The history of hydraulics

The history of using hydraulics as a transmitting power is very long. The famers of
ancient Egypt developed various water supply system to use water from Nile river
in BC 3000. The waterwheel had been used as an important power source for a long
time in many countries. The mill is the example. However, these initial devices had
low power because they used a fluid with low pressure provided from nature.

After a long time, the French mathematician and physicist, Blaise Pascal, announced
the Pascal principle stating the power amplification using fluid in 1648. This
principle is being practical in 1795 by British inventor, Joseph Braamah. He invented
Hydraulic press using water as a pressure fluid.

Early hydraulic press Steam engine of James Watt

This hydraulic press began to be used in combination with reciprocating pump of

steam engine after steam engine, which is invented by James Watt in 1770s, is

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generalized.
In the early 19th century, there is no technological advance. But Willian Amstrong
invented hydraulic crane in 1845. And in 1849, the hydraulic accumulator is invented
for energy storage of hydraulic crane drive. From 1850 to 1890, the hydraulic
technology is rapidly developed with the development of hydraulic forging press,
hydraulic drive planning machine and etc.
In the early 20th century, the lubricant oil can be used as a transmission media is
manufactured, and the seal can resist with the oil fluid is invented. They made it
possible to the hydraulic machine is began to be used in earnest.
As the hydraulic is used as a toll of war, the development of hydraulic is stared to be
accelerated like all the development of technology.
The development high-speed high pressure pump had been activated as Hydrostatic
Transmission (HST) is used to control the 12-inch gun barrel of American battle
ship, Virginia, in 1906.
HST is that Swash plate type axial piston pump and piston motor is combined.

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1.1 Introduction of the hydraulics

We can define that the hydraulics is the generation of forces and motion using
hydraulic fluids.

The hydraulic fluids represent the medium for power transmission.

Hydraulic systems are used in modern production plants and manufacturing

installations.

The main areas for the application of hydraulics are as follow:

• Production and assembly machines of all types.

• Transfer lines.

• Lifting and conveying devices.

• Presses.

• Injection molding machines.

• Rolling lines.

• Construction machinery.

• Tippers, excavators, elevating platforms.

• Agricultural machinery.

There are some important advantages of hydraulics:

• Transmission of large forces using small components, i.e. great power

intensity.

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 • Precise positioning.

• Start-up under heavy load.

• Even movements independent of load, since liquids are scarcely compressible

and flow control valves can be used.

• Smooth operation and reversal.

• Good control and regulation.

• Favorable heat dissipation.

Compared to other technologies, hydraulics has the following disadvantages:

• Pollution of the environment by waste oil (danger of fire or accidents)

• Sensitivity to dirt.

• Danger resulting from excessive pressures (severed lines).

• Temperature dependence (change in viscosity).

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 Table 1.1 Comparison of typical data for the three most commonly used
power transmission technologies.

Electricity Hydraulics Pneumatics

No disadvantages apart from

Leakage Contamination
energy loss.

Risk of explosion in
Environment Sensitive in case of
certain areas, Explosion-proof, insensitive to
al temperature fluctuation, risk
insensitive to temperature.
influences of fire in case of leakage.
temperature.

Difficult, only in small

Energy Limited, with the help of
quantities using Easy
storage gases.
batteries.

Up to 100 m flow rate Up to 1000 m flow rate

Energy Unlimited with power
v = 2-6 m/s, v = 20-40 m/s,
transmission loss.
signal speed up to 1000 m/s. signal speed 20-40 m/s.

Operating
v = 0.5 m/s v = 1.5m/s
speed

Power Low High Very high

supply 1 : 4 : 10

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costs

Difficult and
Simple using cylinders,
expensive, Simple using cylinders,
Linear limited forces, speed
small forces, speed good speed control,
motion extremely,
regulation only very large forces.
load-dependent.
possible at great cost.

Rotary Simple, high turning Simple, inefficient, high

Simple and powerful.
motion moment, low speed. speed.

Precision to ±1µm and Precision of up to ±1µm can

Positioning Without load change precision
easier to achieve. be achieved depending on
accuracy of 1/10 mm possible.
expenditure.

Not overloadable.
Protected against overload, Protected against overload,
Poor efficiency due to
with high system pressure of
downstream forces limited by pneumatic
Forces up to 600 bar, very large
mechanical elements. pressure and cylinder diameter
forces can be generated
Very high forces can be F < 30 kN at 6 bar.
F< 3000 kN.
realized.

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1.2 Physical quantity and unit.

In accordance with the SI international system of units, hydrostatic pressure is given

in both Pascal and bar. The level of the column of liquid is given the unit “meter”,
the density of the liquid “kilograms per cubic meter” and the acceleration due to
gravity “meters per second squared”.

The hydrostatic pressure, or simply “pressure” as it is known for short, does not
depend on the type of vessel used. It is purely dependent on the height and density
of the column of liquid.

The value of pressure is dependent on the force due to weight F of the body and on
the size of the area A on which the force due to weight acts.

This is expressed by the following formula:

F
p=
A
where, p = Pressure [Pa]
F = Force [N]
A = Area [m2]

Co-relation of bar and pascal unit:

1 bar = 100,000 Pa = 1,000 hPa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa

Example1.1
Pressure of 50 bar is applying to area of 1 ㎠. Calculate force caused by this pressure.

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Solution:
P = F/A
F=P×A
F = 50 × 10 N/㎠ × 1 ㎠
F = 500 N (≒50 kgf)

1.3 Fundamental law of hydraulics

1.3.1 Feature of liquid

There is no specific shape and they are different according to the shape of its
container.

Fig. 1.1 Shape of liquid

1.3.2 Compressible Feature of Liquid

Basically liquid is not compressible. But if high pressure is applied, it could be

compressed up to 3% of its volume since air is melt in the liquid.

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 Fig. 1.2 Compressible feature of liquid

1.3.3 Pressure Transmission

If a force F1 acts via an area A1 on an enclosed liquid, a pressure p is produced

which extends throughout the whole of the liquid (Pascal’s Law). The same
pressure applies at every point of the closed system (see diagram).

Fig. 1.3 Pressure transmission

Owing to the fact that hydraulic systems operate at very high pressures, it is
possible to neglect the hydrostatic pressure (see example).

Thus, when calculating the pressure in liquids, the calculations are based purely on
pressure caused by external forces. Thus, the same pressure acts on the surfaces
A2, A3 as on A1.

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Example 1.3

Calculate force applied on A1 where the area of A1 = 10㎠ in Fig1.4.

Solution:

F=P×A

= 100 kgf/㎠ × 10㎠

= 1000 kgf

1.3.4 Power Transmission

The same pressure applies at every point in a closed system. For this reason, the
shape of the container has no significance.

Where a container is formed as shown in the diagram, it is possible to transmit

forces. The fluid pressure can be described by means of the following equations:

F1 F2
p1 = and p2 =
A1 A2

The following equation applies when the system is in equilibrium:

p1 = p 2

When the two equations are balanced, the following formula is produced:

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 F1 F2
=
A1 A2

The values F1 and F2 and A1 and A2 can be calculated using this formula.

Fig. 1.4 Power transmission

1.3.5 Pressure Transfer

Fig. 1.5 Pressure transfer

The hydrostatic pressure p1 exerts a force F1 on the area A1 which is transferred

via the piston rod onto the small piston. Thus, the force F1 acts on the area A2 and
produces the hydrostatic pressure p2. Since piston area A2 is smaller than piston

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area A1, the pressure p2 is greater than the pressure p1. Here too, the following
law applies:

F
p=
A

From this, the following equations can be formulated for the forces F1 and F2:

F1 = p1 ⋅ A1 and F2 = p 2 ⋅ A2

Since the two forces are equal (F1 = F2), the equations can be balanced:

p1 ⋅ A1 = p 2 ⋅ A2

The values p1, A1 and A2 can be derived from this formula for calculations.

For example, the following equations result for p2 and A2:

p1 ⋅ A1 p1 ⋅ A1
p2 = and A2 =
A2 p2

Example 1.4

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If pressure P₁= 6 bar and area ratio between A1 and A2 is 32:1, what is pressure P₂?

Solution:

P₂= P₁• A₁/ A₂

= 6 X 32
= 192 Bar

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1.3.6 Flow Rate
Flow rate is the term used to describe the volume of liquid flowing through a pipe in
a specific period of time. For example, approximately one minute is required to fill
a 10 liter bucket from a tap. Thus, the flow rate amounts to 10 l/min.

In hydraulics, the flow rate is designated as Q. The following equation applies:

V
Q=
t

where, Q = Flow rate

V = volume

t = time

The equations for the volume (V) and the time (t) can be derived from the formula
for the flow rate. The following equation is produced:

V = Q ⋅t

Example 1.5

When the flow rate is 4.2 ℓ/min, how much water can be filled up for 10 seconds?

Solution:

V = Q.t

=4.2 X 10 / 60
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 = 0.7 L

1.3.7 Continuity Equation

If the time t is replaced by s/v (v = s/t) in the formula for the flow rate(Q = V/t) and
it is taken into account that the volume V can be replaced by A • s, the following
equation is produced:

Q = A ⋅V

Q = flow rate [m3/s]

v = flow velocity [m/s]

A = pipe cross-section [m2]

From the formula for the flow rate, it is possible to derive the formula for calculating
the pipe cross-section and flow velocity. The following equation applies for A or v.

Q Q
A= , V=
V A

The flow rate of a liquid in terms of volume per unit of time which flows through a
pipe with several changes in cross-section is the same at all points in the pipe (see
diagram). This means that the liquid flows through small cross-sections faster than
through large cross-sections.

The following equation applies:

Q1 = A1 · v1 = A2 · v2 = A3 · v3 . . .

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 Fig. 1.6 Continuity law of flow rate

1.3.8 Friction, Heat, and Pressure Drop

Friction occurs in all devices and lines in a hydraulic system through which liquid
passes. This friction is mainly at the line walls (external friction). There is also
friction between the layers of liquid (internal friction).

The friction causes the hydraulic fluid, and consequently also the components, to be
heated. As a result of this heat generation, the pressure in the system drops and, thus,
reduces the actual pressure at the drive section.

The size of the pressure drop is based on the internal resistances in a hydraulic
system. These are dependent on:

• Flow velocity (cross-sectional area, flow rate),

• Type of flow (laminar, turbulent),

• Type and number of cross-sectional reductions in the system of lines

(throttles, orifices),

• Viscosity of the oil (temperature, pressure),

• Line length and flow diversion,

• Surface finish, and

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 • Line arrangement.

The flow velocity has the greatest effect on the internal resistances since the
resistance rises in proportion to the square of the velocity.

Fig.1.7 Influence of flow velocity on pressure loss

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1.4 Fluid Power and Efficiency

1.4.1 Power

Power is usually defined as work or a change in energy per unit of time. In hydraulic
installations, a distinction is made between mechanical and hydraulic power.
Mechanical power is converted into hydraulic power, transported, controlled, and
then converted back to mechanical power.

Hydraulic power is calculated from the pressure and the flow rate.

The following equation applies:

P=p*Q

P = Power (W) = (Nm/s)

p = Pressure (Pa)

Q = Flow rate (m3/s)

Load

Fig. 1.9 Power in hydraulic system

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1.4.2 Efficiency

The input power in a hydraulic system does not correspond to the output power since
line losses occur. The ratio of the output power to the input power is designated as
efficiency (η).

output
Efficiency =
input

In practice, distinction is made between volumetric power loss caused by leakage

losses and hydro-mechanical power loss caused by friction.

In the same way, efficiency is divided into:

• Volumetric Efficiency (ηvol):

This covers the losses resulting from internal and external leakage losses in the
pumps, motors, and valves.

• Hydro-Mechanical Efficiency (η hm):

This covers the losses resulting from friction in pumps, motors, and cylinders.

The total losses occurring in pumps, motors, and cylinders during power conversion
are given as the total efficiency (η tot) and calculated as follows:

η tot = η hm · η vol

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