decomposition of the electrode
covering. Pressure is not used and filler metal is obtained from the
electrode (Fig.2)

5

1.3.1 Power Source
Electrodes operate on direct current attached to the positive or

negative pole, or alternating current, depending on the
composition of the covering. A.C. is preferable from a cost point
of view.
A welding power source needs to be designed to give a stable

arc during operation, so that it prevents excessive current surges
on short circuiting (no great spatter) or sticking of the electrode,
and to give adequate recovery of voltage to prevent arc
extinction.
Arc current must be reasonable constant at all arc lengths (i.e.

arc voltages), to ensure constant penetration and metal transfer.
The source must give an adequate voltage for starting, 65 — 80
6
volts, and suitable operating voltage. Arc voltage vary from 15 —
25 V. for bare or lightly covered electrodes, 20 — 40 V for
normal covered electrodes and up to 45 V for special electrodes.

The A.C. transformer is the cheapest and most widely used
source giving lower power and maintenance cost and
eliminating arc blow.
It can be arranged for multi-operator use in workshops.
However, electrode covering must be selected to give good arc
stability with A.C. D.C. power gives better arc stability and often
a better quality deposit but D.C. arcs are susceptible to arc blow.
Power costs are higher than A.C. Generators are widely used on
site work, particularly where there is no A.C. power supply and
they are still found in many factories.
Transformer-rectifiers have been replacing generators in
factories despites higher capital cost because of quietness,
minimum maintenance through no moving parts, and lower
operating costs.
7 The static characteristic i.e. current-voltage relationship under
steady load, for SMAW is steeply drooping so that the current
remains nearly constant for all arc voltages i.e. arc lengths.

1.3.1.1. Selection Factors
Factors that influence the selection of power source include :

a. Available input power
b. Available floor space,
c. Initial costs,
d. Location of the operation ( in a plant or in the field),
e. Personnel available for maintenance,
f. Versatility,
g. Required output,
h. Duty cycle,
i. Efficiency,
j. Need to minimize arc blow
k. Safety

1.1.3.2 Direct Current
• The welding arc is relatively steady and smooth.

• Voltage Drop in Cables. Cable length is more critical for direct
current than for alternating current.
• Electrodes. All classes of covered electrodes can be used
with direct current.
• Low Current. DC surpasses AC for use at low amperages with
small-diameter electrode.
• Arc Striking is generally easier with DC than with AC,
particularly with small-diameter electrodes.
• Maintaining a short arc When the electrode must be closed
to the molten pool is easier with DC than with AC.
• Arc Blow. DC is highly susceptible to arc blow.
• Welding Position. DC is somewhat easier to use for out-of-
9 position welding on thicker section than AC.
• Polarity. With direct current electrode negative (DCEN=DCSP)
melting rates and deposition rates are higher than with DECP
(=DCRP), and the penetration is shallower.

1.3.1.3 Alternating Current
• AC arc is somewhat harsh and less stable when compared

with DC Arc.
• Voltage Drop in Cables. The voltage drop is less than for DC in
long cables.
• Low Current. AC is less suited than DC for use at low
amperages with small-diameter electrodes.
• Electrodes. Only AC/DC electrodes with covering specifically
designed for use with AC should be used.
• Arc starting with small-diameter electrodes is more difficult
with AC than with DC.
• Maintaining a short arc is more difficult with AC than with
DC.
• Arc Blow is really a problem with AC.
• Weld Spatter. Somewhat more weld spatter is produced with
10
AC than with DC.
• Welding Positions. With the use of suitable electrodes,
satisfactory welds can be made in all position.

2. FUSION WELDING - BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
WELDING TERMINOLOGY
Any welding process or method which uses fusion to complete the
weld. Fusion is the melting together of filler metal and base metal
(substrate), or of base metal only, which result in coalescence.
Fig.3 : Single-Pass
Weld
Depth of fusion is the distance that fusion extends into the base
metal or previous pass from the surface melted during welding.
11
Syukri, B4T IWI Training course Fig.4. Single-Layer Five Passes

12

- Weld Bead
A weld deposited resulting from a pass
Fig.8 Weld Bead
- Weld Metal
That portion of weld which has been melted during welding
13
Fig.9 Weld Metal

- Deposited Metal Filler metal that has been added during a
welding process
Fig.10 Deposited Metal
- All Weld Metal
14
- Weldment  An assembly whose component parts are

joined by welding
2.1. Weldability — Definition
Weldability is the capacity of a metal or combination of metals
to be welded under fabrication conditions imposed into a
specific, suitable designed structure, and the perform
satisfactorily in the intended service.
The better the weldability, the easier it is to meet these
requirements.
2.2. Weldabilitv — Base Metal
The weldability of the base metal depends on three criteria:
- Chemical composition influence the susceptibility against
a. Hardening
b. Brittle Fracture
c. Hot Crack, etc.
- Metallurgical properties influence
a. Grain Structure
b. Grain Size
15
c. Segregation
- Physical Properties Influence
a. Toughness
b. Heat Conductivity
c. Thermal Expansion
2.2.1. HAZ of base Metal
Temperature versus Time
16

2.2.2.1. Influence on cooling rate
Heat input :
In arc welding, the total heat energy, H, generated by the power
source is given by :
where U(E) is voltage, J(I) is the current, and v is travel speed in

cm/s.
Due to small electrical losses in the arc, the total heat does not
reach the work piece.
The heat actually transferred to the workpiece in units of
joule/cm is defined as then et heat input, H I (Hn).
The heat input involved in a welding process is a function of
amperage, arc voltage, welding speed and thermal efficiency
17
of the welding method employed.
It can be calculated by a simple formula.

Where as amperage and arc voltage are indicated on most
welding power sources by means of built-in measuring devices,
the evaluation of the welding speed calls for a short welding
test, where the length of a bead deposited without interruption
is measure and the required welding time is taken with stop
watch .
The welding speed (v) is calculated as follows :
18

Of the head energy, HI (Hn), transferred to the work piece, only a portion
is actually used to melt metal.
The melting efficiency (f2) is defined as the ratio of the minimum head
input necessary to cause melting for the given HI (Hn) delivered to the
workpiece:
Where : Hf : the head of fusion ;
L : the length of weld metal deposited ;
Tm : the melting temperature of the
19 base metal in ° C
To : the temperature of the base metal
prior to welding in ° C
C : the specific heat ;
W : the weight of the deposited weld
metal
The higher thermal ( heat ) conductivity the lower
Syukri, B4T IWI Training course melting efficiency of metal.
Thermal conductivity :
In many cases HI is calculated without n —factor.

The permissible maximum heat input depends on the steel grade involved,
on the preheating temperature required and on the thickness of the plate
to be welded.
As there are no universally applicable guidelines concerning maximum heat
inputs it is necessary to consult the steel manufacturer for such questions.
What is a universal rule, however, is the fact that thicker plates allow
welding with more heat input and that in case of higher preheating
temperatures it is advisable to reduce it.
In practical application, the heat input is strongly influenced by the welding
20 position.
While down hand welding is very flexible with a view to the heat input
(stringer beads or weaving), the possibilities in vertical-up welding are
rather limited on account of the specific electrode handling required. In
vertical-up welding the heat input usually amounts to 2-3 times that
involved in down hand welding.
Preheating Temperature ; Inter-pass Temperature
With increasing plate thickness cooling rate increases ( Fig.14). The
volume of the welded seam also influences the cooling rate.
Heat conductivity:
J/cm, s, °C Ambient400°C 800°C
Temperature
mild steel 0.52 0.43 0.26
stainless steel 0.16 0.20 0.26
Copper 4.0
Aluminum 2.4
2.2.2.2. Hardness, Impact Energy versus Carbon Content

Fig. 15 Illustrated
hardness and
notched-bar impact
strength in the HAZ
21 as a function of the
carbon content in
the base metal in the
as hardened
condition.
Up to about 0,2 % carbon it is possible to achieve crack free welds
without preheating operations. Hardness approx.. 350 vickers
degree.
22
A steel with enough carbon and alloy content transform to

Martensite upon cooling from welding (transformation hardening).
The sequence of regions in the HAZ along with the pertinent phase
Syukri, B4T IWI Training course diagram is shown in Fig. 16.
Next to the fusion line will be a region (region 1) heated close
to the melting point, and this will consist of material heated
high into the austenite temperature range.
This material will be extremely coarse grained, and if the
cooling rate is high enough, can readily transform to
martensite.
It will normally be a high hardness zone. Next to this will be a
region (region 2) heated just into the all-austenite range. This
will normally be fine grained and will not readily transform to
martensite.
It will be of moderate hardness only. The next region away the
weld (region 3) will be the "intercritical zone". This area has
been heated partially into the austenite range and thus is a
mixed structure. A small amount of martensite may form in
this zone.
This area is usually not very hard, but if martensite is present, it
23 may be somewhat brittle. The final region (region 4) of the weld
heat-affacted zone in this case is the tempered zone. In this
region the metal is not heated high enough to form austenite
(that is less than 723°C) but rather the welding heat server to
temper the metal to soft condition.
Fig. 17 shows two hardness curves carried out transverse to the root
pass of a vertical down welded V-butt joint (Base metal API 5 L X 60 /
0,23 % C).
24

Upper Curve
The hardness was measured before welding the filler passes.
This curve shows that after depositing the root pass the HAZ
exhibits hardness values up to 440 HV, which corresponds
approximately to the hardness of the martensitic structure of a
0.23% C steel.
Lower curve
When filler passes were deposited the zones underneath got
reheated and the peak hardness values are reduced.
If, however, the intensive hardening after root welding has lead
to under bead cracks in the heat affected zone, these cracks will
still be there after welding the filler passes and may perhaps
cause failure of the weldment concerned.
For this reason it is highly important to dispose of sufficient
knowledge — already prior to welding — on the hardening
25 tendency of a certain steel of given chemical composition and
to further know how to avoid hardening within acceptable
limits

2.2.2.3. Prediction of hardening susceptibility;
Preheating temperature in the HAZ
* Carbon Equivalent
A very common method to determine a materials weldability is given
on the basis of the carbon equivalent (C.E.-value).
Fig. 18 shows how the carbon equivalent can be calculated from the
chemical composition of the steel to be welded, which can be taken
either from the standard or manufacturer's data sheet better still
from an analysis actually conducted on a sample.
26

As the calculation formula as follow :
In the case of C.E.-values above 0.45 preheating is recommendable.

The preheating temperature should range between 100 and 250 °C.
For C.E.-values from 0.45 to 0.60, while in the case of C.E.-values
above 0.60 the material should be preheated to 250 – 350 °C (or
more, if required) in order to safely avoid the formation of cracks in
the base metal.
The preheat temperature is to be increased up to the upper
limit of the range in the following case :
• When the base metal is a rimming steel;
• When the structure of steel is coarse grained;
• When the workpiece is big or of intricate shape;
• When a welding process with low heat input is used, such as
27 manual arc welding using small diameter electrodes;
• When no filler metals with excellent toughness, such as lime
coated electrodes are available;
• When welding must be done at outdoor temperatures.
Example  Base material : AISI 4130
This values means that we should preheat to 250 – 350 °C. Thin
sheets up to 250 ° C and heavy plates up to 350 ° C.
Quite frequently the unfavorable influence of heavy plate
thickness is underestimated: in plate thickness over 20 mm,
even if the steels is good weld-able (C.E. values below 0.45)
may already result in an unacceptable hardness increase.
Furthermore it has to be mentioned that thick plates tend to
28 cool at a faster rate after welding than thin ones. This is why
thick plates require higher preheating temperatures.
The above mentioned CE-formula in not applicable to i.e. TMP-
steels, stainless steels etc.
Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT-) Diagrams With some
exceptions CCT-diagram can be used for:
• Assessment of hardening
• Assessment of critical cooling rate
• Ms-Temperature
Fig.19 shows a CCT-diagram for a steel with SMYS of 320 N/mm2.
The dotted lines represent different cooling rates.
29
1 Heat input 10 KJ/cm/plate thickness 50 mm = HAZ consists of 50 %

ferrite, 34 % perlite, 16 % bainite, hardness: 210 Vickers degree
2 Heat input 40 Kj/cm/plate thickness 10 mm =HAZ consists of 81 %
ferrite 19 % perlite, hardness : 150 Vickers degree
Fig.20 shows a CCT-diagram for a steel with SMYS of 460

ferrite, 18 % perlite, 80 % bainite, hardness: 425 Vickers degree
30 ferrite, 1 % perlite, 20 % bainite, 14 % martensite, hardness: 260 Vickers
degree
Conclusion :
For steel SMYS 460 N/mm2, plate thickness > 15 mm preheating 150 °C
is recommended. Welding with higher heat input is also recommended.
Micrographs and Preliminary Hardness Tests
This method requires destructive test methods.
Fig.21 shows a sketch of a simple bead on plate test. It is

recommended if no other information about the chemical
31
composition of the base metal is available.
Following properties should be measured :
• micrographs of a cross section
• hardness test ( see Fig.17)
Syukri, B4T IWI Training course • crack evaluation in the HAZ
2.3. Weld Metal
* Dilution  The change in chemical composition of a welding filler metal
caused by admixture of the base metal or preciously deposited weld metal in
the deposited weld bead.
It is normally measure by the percentage of base metal or previously
deposited weld metal in the weld bead.
Fig.22 shows a sketch of dilution.
For example: dilution 30 %
C-content deposited metal = 0.5 % 0.05 x 0.7 = 0.035

32 C-content base metal = 0.30 % 0.30 x 0.3 = 0.090
Weld metal diluted C-content .....................…………... 0.125 %
For example : dilution 30%

C-content deposited metal = 0.5 % 0.05 x 0.7 = 0.035
C-content base metal = 0.30 % 0.30 x 0.3 = 0.090
Weld metal diluted C-content 0.125 %
2.3.1. Solidification
Fig. 23 shows the primary structure of a shallow and deep weld.
Fig. 24 Shows the macrostructure of a multipass welded seam

COLUMNAR STRUCTURE OF SHALLOW AND DEEP WELD
33

Illustrates the distribution
of columnar, coarse
grained and fine grained
regions in this weld
schematically.
The impact strength and the ductility of a welded joint is influenced by

the layer sequence . Fig. 26
34

2.3.2. Carbon Content
The weld metal produced with electrodes suitable for welding mild
steel has a carbon content in most of the cases less than 0.1 %.
The final mechanical properties of weld metals are, to a large extent,
established at that time were solidification is complete.
Post weld heat treatments beyond AC 1 usually soften weldments
but this is not very often applied.
In the case post weld heat treatment at high temperatures is
required it is necessary to weld mild steel with a low alloyed
electrode to match the specified values.
2.3.3. Deposition Rate, Recovery of Coated

Electrodes, Melting time
* Deposition rate (DR) The weight of material deposited in a
unit of time. It is usually expressed as kilogram per hour (kg/h)•
35

* Recovery of coated electrodes
The ratio of the weight of deposited metal to the net weight of filler
metal consumed, exclusive of stubs.
Fig. 27 give two examples.

Examples :
Rutile electrodes approx. 90 %
Low hydrogen electrodes approx. 110 - 120 %
*Melting time
Time which stick electrode needs to be welded.
The melting time decrease with increasing welding current
related to specific electrode diameter.
36
* Melting Rate
The weight or length of electrode melted in a unit of time.

Recovery of Coated electrodes
37

2.4. Weld Discontinuities (-Defects) (Fig. 28)
- Porosity (Gas pockets)

- Slag Inclusions
- Tungsten Inclusions (GTAW)
- Incomplete Fusion
- Cracks
- Inadequate Joint Penetration
- Undercut
- Weld Profile
- Arc Strikes
38

2.4.1. Cracks
Cracks are linear ruptures of metal under stress.
Two major classes of cracks are generally recognized : hot & cold
cracks. All can occur in the weld metal or in the base metal.
2.4.1.1. Hot Cracks

Fig 29 shows an example of a hot crack. Hot cracks are divided in
solidification cracks and liquation cracks (reheat cracks).
39

Solidification cracks occur during weld pool solidification as a
consequence of low melting phases (grain borders) and
shrinkage.
Low melting phases:
• residual elements i.e. S, P, Sb in connection with Fe, Si etc.
• alloying elements i. e. Cb, I, Si in stainless steel-s.
Liquation cracks can occur in HAZ of the base metal as well as in

reheated weld metal. Liquation cracks can be caused by:
• Recristallisation
• Conversion from compressive stress to tensile stress in the
material
• low melting phases
Stainless steel weldments are more critical than C-steel

weldments (thermal expansion).
40

2.4.1.2. Cold Cracks
Cold Cracks (Fig. 30) occur under the presents of following factors at
the same time :
• hardness of structure (i.e. HAZ-hardness)
• stresses (i.e. thermal contraction of the cooling weld)
• hydrogen (i.e. moisture in the flux)
41

During welding, hydrogen is absorbed by the weld pool from the arc
atmosphere (Fig. 31 a). During cooling, much of this hydrogen escapes from the
solidified bead by diffusion but some also diffuses into the HAZ and the parent
metal.
The amount which does so depends on several factors such as the original
amount absorbed, the size of the weld, the decreasing solubility and the time-
temperature conditions of cooling (Fig. 31 b).
42

In general, the more hydrogen present in the metal the metal
the greater the risk of cracking.
Control over this hydrogen level may be achieved either by
minimizing the amount initially absorbed or by ensuring that
sufficient is allowed to escape by diffusion before the weld
cools.
Frequently a combination of both measures provides the best
practical solution.
The principal sources of hydrogen in welding consumables are:
• Moisture in the coating of manual metal-arc electrodes, in
the flux used in submerged-arc welding or in flux-cored
wires.
• Any other hydrogenous compounds in the coating or flux.
• Oil, dirt and grease either on the surface or trapped in the
surface layers of welding wires.
43
• Hydrated oxide, e.g. rust, on the surface of welding wires.

The principal sources of hydrogen from the material to be
welded are:
• Oil, grease, dirt, paint, rust, etc. on the surface and adjacent
to the weld preparation: these can break down to produce
hydrogen in the arc atmosphere.
• Degreasing fluids used to clean surfaces before welding may

likewise break down to produce hydrogen.
• Hydrogen from the parent steel, either remaining from the

original casting process (particularly in the interior of heavy
sections), following service at high temperature and high
hydrogen partial pressures, or as a result of corrosion
processes, particularly sour (i.e. I-12S) service.
44

Porosity, Non Metallic Inclusions (NMI)
* Porosity
The solubility of gases in liquid metal decreases as the metal cools and
there is a further sharp decrease in solubility as the metal solidifies. Any
excess gas in solution in the liquid metal is rejected as the weld pool
solidifies and, if it does not all escape, bubbles are nucleated and formed. If
the cooling rate of the weld metal is so fast that these bubbles cannot reach
the surface and escape to the atmosphere they become trapped and frozen
into the solid weld metal as porosity.
The gases which commonly cause porosity in welding are nitrogen (N2) and
hydrogen (H2) (Fig. 32)
* Non Metallic Inclusions

(NMI)  Oxidation and de-
oxidation processes causes
remaining NMI in the weld
metal.
The amount of NMI in the
weld metal influences
45 toughness and ductility
properties.

46

3. COATED (COVERED) STICK ELECTRODES
3.1. Background
Metal arc welding started as bare wire welding with fence wire
attached to the normal power line.
The result was poor with considerable instability and
contaminated weld deposits.
Development occurred in a number of ways. Rusty wire gave
better arc stability than clean wire, so did a dip coating of lime.
Wrapping the wire in asbestos gave protection against
contamination while cotton waste gave protection and deep
penetration.
47

3.2. Characteristics
The major characteristic of covered electrodes is versatility.

By attention to the composition of the covering virtually all
types of steel and many non-ferrous metals can be welded in
all positions.
Relative requirements of ease of use, economics and quality
can be balanced.
Electrode sizes vary from 1.5 mm to 6 mm (8 mm) and from
250 mm to 450 mm in length.
The limits are set by the limits of the welding operator. The
current range varies from about 50 amps. To 350 amps the
maximum that an operator can control easily.
Electrode size and current place limitations on the process.
Minimum weld able thickness is 1.6 mm (more usually 3 mm)
48
and edge preparation is needed for thick nesses above 6 mm.
There is no maximum thickness but edge preparation must
alloy access so that the weld volumes can be very large.

3.3. Electrode manufacture and quality control
Theoretical and practical knowledge and expertise are required

in the development of an electrode as a matter of course.
Beyond these, extensive experimental work and trials have to
be conducted - from extruding and weld tests to verification of
such properties as aging resistance, corrosion resistance, creep
strength - before a new electrode is ready for industrial scale
production.
For every new electrode developed, a written specification with

precise and complete details and instructions regarding core
wire, type and condition of raw materials for the coating,
binder, extrusion conditions, drying temperatures etc. is
handed over to the production shop.
49

Manufacturing of coated electrodes for electric arc welding is a
process in which the portion of material costs is preponderant.
The figures below are a schematic representation of the flow of
the three base material groups (Fig. 33)
50

Core wires are received in separate batches identified with heat number and
chemical composition. On their arrival, a spectroscopic analysis is conducted,
and physical properties are checked.
For unalloyed coated electrodes, core wire from rimming steel is used with
varying contents of carbon and manganese, depending on the electrode
quality required.
A simplified diagram of the extrusion process is shown in Fig. 34
51

Electrode Coatings
The following summary illustrates the wide variety of requirements
which coated electrodes must meet:
* Welding technology requirements:
• Good striking and restricting characteristics
• Good gap bridging ability
• Out-of-position weld ability
• Arc stability
• Coating elastic and resistant
• Low tendency to develop fumes
• Inoffensiveness of the gases and fumes produced
* Economy :
• High rates of deposition
• High recovery
*Metallurgical requirements :
• Low spatter losses
• High level of mechanical properties
• Easy removal of slag
• Absence of porosity in the weld
• Overload capacity
• Insensitivity to rust, scale, oil and dirt
52 • High welding speeds
on the surface of base metal
• Great length of bead
• Insensitive to segregation
deposited
• Resistance to hot and cold cracking
• Good upsetting ability
• Coating insensitive to moisture
• Good bead surface
This list of requirements makes it clear at once that a coated electrode may at
best be a good compromise.
Depending on the requirements involved in every individual instance, the
emphasis will be on one or the other property.
The majority of coating materials may be classified by the way they react to
oxygen: one group gives off 0 to the weld pool, another group is more or less
neutral, and a third group absorbs oxygen from the pool:
How coating materials affect the oxygen content of the weld pool :
Group I : gives off 0 to weld pool iron ores FeO
manganese ores MnO
silicate SiO2
chromium ores Cr:z03
titanium ores TiO2
carbon dioxide CO2
steam H 2O
Group II : neutral sodium oxide Na2O
potassium oxide K2O
aluminium oxide A1203
magnesium oxide MgO
calcium oxide CaO
53 calcium fluoride CaF2
Group III : deoxidizing agents : ferromanganese Mn
ferro silicon Si
ferrotitanium Ti
aluminium Al
carbon C
Syukri, B4T IWI Training course hydrogen H2
Fig. 35/36/37 list important raw materials for electrode coating.
54

3.5. Types of coated Electrodes (Austrian, German
Classification)
In the course of many years, a number of standards have been
worked out for filler metals with the intention of facilitating
work in practice.
One of the most important of these standards up to now is DIN
1913. Which classifies electrodes according to type of coating
and coating thickness.
Symbol for coating types: according to (NORM M 7820 equ. to
DIN 1913  Symbol and designation
A = acid
R = rutile (thin & medium) .
RR = rutile (thick)
AR = rutile/acid (mixed type)
C = cellulose
55
R (C) = rutile cellulose (medium)
RR (C) = rutile cellulose (thick)
B = basic
B(R) = basic, with a percentage of non-basic
RR(B) = rutile basic (thick)
The basic constituents making up the coating are:
• slag and shielding gas formers (lime, rutile)
• deoxidizing agents (FeSi - B, FeMn - A, R)
• binders (silicate of potassium and of sodium of different
viscosities)
• extruding agents (Alginates; production of dipped
electrodes has been more or less-discontinued).
Mechanical properties of the weld deposit are governed by the
type of coating and its thickness which is designated as
follows:
• thin coating : total thickness up to 120 % of core wire
diameter
• medium : total thickness from 120 to 155 % of core
wire diameter
• thick coating : total thickness over 155 % of core wire
56 diameter

3.5.1. Acid coating (A)
An acid coating has approximately the following composition:
• 40 % FeD + MnO (iron ore + manganese) ;
• 20 % Si02 (silicate)
• 30 % FeMn (ferromanganese)
• 10 % Plasticizer
The acid coating is usually a thick coating. Quite in general, a
thick coating yields better mechanical properties of the weld
than a thin one of the same type.
Metal transfer in the arc takes the form of a spray.
Acid coated electrodes are best welded in horizontal position.
The bead surface is smooth and finely rippled. Electrodes can
be operated on direct current and alternating current.
These electrodes being hot running. Electrodes with acid
coating can also be used for cutting, when amperage is
increased beyond the level required for welding.
57
There is the risk of porosity and hot cracking when these
electrodes are used for welding steels with higher carbon
contents (above 0.25 %), higher phosphorus and Sulphur
contents, and when segregation layers are being cut.
3.5.2. Rutile coating (R)
A rutile coating has approximately the following composition:
• 50 % TiO2 (rutile)
• 15 % SiO2 (silicate)
• 10 % CaCO3 (limestone)
• 15 % FeMn (ferromanganese)
• 10 % plasticizer
The coating usually contains TiO2 in the form of rutile. Coating
thickness may vary and governs the mode of metal transfer in
the arc: thin coating yields large droplets, coating of medium
thickness medium-sized droplets, .and coating of greater
thickness produces fine droplets, however, not so fine as in the
case of A electrodes with thick coating.
Mechanical properties improve with increasing coating
thickness.
58 Slag formation varies with coating thickness and slag former
content.
Slag consistency may range from compact to honeycomb;
toughness also varies.

Rutile coated electrodes can be welded on direct current and
on alternating current, in all positions.
Gap bridging ability is very good for thin and medium coated
electrodes, and satisfactory for thick coated electrodes - better
in any case than for A electrodes with the same coating
thickness.
Rutile coated electrodes are the most widely used electrode
type nowadays.
Beads are smooth, fillet welds are from flat to slightly concave.
Slag removal is easy.
The deposit is less susceptible to hot cracking than acid coated
electrodes, although rutile coated electrodes have the same
manganese content.
R electrodes whose coating contains certain percentages of
cellulose are eminently suitable for making vertical down
welds.
59 Slag produced by R type electrodes has relatively good
conductivity which explains the good arc striking and
restricting characteristics.

3.5.3. Basic coating (B)
A basic coating has approximately the following composition:
40 % CaCO3 (lime)
35 % CaF2 (calcium fluoride)
5 % SiO2 or TiO2
10 % FeSi (deoxidize!)
3 % FeMn
7 % plasticizer
These electrodes usually have a thick coating and are operated

on direct current, with positive polarity.
They admit all positions, vertical down excepted. Metal
transfer is in medium-size droplets.
The slag has a characteristic brown to brown-black color and is
not removed so easily as for other electrode types.
60 Weld seams present a slight reinforcement.
Mechanical properties are better than .in the case of other
electrode types, in particular, impact strength at temperatures
below 0°C. B type electrodes are particularly suited for welding
heavy wall components and rigid structures.
Basic coatings are hygroscopic and must therefore be stored
in a dry environment.
If electrodes have picked up moisture in storage, they must
be re-baked for minimum two hours at a temperature
between 300 and 350°C.
The use of electrodes with moist coating may result in
excessive hydrogen in the welded joint which results in
micro-cracks and porosity.
Recently developed B (R) electrodes possess a coating whose
composition permits welding on alternating current without
any difficulty.
Welding with basic or lime coated electrodes requires a
special technique.
The arc must be kept short, excessive weaving, high welding
speeds and great lengths of bead deposited must be avoided
to prevent porosity.
61
One exception: basic electrodes for vertical down welding
can be welded with high speed.

The arc must be struck by a scratching motion rather than the
customary pecking as this may cause the relatively brittle
coating to spall off the electrode tip or may cause the
electrode to stick.
After striking -in particular, when the plate or sheet is still cold
the electrode must not be moved at once in welding direction,
as this would cause clusters of pores, but after a short forward
movement should be taken back to pass once more the place
where the arc was struck.
Also, at the end of the run, the electrode should not be
withdrawn vertically, but the arc should be allowed to continue
in the direction of the run, and shortened at the same time.
62

3.5.4. Cellulose Coating
A cellulose coating has approximately the following

composition :
• 40% Cellulose
• 20% TiO2 (Rutile)
• 15% SiO2 (Silicate)
• 10% Fe304 (Magnetite)
• 15% FeMn (ferro-manganeese)
The world over, cross-country pipelines are being constructed

on a large scale to assist in meeting the increasing demands for
oil and gas.
The progress of construction is to a great extent determined by
the speed of welding the circular seams.
Quite in general, these seams are made with cellulose coated
63 electrodes in vertical down position, a method which permits
using large electrode diameters, high amperages and high
welding speeds.

Up to about 20 mm wall thickness, this approach
affords substantial economic advantages over
conventional joints with root face executed with rutile
or basic coated electrodes.
Vertical down welding with cellulose coated electrodes permits

using large electrode diameters at high amperages which do
not change in any position around the pipe circumference.
This is impossible with other type electrodes which usually
admit vertical up welding only.
Use of cellulose coated electrodes has resulted in considerably
increased rates of pipeline construction.
Vertical down weldability is the result of the special
composition of the coating of these electrodes.
Even larger diameter cellulose electrodes 5.5 mm can be
vertical down welded with best results owing to the stable,
64 concentrated arc and very deep penetration.

Fig.38 shows some properties of different coating types.
65

3.5.5. Special electrode Types
Iron powder electrodes have a very thick coating containing so
much iron powder that more than 120 % recovery, related to
the molten core wire, are obtained. These electrodes are also
called high efficiency electrodes.
The coating, due to its high iron content, conducts electricity
and has higher current carrying capacity. The arc is struck
already when the coated electrode tip touches the workpiece,
and the electrodes can therefore be welded in contact with the
base metal, in particular, when the coating is of the rutile type.
Iron powder electrodes permit high deposition rates and
welding speeds, but due to the increased arc voltage require
adequate welding power sources. Out-of-position welding
presents problems, and flat welding alone is possible when
recovery is in excess of about 160 %.
66
These electrode types yield highly satisfactory results in those
applications where they are definitely superior to standard
electrodes, such as in structural steel work and in shipbuilding,
where design calculations are relatively easy.
Typical all weld metal properties of different electrode types are :
Mechanical Properties
Type YS TS E Impact Strength ISO-V
[Mpal [MpaJ [oki +20°C -20°C
Basic 420 530 30 140 102
Retile 360 500 28 94 39
Cellulose 400 500 28 78 63
Chemical Composition
All weld metal
Type
C Si Mn 0 HDM —
ok % m1/100
% %
Basic 0.08 0.40 1.00 0.03 4
Retile 0.08 0.35 0.60 0.08 25
Cellulose 0.12 0.20 0.40 0.05 60
67

3.6. U.S. Classification of electrodes
The American classification system (AWS Designation A 5.1,

ASTM A 233 for mild steel and A 5.5, ASTM 316 for low alloy
steel) is rather different than the Austrian and German system.
Classification consists of a prefix letter E specifying an electrode,

a group of two or three digits specifying weld metal strength in
thousands of pounds per square inch in either the "as welded"
or "Stress relieved" condition and a final two digits specifying
type of covering, welding position and current characteristics.
• E 60xx 60,000 psi.
• E 70xx 70,000 psi.
• E 80xx 80,000 psi.
• E 90xx 90,000 psi.
• E 100xx 100,000 psi.
68

Exx.10 Cellulosic covering for used with DC+. Deep penetration all positions
electrode for general purposes.
Exx.11 Cellulosic covering for A.C. or DC+, all positions.
Exx.12 Rutile covering, AC or DC-, F and lir positions only.
Exx 13 Rutile electrode, AC or DC, all positions.
Exx 14 Iron powder rutile covering giving same characteristic as Exx13 but
with a higher welding speed.
Exx 15 Basic low hydrogen covering requiring use of D.C.+, all positions.
Exx 16 Basic low hydrogen covering as E xx 15 but with addition of potassium
salts to allow operation with A.C.
Exx 18 Low hydrogen electrode as E xx 16 but with 30% iron powder to give
better welding speeds and recovery.
Exx 20 Typical mineral (iron oxide/silicate) covering for use in F and Hf
positions.
Exx 24 Rutile and iron powder covering similar to E xx 12 but with better
recovery and suitable for touch welding. F and Hf positions only.
Exx 27 Mineral plus iron powder covering with similar charaterisitcs to E xx
20.
Exx 28 Low hydrogen basic plus 50% iron powder covering with high
deposition rate. F and Hr positions only.
69 Exx 30 Mineral covering similar to E xx 20 but with high deposition rates; F
position only Several high tensile low hydrogen electrodes are
classified with extra suffixes e.g. Exxxx -Al, -B2 etc. which indicates
the chemical composition of the deposit.

3.7. Moisture Pick up of coated electrodes; Rebaking
Electrode coatings tend to pick up ( absorbe ) moisture in humide
atmosphere (Fig. 39)
70

3.8. Storage of Coated Electrodes
To obtain the best possible results from arc welding electrodes,

it is essential that they should be stored in suitably dry
conditions. This is particularly so in the case of low hydrogen
electrodes (basic electrodes), which are more susceptible
against hydrogen pick up than other types of electrodes.
Electrodes are manufactured so that the proper level of
moisture, consistent with the covering type and the electrode
strength classification, is in the coverings. These electrodes are
then normally packaged in a container which has been
designed to provide the degree of protection appropriate to the
type of covering involved.
Under proper storage conditions (normal room temperatures,
50 percent maximum relative humidity or holding ovens)
71 electrodes can be maintained for many months. However, if the
original containers are damaged, improperly stored, or for
reason the electrodes are exposed to high moisture conditions,
the coverings of the electrodes may absorb excessive moisture.

If there is a possibility that the electrodes may have picked up
excessive moisture, they can be restored by rebaking as
indicated below. Such rebaking may well be required when low
hydrogen electrodes, purchased in non-hermetically sealed
packages, may have been exposed, to the moist air.
The low hydrogcn (i.e. E 7015 and E 7016) and low hydrogen-
iron powder (i.e. E 7018 and E 7028) electrodes are the most
critical types for moisture absorption. When a container is
opended, only sufficient electrodes for use in a eight hour
period should be removed and the remainder returned to the
storage oven.
These types of inorganic covered electrodes are designed and

developed to contain the very minimum of moisture in their
coverings and as such should be handled with the utmost care.
72 This care should be extended particularly to field welding where
the danger of moisture absorption is greatly increased.

Cellulosic electrodes should not be rebaked because the
coverings for these types are designed to have moisture levels
of 3 to 7 percent and excessive drying may substantially affect
their operation.
Storage Temperature Rebaking Temperature

Filler Metal
° °
C C
Cellulosic
Electrodes 25 — 40 Not recommend
Basic Electrodes
25 — 40 300 — 350
Other
Electrodes 25 — 40 120 – 150
When a package of basic electrodes is opened, the electrode

should be placed in a holding oven heated to 100- 150°C.
73 An oven holding basic electrodes should not contain anything
else, or even any of other type of electrode.
When removed from the oven, basic electrodes must be used
within a certain period of time (8 hours for mild steel
electrodes).
If this is exceeded, the electrodes should be re-baked at a higher
temperature and this usually requires a different type of oven.
Electrodes that have become wet should be discarded. It should be
observed that the success for re-baking depends on the oven-
charge (Fig. 40)
74

Store rooms for electrodes should have a controlled humidity of
less than 50 % (relative humidity) by using a dehumidifier and
sealing the room.
Smaller quantities of electrodes may be stored in unheated

containers that use silica gel or other material to maintain a dry
atmosphere.
Small portable containers will also be effective in keeping

electrodes dry.
75

M1.1.6. Manual Metal Arc Welding

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M1.1.6. Manual Metal Arc Welding

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Professional Welding Personal Training Course

International Welding Inspector

Lectured by : Muhammad Syukri

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

1.3. Manual Metal Arc Welding (AWS/ASM=Shielded Metal

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Electrodes operate on direct current attached to the positive or

A welding power source needs to be designed to give a stable

Arc current must be reasonable constant at all arc lengths (i.e.

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Factors that influence the selection of power source include :

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

• The welding arc is relatively steady and smooth.

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

• AC arc is somewhat harsh and less stable when compared

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course Fig.4. Single-Layer Five Passes

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Fig.8 Weld Bead

Fig.9 Weld Metal

Fig.10 Deposited Metal

- All Weld Metal

- Weldment  An assembly whose component parts are

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

where U(E) is voltage, J(I) is the current, and v is travel speed in

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

In many cases HI is calculated without n —factor.

2.2.2.2. Hardness, Impact Energy versus Carbon Content

A steel with enough carbon and alloy content transform to

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

In the case of C.E.-values above 0.45 preheating is recommendable.

1 Heat input 10 KJ/cm/plate thickness 50 mm = HAZ consists of 50 %

1 Heat input 10 KJ/cm/plate thickness 50 mm = HAZ consists of 2 %

Fig.21 shows a sketch of a simple bead on plate test. It is

For example: dilution 30 %

C-content deposited metal = 0.5 % 0.05 x 0.7 = 0.035

For example : dilution 30%

Fig. 24 Shows the macrostructure of a multipass welded seam

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

The impact strength and the ductility of a welded joint is influenced by

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

2.3.3. Deposition Rate, Recovery of Coated

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Fig. 27 give two examples.

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

- Porosity (Gas pockets)

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

2.4.1.1. Hot Cracks

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Liquation cracks can occur in HAZ of the base metal as well as in

Stainless steel weldments are more critical than C-steel

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course

• Degreasing fluids used to clean surfaces before welding may

• Hydrogen from the parent steel, either remaining from the

Syukri, B4T IWI Training course