Dec 2022 Leadership Decision Making Management and Administration

LEADERSHIP, DECISION MAKING, MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
By: Ma. Shiela M. Villanueva
OVERVIEW
Criminology students as potential practitioners, law enforcers and public safety officers are trained to be willing
and knowledgeable enough to turn basic knowledge of leadership, management and administration into their respective
roles. They should be good at applying leadership qualities and trait based leadership strategies. As future leaders,
managers and administrator in their respective fields, they are required to express the values and discipline that
reinforce integrity in leadership and decision-making in the administration of law enforcement, public security and
criminal justice.
UNDERSTANDING SELF – LEADERSHIP

 Power  Responsibility  Competence
 Skill  Teamwork  Support
 Motivation  Communication
Why Character Really Matters?
When it comes to leadership, competencies determine what a person can do. Commitment determines what
they want to do, and character determines what they will do.
Character is foundational for effective decision-making. Clearly, mistakes are made because of a leader’s
shortcomings in his or her competencies. More often, the root cause is a failing of character. For example, not
recognizing or not willing to admit that you don’t have the requisite competencies to succeed in the leadership role is
rooted in character. Not willing to listen to those who can do well because of the perception that it would undermine
your leadership is a problem rooted in character. Challenging decisions being made by others but which you feel are
wrong requires character. Dealing with discriminatory behaviors by others requires character. Creating a culture of
constructive dissent so that others may challenge your decisions without fear of consequences requires character.
Character
— is a psychological notion that refers to all the habitual ways of feeling and reacting that distinguish one individual
from another. (Sigmund Freud)
— the way someone thinks, feels, and behaves: someone's personality — (Britannica Dictionary)
Character of a leader
1. Traits 2. Values 3. Virtues
1. Traits
 are defined as habitual patterns of thought, behavior and emotion that are considered to be relatively stable in
individuals across situations and over time. Traits are not fixed.
 (For example, introverts may be able to learn how to behave in a less introverted way, while extroverts may learn
how to control and moderate their extroverted behaviors when situations require it.)
The big 5 of traits “OCEAN “

1. Openness to Experience
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness,
5. Neuroticism
 Openness - is one of the five personality traits of the Big Five personality theory. It indicates how open-minded a
person is. A person with a high level of openness to experience in a personality test enjoys trying new things.
They are imaginative, curious, and open-minded.
1
Insight Review Center LEA (Leadership, Decision-Making, Management and Administration)
 Conscientiousness is the personality trait of being careful, or diligent. Conscientiousness implies a desire to do a
task well, and to take obligations to others seriously. Conscientious people tend to be efficient and organized as
opposed to easy-going and disorderly
 Extraversion describes a sense of exuberance and willingness to be involved with the world around them.
Extraversion. (or extroversion) is characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high
amounts of emotional expressiveness. People who are high in extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy
in social situations.
 Agreeableness is a personality trait that describes a person's ability to put others needs before their own. Being
empathetic and finding pleasure in helping others and working with people who need more help is a particular
strength of highly agreeable individuals.
 Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability. Individuals who are high in
this trait tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability, and sadness. Those low in this trait tend to be
more stable and emotionally resilient.
-
2. Values
 refer to stable life goals that people have, reflecting what is most important to them. Values are established
throughout one's life as a result of the accumulating life experiences and tend to be relatively stable (Lusk &
Oliver, 1974; Rokeach, 1973).
 Example: Loyalty, Spirituality, Humility, Honesty, Selflessness, Integrity, Compassion, & Kindness.
3. Virtues
 is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a
foundation of principle and good moral being.
 In other words, it is a behavior that shows high moral standards: doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong.
 The opposite of virtue is vice.
 : conformity to a standard of right: morality.: a particular moral excellence.
 : a beneficial quality or power of a thing.
 : manly strength or courage: valor.
 : a commendable quality or trait: merit.
The underlying dimensions of leadership character

1. Universalism - Universalism is the outward expression of leadership character and is made manifest by
respectfulness for others, fairness, cooperativeness, compassion, spiritual respect, and humility.
a. Respectfulness
 Receiving respect from others is important because it helps us to feel safe and to express ourselves.
Being respected by important people in our lives growing up teaches us how to be respectful toward
others. Respect in your relationships builds feelings of trust, safety, and wellbeing.
b. Fairness
 Fairness usually comes down to applying the same rules, standards and criteria in similar situations. The
purpose is to reduce the role of bias in one’s decision making, thus “levelling the playing field”.
 Fairness is very important in a community. Everyone needs to follow the rules, be respectful of one
another and work together to build a strong and beautiful community. They can do this by getting
together in a friendly way to solve problems and make rules that are fair to everyone.
c. Cooperation
 The actions of someone who is being helpful by doing what is wanted or asked for: common effort
 Cooperation is people working together to achieve results or people helping each other out to achieve a
common goal.
 Cooperation is important because it allows people and groups to work together to achieve a common
goal or derive mutual benefits. Cooperation allows participants to exchange valuable information that
helps both sides improve their knowledge bases and work in a time- and resource-efficient manner.
d. Compassion
 The etymology of "compassion" is Latin, meaning "co-suffering." Compassion involves "feeling for
another" and is a precursor to empathy, the "feeling as another" capacity for better person-centered acts
of active compassion; in common parlance active compassion is the desire to alleviate another's
suffering.
 The meaning of compassion is to recognize the suffering of others and then take action to help.
Compassion embodies a tangible expression of love for those who are suffering.
e. Spiritual respect
 Receiving respect from others is important because it helps us to feel safe and to express ourselves.
2
Respect means that you accept somebody for who they are, even when they're different from you or you
don't agree with them. Respect in your relationships builds feelings of trust, safety, and wellbeing.
 Spiritual respect is not earned in the sense of what you know or what you achieve on your life path
journey. It does not come from judgment, expectation, the need for control, the need to be right,
negative emotions like jealousy or worry about what other people think, rationalization, attitudes or
feelings on what you want or think "respect" should be. It is not used for personal gain, ego or power.
f. Humility
 Humility is considered a state of being, highlighted by your behavior and approach to things. It's also
considered one of the virtues of the human condition, along with kindness, patience, diligence, charity,
temperance and chastity. Humility is often thought to occur in the absence of pride.
3 signs of a humble person:
1) They don't go around saying they're humble. ...
2) They talk less and listen more. ...
3) They choose being at peace over being right
Leadership
 is the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to influence and guide followers or other members of an
organization.
a. process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2007).
b. process by which a person influences others to accomplish a mission (U.S. Army, 1983).
c. inspiring others to pursue your vision within the parameters you set, to the extent that it becomes a shared
effort, a shared vision, and a shared success (Zeitchik, 2012).
d. process of social influence, which maximizes the efforts of others, towards the achievement of a goal (Kruse,
2013).
Leader
 a person who leads: such as. a : guide, conductor
 a person who directs a military force or unit leaders of the army.
 a person who has commanding authority or influence a leader in the reform movement.
What kind of leadership style is good for police organizations?

1. Transformational leadership
— Police chiefs and command staff who engage in a transformational leadership style are perceived as being
more approachable and responsive to their officers' needs. They also create a more supportive
organizational environment that is vital for improving employee satisfaction and quality of work.
— John Maxwell once stated every aspect of an organization rises and falls on leadership. Employee
satisfaction and commitment also rises and falls on leadership. To achieve this, it is imperative for agency
leaders utilize a transformational leadership approach.
— Bernard Bass - is one of the foundational researchers of transformational leadership theory. His research
focused on the transactional and transformational leadership approaches, which are both widely used in the
law enforcement profession. Ultimately, Bass believed organizations led by transformational leaders who
integrated transactional elements were significantly more effective than leaders who only implemented a
transactional style of leadership.
2. Transactional leadership
— is based on a cost-benefit exchange between the leader and the employee. Employees work to achieve
rewards from their leader. Leaders establish goals/expectations and provide awards contingent on
employees achieving those goals. Heavily structured, formal organizations, such as law enforcement
agencies, are more conducive to a transactional leadership style. Employee motivation developed by this
quid pro quo exchange can create a level of trust between the employee and their leader. The employee
does what is expected of them and the leader provides the agreed upon reward (i.e. pay).
Authentic transformational leaders motivate followers to work for transcendental goals that go beyond immediate self-
interest. What is right and good to do becomes important.
The importance of leadership in organizational development cannot be denied

1. Influencing the behaviour of people:
— A leader impresses his subordinates with his leadership ability. He brings them under his control in such a
way that they put in their best efforts to achieve the goals of the organization. Good leaders usually get good
results through their followers.
3
2. Introducing required changes:
— The business environment is changing at a quick pace, so in order to face the changing environment, many
alterations have to be introduced in the organization. Since the people already happen to be under the
influence of the leader, he can easily makes them agree to implement these changes. In this way, the
possible resistance to the change is eliminated with the strength of leadership ability.
3. Solving conflicts effectively:
— A leader can effectively solve every type of conflict be it employee vs. employee or employees vs. employer,
under the weight of his influence. A leader allows his followers the liberty to express their views. That is the
reason that he easily understands the reality of the conflict, in this way, by understanding the nature of the
conflict he tries to provide timely solution and minimizes the possibility of adverse results.
4. Training and Development of Subordinates:
— A leader helps in the training and development of the employees. He makes them aware of the modern
techniques of work. In addition, he makes it possible for them to be good leaders in future.
5. Setting a clear vision:
— This means Influencing employees to understand and accept the future state of the organization. A good
leader will influence his followers to perform their duties by explaining the vision and the importance of
their role in the outcome.
— Motivating and guiding employees: This involves finding out the needs of the employees and fulfilling them.
It is important to define the employees’ role in the work process and provide them with the tools needed. A
good leader will explain the task and be available to assist them if they run into a problem.
6. Building morale:
— This involves pulling everyone together towards a comment goal. A good leader will let the employees know
how much their work is appreciated. A simple gesture like providing praise for a task well done, or throwing
a party to recognize small achievements, will regenerate their spirits.
— There is a great importance of leadership in organizational development. The role of leaders, throughout an
organization, is critical to the success of organizational development interventions. Creating and maintaining
worthwhile businesses require an understanding of the role of leadership in addressing personal
development of employees. Happiness and contentment is a common goal of everyone and the rest of the
things are possibly means to that goal.
Four Primary factors of Leadership

1. Leader
— An individual appointed as a leader must understand himself honestly, what he knows and what he can do.
Take note that it is the followers that decide whether the leader is successful, not the leader or anyone else.
If they don’t trust their leader, or lack confidence, they’ll be uninspired. To be successful you have to
persuade your followers that you are worthy of being followed, not yourself or your superiors.
2. Followers
— Different people expect different leadership styles. A newly – employed deserves more supervision than an
accomplished subordinate does. An individual without motivation needs a different approach than one with
a high motivation level. You have to know your people as a leader. The basic starting point is to have a clear
understanding of human nature such as needs, feelings and motivation. You have to come to learn the BE,
KNOW, and DO qualities of your people.
3. Communication
— Being a leader, you lead by bidirectional communication. A great deal of that is nonverbal. For example,
when you set an example, that shows your people you wouldn’t ask them to do. what and how you inter act
wither strengthens or destroys your relationship with your followers.
4. Situation
— Every situation is different. Everything you do in one situation isn’t automatically going to work in another.
You have to use your discretion to determine the best course of action and the style of leadership needed for
each situation. You may need to face a subordinate for inappropriate behaviour, for example, but if the
confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or too mild, then the outcomes may prove ineffective.
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
1. Great Events theory

— A crisis or important event can cause a person to rise to the occasion, putting forth extraordinary qualities of
leadership in an ordinary person.
2. Transformational or Process Leadership Theory
— Today, it is the widely accepted theory. People can opt for leadership. People can learn the ability to take
leadership
4
3. Great Man Theory
— The Great Man theory evolved around the mid-19th century. Even though no one was able to identify with
any scientific certainty, which human characteristic or combination of, were responsible for identifying great
leaders. Everyone recognized that just as the name suggests; only a man could have the characteristic (s) of a
great leader.
— The Great Man theory assumes that the traits of leadership are intrinsic. That simply means that great
leaders are born...they are not made. This theory sees great leaders as those who are destined by birth to
become a leader. Furthermore, the belief was that great leaders will rise when confronted with the
appropriate situation.
— According to the Great Man Theory (which should perhaps be called the Great Person Theory), leaders are
born with just the right traits and abilities for leading – charisma, intellect, confidence, communication skills,
and social skills.
— The theory suggests that the ability to lead is inherent – that the best leaders are born, not made. It defines
leaders as valiant, mythic, and ordained to rise to leadership when the situation arises. The term “Great
Man” was adopted at the time because leadership was reserved for males, particularly in military leadership.
4. Trait Theory
— The trait leadership theory believes that people are either born or are made with certain qualities that will
make them excel in leadership roles. That is, certain qualities such as intelligence, sense of responsibility,
creativity and other values puts anyone in the shoes of a good leader.
— The trait theory of leadership focused on analysing mental, physical and social characteristic in order to gain
more understanding of what is the characteristic or the combination of characteristics that are common
among leaders.
— Scholars researching the Trait theory try to identify leadership characteristics from different perspectives.
They focus on the physiological attributes such as appearance, weight, and height; demographics such as
age, education, and familial background; and intelligence, which encompasses decisiveness, judgment, and
knowledge.
5. Contingency Theory
— The Contingency Theory emphasizes different variables in a specific setting that determine the style of
leadership best suited for the said situation. It is founded on the principle that no one leadership style is
applicable to all situations.
— The Contingency Leadership theory argues that there is no single way of leading and that every leadership
style should be based on certain situations, which signifies that there are certain people who perform at the
maximum level in certain places; but at minimal performance when taken out of their element.
— To a certain extent contingency leadership theories are an extension of the trait theory, in the sense that
human traits are related to the situation in which the leaders exercise their leadership. It is generally
accepted within the contingency theories that leaders are more likely to express their leadership when they
feel that their followers will be responsive.
— Renowned leadership researchers Hodgson and White believe that the best form of leadership is one that
finds the perfect balance between behaviors, needs, and context. Good leaders not only possess the right
qualities but they’re also able to evaluate the needs of their followers and the situation at hand. In summary,
the contingency theory suggests that great leadership is a combination of many key variables.
6. Situational Theory
— The Situational Theory is similar to the Contingency Theory as it also proposes that no one leadership style
supersedes others. As its name suggests, the theory implies that leadership depends on the situation at
hand. Put simply, leaders should always correspond their leadership to the respective situation by assessing
certain variables such as the type of task, nature of followers, and more.
— As proposed by US professor Paul Hersey and leadership guru Ken Blanchard, the situational theory blends
two (2) key elements: the leadership style and the followers’ maturity levels.
7. Behavioral Theory
— In Behavioral Theory, the focus is on the specific behaviors and actions of leaders rather than their traits or
characteristics. Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not
born. The theory suggests that effective leadership is the result of many learned skills.
— Individuals need three primary skills to lead their followers – technical, human, and conceptual skills.
Technical skills refer to a leader’s knowledge of the process or technique; human skills means that one is able
to interact with other individuals; while conceptual skills enable the leader to come up with ideas for running
the organization or society smoothly.
— According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.
8. Participative Theories
— Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others
into account
5
— These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel
more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader
retains the right to allow the input of others.
9. Management Theories
— Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision, organization,
and group performance.
— These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used
in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded and when they fail, they are reprimanded or
punished.
10. Relationship Theories
— Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between
leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see
the importance and higher good of the task.
— These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want every person to fulfil their
potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral
Leadership Styles: Choosing the Right Approach for the Situation:

(1) authoritarian or autocratic - the leader tells his or her employees what to do and how to do it, without getting
their advice
(2) participative or democratic - the leader includes one or more employees in the decision making process, but the
leader normally maintains the final decision making authority
(3) delegative or laissez-fair (free-rein) - the leader allows the employees to make the decisions, however, the leader
is still responsible for the decisions that are made.
The Most Common Leadership Styles
Autocratic Style
— The phrase most illustrative of an autocratic leadership style is "Do as I say." Generally, an autocratic leader
believes that he or she is the smartest person at the table and knows more than others. They make all the
decisions with little input from team members. This command-and-control approach is typical of leadership
styles of the past, but it doesn't hold much water with today's talent.
— Autocratic leadership is the inverse of democratic leadership. In this leadership style, the leader makes
decisions without taking input from anyone who reports to them. Employees are neither considered nor
consulted prior to a direction, and are expected to adhere to the decision at a time and pace stipulated by
the leader.
5. Pacesetting Style
— "Do as I do!" is the phrase most indicative of leaders who utilize the pacesetting style. This style describes a
very driven leader who sets the pace as in racing. Pacesetters set the bar high and push their team members
to run hard and fast to the finish line.
— While the pacesetter style of leadership is effective in getting things done and driving for results, it's a style
that can hurt team members. For one thing, even the most driven employees may become stressed working
under this style of leadership in the long run.
— An agile leadership style may be the ultimate leadership style required for leading today's talent.
Authoritative Style
— The phrase most indicative of this style of leadership (also known as "visionary") is "Follow me." The
authoritative leadership style is the mark of confident leaders who map the way and set expectations, while
engaging and energizing followers along the way.
— In a climate of uncertainty, these leaders lift the fog for people. They help them see where the company is
going and what's going to happen when they get there.
— Unlike autocratic leaders, authoritative leaders take the time to explain their thinking: They don't just issue
orders. Most of all, they allow people choice and latitude on how to achieve common goals.
Democratic Style
— Democratic leaders are more likely to ask "What do you think?" They share information with employees
about anything that affects their work responsibilities. They also seek employees' opinions before approving
a final decision.
— There are numerous benefits to this participative leadership style. It can engender trust and promote team
spirit and cooperation from employees. It allows for creativity and helps employees grow and develop. A
democratic leadership style gets people to do what you want to be done but in a way that they want to do it.
6
— Democratic leadership is exactly what it sounds like -- the leader makes decisions based on the input of each
team member. Although he or she makes the final call, each employee has an equal say on a project's
direction.
Coaching Style
— When you having a coaching leadership style, you tend to have a "Consider this" approach. A leader who
coaches views people as a reservoir of talent to be developed. The leader who uses a coach approach seeks
to unlock people's potential.
— Leaders who use a coaching style open their hearts and doors for people. They believe that everyone has
power within themselves. A coaching leader gives people a little direction to help them tap into their ability
to achieve all that they're capable of.
Affiliative Style
— A phrase often used to describe this type of leadership is "People come first." Of all the leadership styles, the
affiliative leadership approach is one where the leader gets up close and personal with people. A leader
practicing this style pays attention to and supports the emotional needs of team members. The leader strives
to open up a pipeline that connects him or her to the team.
— Ultimately, this style is all about encouraging harmony and forming collaborative relationships within teams.
It's particularly useful, for example, in smoothing conflicts among team members or reassuring people
during times of stress.
Laissez-Faire Style
— The laissez-faire leadership style is at the opposite end of the autocratic style. Of all the leadership styles,
this one involves the least amount of oversight. You could say that the autocratic style leader stands as firm
as a rock on issues, while the laissez-faire leader lets people swim with the current.
— Laissez-faire leadership is the least intrusive form of leadership. The French term "laissez faire" literally
translates to "let them do," and leaders who embrace it afford nearly all authority to their employees.
Strategic Leadership
— Strategic leaders sit at the intersection between a company's main operations and its growth opportunities.
He or she accepts the burden of executive interests while ensuring that current working conditions remain
stable for everyone else.
— This is a desirable leadership style in many companies because strategic thinking supports multiple types of
employees at once. However, leaders who operate this way can set a dangerous precedent with respect to
how many people they can support at once, and what the best direction for the company really is if
everyone is getting their way at all times.
Transformational Leadership
— Transformational leadership is always "transforming" and improving upon the company's conventions.
Employees might have a basic set of tasks and goals that they complete every week or month, but the leader
is constantly pushing them outside of their comfort zone.
— When starting a job with this type of leader, all employees might get a list of goals to reach, as well as
deadlines for reaching them. While the goals might seem simple at first, this manager might pick up the pace
of deadlines or give you more and more challenging goals as you grow with the company.
Transactional Leadership
— Transactional leaders are fairly common today. These managers reward their employees for precisely the
work they do. A marketing team that receives a scheduled bonus for helping generate a certain number of
leads by the end of the quarter is a common example of transactional leadership.
— When starting a job with a transactional boss, you might receive an incentive plan that motivates you to
quickly master your regular job duties. For example, if you work in marketing, you might receive a bonus for
sending 10 marketing emails. On the other hand, a transformational leader might only offer you a bonus if
your work results in a large amount of newsletter subscriptions.
— Transactional leadership helps establish roles and responsibilities for each employee, but it can also
encourage bare-minimum work if employees know how much their effort is worth all the time. This
leadership style can use incentive programs to motivate employees, but they should be consistent with the
company's goals and used in addition to unscheduled gestures of appreciation.
7
Bureaucratic Leadership
— Bureaucratic leaders go by the books. This style of leadership might listen and consider the input of
employees -- unlike autocratic leadership -- but the leader tends to reject an employee's input if it conflicts
with company policy or past practices.
— You may run into a bureaucratic leader at a larger, older, or traditional company. At these companies, when a
colleague or employee proposes a strong strategy that seems new or non-traditional, bureaucratic leaders
may reject it. Their resistance might be because the company has already been successful with current
processes and trying something new could waste time or resources if it doesn't work.
Authoritarian Leadership
— Authoritarian leadership styles allow a leader to impose expectations and define outcomes. A one-person
show can turn out to be successful in situations when a leader is the most knowledgeable in the team.
Although this is an efficient strategy in time-constrained periods, creativity will be sacrificed since input from
the team is limited. The authoritarian leadership style is also used when team members need clear
guidelines
— Advantages:
a) Time spent on making crucial decisions can be reduced.
b) Chain of command can be clearly emphasized.
c) Mistakes in the implementation of plans can be reduced.
d) Using authoritarian leadership style creates consistent results.
— Disadvantages:
a) A very strict leadership style can sometimes lead to employee rebellion.
b) It kills employee creativity and innovation.
c) It reduces group synergy & collaboration.
d) Group input is reduced dramatically.
e) Authoritarian leadership increases employee turnover rate.
Participative Leadership
— Participative leadership styles are rooted in democratic theory. The essence is to involve team members in
the decision making process. Team members thus feel included, engaged and motivated to contribute. The
leader will normally have the last word in the decision-making processes. However, if there are
disagreements within a group, it can be a time-consuming process to reach a consensus.
— Advantages:
a) It increases employee motivation and job satisfaction.
b) It encourages use of employee creativity.
c) A participative leadership style helps in the creation of a strong team.
d) High level of productivity can be achieved.
— Disadvantages:
a) Decision-making processes become time-consuming.
b) Leaders have a high probability of being apologetic to employees.
c) Communication failures can sometimes happen.
d) Security issues can arise because of transparency in information sharing.
e) Poor decisions can be made if the employees are unskilled.
Delegative leadership
— Also known as "laissez-faire leadership", a delegative leadership style focuses on delegating initiative to team
members. This can be a successful strategy if team members are competent, take responsibility and prefer
engaging in individual work. However, disagreements among the members may split and divide a group,
leading to poor motivation and low morale.
— Advantages:
a) Experienced employees can take advantage of their competence and experience.
b) Innovation & creativity is highly valued.
c) Delegative leadership creates a positive work environment.
— Disadvantages:
a) Command responsibility is not properly defined.
b) Delegative leadership creates difficulty in adapting to change
Transactional leadership
— Transactional leadership styles use "transactions" between a leader and his or her followers - rewards,
punishments and other exchanges - to get the job done. The leader sets clear goals, and team members
8
know how they'll be rewarded for their compliance. This "give and take" leadership style is more concerned
with following established routines and procedures in an efficient manner, than with making any
transformational changes to an organization.
Transformational Leadership
— In transformational leadership styles, the leader inspires his or her followers with a vision and then
encourages and empowers them to achieve it. The leader also serves as a role model for the vision.
Choosing Leadership Styles:

1) Know yourself.
2) Understand the different styles.
3) Practice makes a leader.
4) Develop your leadership agility.
Principles of Leadership
1) Know yourself and seek self-improvement
 In order to know yourself, you have to understand your be, know, and do, attributes. Seeking self-
improvement means continually strengthening your attributes. This can be accomplished through self-study,
formal classes, reflection, and interacting with others.
2) Be technically proficient
 As a leader, you must know your job and have a solid familiarity with your employees' tasks.
3) Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions
 Search for ways to guide your organization to new heights. And when things go wrong, as they often tend to
do sooner or later — do not blame others. Analyze the situation, take corrective action, and move on to the
next challenge.
4) Make sound and timely decisions
 Use good problem solving, decision making, and planning tools.
5) Set the example
 Be a good role model for your employees. They must not only hear what they are expected to do, but also
see. “
 “We must become the change we want to see.” - Mahatma Gandhi
6) Know your people and look out for their well-being
 Know human nature and the importance of sincerely caring for your workers.
7) Keep your workers informed
 Know how to communicate with not only them, but also seniors and other key people.
8) Develop a sense of responsibility in your workers
 Help to develop good character traits that will help them carry out their professional responsibilities.
9) Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished
 Communication is the key to this responsibility.
10) Train as a team
 Although many so called leaders call their organization, department, section, etc. a team; they are not really
teams... they are just a group of people doing their jobs.
11) Use the full capabilities of your organization
 By developing a team spirit, you will be able to employ your organization, department, section, etc. to its
fullest capabilities.
There are 10 must-have attributes that managers (and followers) must possess in order to become highly effective
leaders within their organizations.
1) Active Listening 5) Evolution 9) Integrity
2) Education 6) Resourcefulness 10) People
3) Attention to Detail 7) Service
4) Directions 8) Humor
Listening, Education, Attention to detail, Direction, Evolution, Resourcefulness, Service, Humor, Integrity and People
(LEADERSHIP) are the key ingredients to successful leadership. Of course, no two commanders lead the same way,
but if each of the LEADERSHIP attributes are applied in one’s management style then the basics are covered
Leader: Types, Characteristics and Qualities

Type 1: Managerial Leader
9
 A managerial leader is the least effective of the five types of leaders. They have the least influence. People
only follow them because they have to.
 They are not in the position to serve others. Their desire is to be served by others because they are in the
position. They see others as tools to use to complete the objective for the day. They prefer to make
decisions. Their weakness is character development.
Type 2: Relational Leader
 A relational leader builds relationships in order to influence others. People want to follow them because of
who they are, not what they know. They develop mutual respect with others and work well with them.
 Although people want to follow them, they have not developed specialized knowledge. Their weakness is
not making the necessary sacrifices to develop their competency.
Type 3: Motivational Leader
 A motivational leader seeks mutual benefit for themselves, others, and the organization. People want to
follow them because of who they are and what they know. They influence others from the outside.
 They are process focused. They are trusted and deliver results for themselves, their families, their team, their
organization, their customers, their suppliers, and their community. Their weakness is not making the
necessary sacrifices to reproduce other motivational leaders.
Type 4: Inspirational Leader
 An inspirational leader inspires managerial and relational leaders to become motivational leaders. Their
focus is on growing themselves in order to inspire others to grow. They influence others on the inside.
 They are people-focused not process-focused. They focus heavily on character development. True
inspirational leaders are followed because of how much they care and who they are on the inside. They are
inspired by the growth of those following them.
Type 5: Transformational Leader
 A transformational leader’s passion and purpose is to transform others. They are the most influential of the
five types of leaders and are highly respected. Their reputation precedes them. They are well known for
developing leaders.
 Their influence touches people in all industries and across multiple generations. They have influenced many
leaders for many years. Their influence is continuously being transferred through many other leaders at
many different times in multiple locations.
Top Fifteen (15) Leadership Qualities That Make Good Leaders

1. Honesty and Integrity
 Without integrity, no real success is possible, no matter whether it is on a section gang, a football field, in an
army, or in an office.”
 Honesty and integrity are two important ingredients which make a good leader. How can you expect your
followers to be honest when you lack these qualities yourself? Leaders succeed when they stick to their
values and core beliefs and without ethics, this will not be possible.
2. Confidence
 To be an effective leader, you should be confident enough to ensure that other follow your commands. If you
are unsure about your own decisions and qualities, then your subordinates will never follow you. As a leader,
you have to be oozing with confidence, show some swagger and assertiveness to gain the respect of your
subordinates.
 This does not mean that you should be overconfident, but you should at least reflect the degree of
confidence required to ensure that your followers trust you as a leader.
3. Inspire Others
 Probably the most difficult job for a leader is to persuade others to follow. It can only be possible if you
inspire your followers by setting a good example. When the going gets tough, they look up to you and see
how you react to the situation. If you handle it well, they will follow you.
 As a leader, should think positive and this positive approach should be visible through your actions. Stay calm
under pressure and keep the motivation level up. As John Quincy Adams puts it, “If your actions inspire
others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more, you are a leader.” If you are successful in
inspiring your subordinates, you can easily overcome any current and future challenge easily
4. Commitment and Passion
 Your teams look up to you and if you want them to give them their all, you will have to be passionate about it
too. When your teammates see you getting your hands dirty, they will also give their best shot.
 It will also help you to gain the respect of your subordinates and infuse new energy in your team members,
which helps them to perform better. If they feel that you are not fully committed or lacks passion, then it
would be an uphill task for the leader to motivate your followers to achieve the goal.
5. Good Communicator
10
 Until you clearly communicate your vision to your team and tell them the strategy to achieve the goal, it will
be very difficult for you to get the results you want.
 Simply put, if you are unable to communicate your message effectively to your team, you can never be a
good leader. A good communicator can be a good leader. Words have the power to motivate people and
make them do the unthinkable. If you use them effectively, you can also achieve better results.
6. Decision-Making Capabilities
 Apart from having a futuristic vision, a leader should have the ability to take the right decision at the right
time. Decisions taken by leaders have a profound impact on masses. A leader should think long and hard
before taking a decision but once the decision is taken, stand by it.
 Although, most leaders take decisions on their own, but it is highly recommended that you consult key
stakeholders before taking a decision. After all, they are the ones who will benefit or suffer from your
decisions.
7. Accountability
 When it comes to accountability, you need to follow the approach highlighted by Arnold H Glasow when he
said, “A good leader takes little more than his share of the blame and little less than his share of the credit.”
8. Delegation and Empowerment
 You cannot do everything, right. It is important for a leader to focus on key responsibilities while leaving the
rest to others. It means empowering your followers and delegating tasks to them.
 If you continue to micromanage your subordinates, it will develop a lack of trust and more importantly, you
will not be able to focus on important matters, as you should be. Delegate tasks to your subordinates and
see how they perform. Provide them with all the resources and support they need to achieve the objective
and give them a chance to bear the responsibility.
9. Creativity and Innovation
 What separates a leader from a follower? Steve Jobs, the greatest visionary of our time answers this
question this way, “Innovation distinguishes between a leader and a follower.”
 In order to get ahead in today’s fast-paced world, a leader must be creative and innovative at the same time.
Creative thinking and constant innovation is what makes you and your team stand out from the crowd. Think
out of the box to come up with unique ideas and turn those ideas and goals into reality.
10. Empathy
 Leaders should develop empathy with their followers. Unfortunately, most leaders follow a dictatorial style
and neglect empathy altogether. Due to this, they fail to make a closer connection with their followers.
 Understanding the problems of your followers and feeling their pain is the first step to become an effective
leader. Even that is not enough until you work hard and provide your followers with the suitable solution to
their problems.
11. Resilience
 When the going gets tough, the tough gets going. You might have heard this adage many times, but did you
know that great leaders also follow this rule. They are resilient and have a positive attitude. Irrespective of
how difficult the circumstances might be, you will find them rallying their followers.
 While most people are busy in complaining about the problems, great leaders always focus on solutions, not
the problems.
12. Emotional Intelligence
 Good leaders always have higher influence but how do they increase their influence on the point where
people accept what they say. They do this by connecting with people emotionally. That is where emotional
intelligence comes into play.
 Here are some of the reasons why a leader should be emotionally intelligent.
a) Manage emotions effectively
b) Better social awareness
c) Seamless communications
d) Conflict Resolution
e) With emotional intelligence, leaders can control their emotions, which prevents negative emotions
from influencing their decision-making skills. As a result, they are less likely to make hasty decisions.
13. Humility
 “Pride makes us artificial and humility makes us real.”—Thomas Merton
 How would you feel when you are promoted to leadership status? You will feel proud. A good leader is
always selfless and always think about his or her followers.
 That is why the leadership styles most great leaders adopt put lots of emphasis on problem-solving and team
dynamics instead of focusing on self-promotion.
14. Transparency
 One of the best ways to win the trust of your followers is by being transparent. Instead of hiding information,
you should openly share it with them.
11
 By giving visibility to your followers, they will buy into your vision and support you with conviction in
achieving the goal. More importantly, it gives your followers clarity, autonomy and make them feel more
empowered while keeping them engaged.
15. Vision and Purpose
 “Good business leaders create a vision, articulate the vision, passionately own the vision, and relentlessly
drive it to completion.”—Jack Welch
What is Administration?
— The administration is a systematic process of administering the management of a business organization, an
educational institution like school or college, government office or any non-profit organization. The main
function of administration is the formation of plans, policies, and procedures, setting up of goals and objectives,
enforcing rules and regulations, etc.
— It is a top level activity, above the management. It deals with executive and strategic work. Thus, it must
incorporate both leadership and vision
— Administrating means directing, superintending the execution, using or conducting of various things. It means,
that administration involves setting and following instructions and service which relates to setting up objectives
and crucial policies of every organization. The administration is focused on the planning and organizing of
functions as well as administrative qualities.
Key Differences between Management & Administration

— The differences between management and administration can be very broad and hence one needs to pay close
attention to details. To understand the differences between management and administration further we will now
look at some of the key differences between the two:
a) Management consists of actions and plans whereby administration entails setting objectives and
policies.
b) Management aims at managing not only people but also their work. Whereas Administration focuses on
how best the resources of an organization can be utilized.
c) Administration typically has a role in all management decisions, whereas not all administrative decisions
require the input of management.
d) Administration is focused on setting and creating policies and procedures. Management however is more
likely to deal with the broader functions of an organization and how tasks are executed.
UNDERSTANDING MANAGEMENT
OVERVIEW
Manager is important in every organization. The success of a department depends how a manager efficient
towards his / her works who will equipped with skill and knowledge to run over the organization. The style of leadership
may apply and acceptable to a group of people where did he belong.
Entrusted with a leadership role, a manager is responsible for overseeing a department or group of employees
within a specific organisation or company. In a business for example, managers contribute to businesses in significant
ways, which are reflected in company profits, organisation, and overall workplace morale.
MANAGEMENT
— Management in other hand is a set of principles relating to the roles planning, coordinating, directing, and
regulating, and implementation of those principles in the efficient and effective use of physical, financial and
informational capital to achieve organizational objectives.
Management thinkers have defined management in their own ways:

 A set of activities directed at the efficient and effective utilization of resources in the pursuit of one or more
goals. - “Van Fleet and Peterson”
 Working with human, financial and physical resources to achieve organizational objectives by performing the
planning, organizing, leading and controlling functions. - “Megginson, Mosley and Pietri”
Management as a Process
The purpose are:
1) rise clients' satisfaction with the services the company provides.
2) develop personnel experience, abilities and capacity, or
3) accomplish a particular goal or goal.
Management as a mechanism
12
 often includes interrelated processes by which management within an entity manages and controls the
organization's resources to achieve desired outcomes. This requires not only managing and using financial
resources alone, but also human resources, as they are also important to an organization in order to achieve its
stated objectives.
 Managers need to build a comfortable working atmosphere that promotes healthy employee relations within the
company. They will make sure that the human resources work Having in harmony full oversight of an
organization affairs, managers need to due process to set goals and come up with plans for achieving outcomes.
Both phases of planning and execution include due processes which the manager must strictly adhere.
Management as a Discipline
 Management is also a discipline because it includes learning the procedures and values required to perform
official administrative duties, as well as demonstrating the code of conduct that managers must obey when
performing their duties. Management is also being taught, as with other research or discipline courses, at
numerous institutes and universities around the world.
Management as an Art
 Management is also known to be an art, because both share similar characteristics. Art is a structured body of
knowledge that requires imagination and expertise. An artist often needs constant of practice perfection which
is considered acceptable.
Management as a Group
 In any way, the concept of management suggests that it is a group. In general, administrative functions are not
performed by one person alone. For most cases, as companies expand, many specific managerial roles are
generated so that the organization can meet its desired objectives.
 Management as an operation carried out by a group of people saddled with the responsibility of keeping the
company going and achieving a specific goal. In other words, a community composed of people with specific
knowledge of the organization or managerial roles will work together to manage a business.
Management as a Profession
 Management is also an occupation as it characteristics that allow it to be so. A profession is called a career in
which one acquires knowledge and undergoes training series to fit perfectly into that role.
 A career has limited entry which is also true in management. Although anyone can assume managerial role in a
corporation and there is no law prohibiting that, many companies now prefer for such positions individuals with
Master's degree.
MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS
MANAGERIAL SKILLS
Managing position requires proper skills to perform. various jobs. He cannot be an efficient manager if h lacks the
knowledge and skills to do the job because it will be the foundations for his workers to be corrected and driven.
Since the manager makes decisions for each type of activity and his decisions affect an organization's work, he should
have the following attributes to do his job properly:
1. Educational competence
 A manager has to have adequate and outstanding preparation. Besides other educational qualifications they
are required to have management education and training. Education not only widens the intellectual scope
of executives but also helps to understand and interpret things properly. Business environment awareness is
also essential to tackle the various problems that the company can encounter.
2. Intellectual quality
 Managers should have a higher level of intelligence relative to others, because they have more roles in the
organization than other men. Intelligence can assist a manager in evaluating the organization's present and
future organizational possibilities. He must be able to predict the things in advance and take the necessary
decisions in due course.
3. Leadership ability
 A manager has to be able to direct and motivate people working within the business. He shall subordinate
himself to leadership. The subordinates' skills, abilities, and potentials should be retained and properly used
to achieve organizational goals.
4. Direct and Motivate
13
 A manager has to be able to direct and motivate people working within the business. He shall subordinate
himself to leadership. The subordinates' skills, abilities, and potentials should be retained and properly used
to achieve organizational goals. If a manager has the Leadership qualities then for the good of the
organization, he will inspire workers to improve their performance and function to their full capacity.
5. Training
 Manager must develop organizational competencies. As described in the preceding issue, these skills consist
of technical skills, human skills and logical abilities. These competencies must be gained by schooling,
training, practice etc. Such skills are important for all executive levels.
6. Technical knowledge and skills
 Manager should have technical knowledge of the organization's job and other tasks. He will be better placed
to assess and direct if he has knowledge of those things himself.
7. Mental Maturity
 To deal with different circumstances a manager should have mental maturity. He is supposed to be polite,
good listener and quick to respond to situations. He has to take several uncomfortable decisions that could
have an adverse effect on the job if not taken properly. When dealing with subordinates he will remain calm.
All of these attributes come with maturity of mind.
8. Positive Attitude
 Positive attitude is to a manager's asset. A manager has to deal with a lot of people from both inside and
outside the company. He should be sensitive and optimistic to different suggestions and make rational
choices. He should not prejudge issues, and should not take sides. He will try and develop good relationships
with different people dealing with him. He would consider their issues and attempt to reach out a helping
hand.
9. Self-confidence
 Every manager should have faith in himself.
 He has to take a lot of decisions every day; he should thoroughly evaluate things before making decisions. If
he makes decisions, then he should stick to them and try to put them into practice. A manager lacking
confidence in himself will always be uncertain about his decisions. This kind of mentality creates more
problems than just solving them.
10. Foresight
 A manager has to make a decision not just for the present but also for the future. The technology, marketing,
consumer behavior, financial set-up etc. are rapidly changing. The economic policy shifts would repercussion
in the future. A manager should foresee what will happen in the future and plan the organization for the
circumstances to face. The level of foresight will help you make the right choices and face the challenges to
come in the right perspective. If the problems aren't properly evaluated, then the organization can face
adverse situations.
Types of Managers and Their Roles:
Top-Level Managers
— As you would expect, top-level managers (or top managers) are the “bosses” of the organization. They have titles
such as chief executive officer (CEO), chief operations officer (COO), chief marketing officer (CMO), chief
technology officer (CTO), and chief financial officer (CFO). A new executive position known as the chief
compliance officer (CCO) is showing up on many organizational charts in response to the demands of the
government to comply with complex rules and regulations.
Middle Managers
— Middle managers have titles like department head, director, and chief supervisor. They are links between the top
managers and the first-line managers and have one or two levels below them. Middle managers receive broad
strategic plans from top managers and turn them into operational blueprints with specific objectives and
programs for first-line managers. They also encourage, support, and foster talented employees within the
organization.
First-Line Managers
— First-line managers are the entry level of management, the individuals “on the line” and in the closest contact
with the workers. They are directly responsible for making sure that organizational objectives and plans are
implemented effectively. They may be called assistant managers, shift managers, foremen, section chiefs, or
office managers.
— First-line managers are focused almost exclusively on the internal issues of the organization and are the first to
see problems with the operation of the business, such as untrained labor, poor quality materials, machinery
breakdowns, or new procedures that slow down production. It is essential that they communicate regularly with
middle management.
Team Leaders
14
— A team leader is a special kind of manager who may be appointed to manage a particular task or activity. The
team leader reports to a first-line or middle manager. Responsibilities of the team leader include developing
timelines, making specific work assignments, providing needed training to team members, communicating clear
instructions, and generally ensuring that the team is operating at peak efficiency.
Management Roles:
Leadership and Interpersonal Roles

— Top managers are often required to fulfil what Mintzberg described as figurehead activities. They are the public
face of the management team and represent the business in legal, economic, and social forums. Middle
managers are also leaders, although their focus may be more on interpersonal skills, such as motivating
employees, negotiating salaries, and encouraging innovation and creativity. First-line managers lead both by
example when they actively participate in the tasks assigned to their workers and by modelling the policies and
work ethics of the organization.
Informational Roles
— Informational roles involve the receiving and sending of information—whether as a spokesperson, a mentor, a
trainer, or an administrator. A top manager is a voice of the organization and has to be aware that even personal
opinions will reflect (for better or worse) on the business.
Decision Making Roles

— All managers are required to make decisions, but managers at different levels make different kinds of decisions.
According to Mintzberg, there are four primary types of management decision roles.
— These include the following:
a) Entrepreneur
o The entrepreneurs in a firm are usually top-level managers. They identify economic opportunities,
lead the initiative for change, and make product decisions.
b) Disturbance handler
o Top and middle managers will react to disturbances (unexpected events) in the organization—
whether internal or external. They will decide what corrective actions should be taken to resolve the
problems.
c) Resource allocator
o All levels of management will make resource allocation decisions, depending upon whether the
decision affects the entire organization, a single department, or a particular task or activity.
d) Negotiator
o Depending on the effect on the organization, most negotiation is done by top and middle-level
managers. Top managers will handle negotiations that affect the entire organization, such as union
contracts or trade agreements. Middle-level managers negotiate most salary and hiring decisions.
In general, there are five basic functions of a manager:

1) Setting objectives
2) Organizing
3) Motivating the team
4) Devising systems of measurement
5) Developing people
IMPORTANT ROLES OF A MANAGER:
As Leader a.
– Defining various people's activities and goals within the organization. b. Helps at the work-group to create the
right type of atmosphere and homogeneity. c. The group's actions and performance led by him are influenced.
As Coordinator
a) Bring together various resources, both physical and human, for the achievement of organizational objectives.
b) Mobilizes different resources, brings intelligent understanding and goodwill among employers to complete work
at the organization.
c) With the aid of effective communication, better plan events and programs
As Delegator of Authority
15
a) Assign duties to the subordinates that he trusted, and delegate the authority necessary. If they do any work
independently, the subordinate may gain and be prepared for higher responsibilities.
b) Encourage work train for according the employees next to line their of skills and knowledge and train for the next
line of executives.
c) Create proper communication system so that subordinate able to get regular guidance and response for the
activities taken up by them.
As Decision-Maker
a) After addressing various aspects of the problem taking decisions for different activities, evaluating them,
designing possible alternatives and choosing the correct one.
b) A decision which is made at the right time will yield good results. In its decisions a manager must create
consistency, firmness and conviction. A manager who constantly changes his decisions will leave his subordinates
in doubt. The subordinates will be directed by a decision-making capacity and the ability to take correct decisions
at the appropriate time.
Management process/functions involve 4 basic activities:

1) Planning and Decision Making – – Determining Courses of Action,
2) Organizing – Coordinating Activities and Resources,
3) Leading – Managing, Motivating and Directing People,
4) Controlling – Monitoring and Evaluating activities.
1. Planning and Decision Making – Determining Courses of Action

• Planning means setting an organization’s goal and deciding how best to achieve them. Planning is decision
making, regarding the goals and setting the future course of action from a set of alternatives to reach them.
• The plan helps to maintain managerial effectiveness as it works as a guide for the personnel for future activities.
Selecting goals as well as the paths to achieve them is what planning involves.
• Planning involves selecting missions and objectives and the actions to achieve them, it requires decision-making
or choosing future courses of action from among alternatives.
• In short, planning means determining what the organization’s position and the situation should be in the future,
and decide how best to bring about that situation.
• Planning helps maintain managerial effectiveness by guiding future activities.
• For a manager, planning and decision-making require an ability to foresee, to visualize, and to look ahead
purposefully.
2. Organizing – Coordinating Activities and Resources
• Organizing can be defined as the process by which the established plans are moved closer to realization.
• it involves determining how activities and resources are to be assembled and coordinated.
• it produces a structure of relationships in an organization and it is through these structured relationships that
plans are pursued.
• it then, is that part of managing which involves: establishing an intentional structure of roles for people to fill in
the organization.
3. Leading – Managing, Motivating and Directing People
• The third basic managerial function is leading it is the skills of influencing people for a particular purpose or
reason. Leading is considered to be the most important and challenging of all managerial activities. It influencing
or prompting the member of the organization to work together with the interest of the organization. Likewise, it
Creating a positive attitude towards the work and goals among the members of the organization is called leading.
It is required as it helps to serve the objective of effectiveness and efficiency by changing the behavior of the
employees.
4. Controlling – Monitoring and Evaluating Activities
• Monitoring the organizational progress toward goal fulfilment is called controlling. Monitoring progress is
essential to ensure the achievement of organizational goals. It is measuring, comparing, finding deviation and
correcting the organizational activities which are performed for achieving the goals or objectives. Controlling
consists of activities, like; measuring the performance, comparing with the existing standard and finding the
deviations, and correcting the deviations.
• Control activities generally relate to the measurement of achievement or results of actions that were taken to
attain the goal.
• Some means of controlling, like the budget for expenses, inspection records, and the record of labor hours lost,
are generally familiar. Each measure also shows whether plans are working out.
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
16
 Henry Fayol also is known as ‘father of modern management theory’ gave a new perception of the concept of
management. He introduced a general theory that can be applied to all levels of management and every
department.
 The Fayol theory is practiced by the managers to organize and regulate the internal activities of an organization.
He concentrated on accomplishing managerial efficiency.
The fourteen principles of management created by Henri Fayol are explained below.
1. Division of Work
• Henry believed that segregating work in the workforce amongst the worker will enhance the quality of the
product. Similarly, he also concluded that the division of work improves the productivity, efficiency, accuracy, and
speed of the workers. This principle is appropriate for both the managerial as well as a technical work level.
• This principle of management is based on the theory that if workers are given a specialized task to do, they will
become skilful and more efficient in it than if they had a broader range of tasks. Therefore, a process where
everyone has a specialized role will be an efficient one.
• According to this principle the whole work is divided into small tasks. The specialization of the workforce
according to the skills of a person, creating specific personal and professional development within the labor force
and therefore increasing productivity; leads to specialization which increases the efficiency of labor.
2. Authority and Responsibility-

• These are the two key aspects of management. Authority facilitates the management to work efficiently and
responsibility makes them responsible for the work done under their guidance or leadership.
• This principle looks at the concept of managerial authority. It looks at how authority is necessary in order to
ensure that managerial commands are carried out. If managers did not have authority, then they would lack the
ability to get work carried out. Managers should use their authority responsibly and ethically.
• This is the issue of commands followed by responsibility for their consequences. Authority means the right of a
superior to give enhance order to his subordinates; responsibility means obligation for performance.
3. Discipline-
• Without discipline, nothing can be accomplished. It is the core value for any project or any management. Good
performance and sensible interrelation make the management job easy and comprehensive. Employee’s good
behavior also helps them smoothly build and progress in their professional careers.
4. Unity of Command-
• This means an employee should have only one boss and follow his command. If an employee has to follow more
than one boss, there begins a conflict of interest and can create confusion.
• There should be a clear chain of command in place within an organization. An employee should know exactly
whose instructions to follow.
• This principle states that each subordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one
superior. If an employee receives orders from more than one superior, it is likely to create confusion and conflict
5. Unity of Direction-
• Whoever is engaged in the same activity should have a unified goal. This means all the person working in a
company should have one goal and motive which will make the work easier and achieve the set goal easily.
• Work should be organized in a way that means employees are working in harmony toward a shared objective or
goal using a shared method or procedure.
• All related activities should be put under one group, there should be one plan of action for them, and they
should be under the control of one manager.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest to Collective Interest

• This indicates a company should work unitedly towards the interest of a company rather than personal interest.
Be subordinate to the purposes of an organization. This refers to the whole chain of command in a company.
• The interests of the organization as a whole should take precedence over the interests of any individual
employee or group of employees. This encourages a team spirit and collective mentality of all for one and one
for all.
• The management must put aside personal considerations and put company objectives firstly. Therefore, the
interests of goals of the organization must prevail over the personal interests of individuals.
7. Remuneration
17
• This plays an important role in motivating the workers of a company. Remuneration can be monetary or non-
monetary, however, it should be according to an individual’s efforts they have made.
• In order to motivate and be fair to employees, they should be paid a reasonable rate for the work they carry out.
An organization that underpays will struggle to attract quality workers who are motivated.
• Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief motivation of employees and therefore greatly influences
productivity. The quantum and methods of remuneration payable should be fair, reasonable and rewarding of
effort.
8. Centralization-
• In any company, the management or any authority responsible for the decision- making process should be
neutral. However, this depends on the size of an organization. Henri Fayol stressed on the point that there should
be a balance between the hierarchy and division of power.
• This principle relates to whether decisions should be made centrally, as in from the top down, or in a more
democratic way, from the bottom up. Different decision-making processes are appropriate for different types of
decisions.
• The amount of power wielded with the central management depends on company size. Centralization implies
the concentration of decision-making authority at the top management.
9. Scalar Chain
• Fayol one the principles highlight that the hierarchy steps should be from top to the lowest. This is necessary so
that every employee knows their immediate senior also they should be able to contact any if needed.
• This relates to the principle of a clear chain of communication existing between employees and superiors. The
chain should be respected, unless speedy communication is vital, in which case the chain may be bypassed if all
parties consent.
• This refers to the chain of superiors ranging from top management to the lowest rank. The principle suggests
that there should be a clear line of authority from top to bottom linking all managers at all levels.
10. Order
• A company should maintain a well-defined work order to have a favorable work culture. The positive atmosphere
in the workplace will boost more positive productivity.
• This relates to the proper use of resources and their effective deployment in a structured fashion.
• Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company through authoritative procedure. Material order ensures
safety and efficiency in the workplace. Order should be acceptable and under the rules of the company.
11. Equity
• All the employees should be treated equally and respectfully. It’s the responsibility of a manager that no
employees face discrimination.
• Managers should behave ethically towards those they manage. Almost every organization in the modern world
will have a written set of policies and procedures which will outline exactly what is expected from staff at all
levels.
• Employees must be treated kindly, and justice must be enacted to ensure a just workplace. Managers should be
fair and impartial when dealing with employees, giving equal attention towards all employees.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel

• An employee delivers the best if they feel secure in their job. It is the duty of the management to offer job
security to their employees.
• It is seen as desirable within an organization to have a low staff turnover rate. This is due to the benefits that
come with having experienced staff and the time and expense needed to train new ones. There should be a clear
and efficient method of filling any staff vacancies that arise.
• Stability of tenure of personnel is a principle stating that in order for an organization to run smoothly, personnel
(especially managerial personnel) must not frequently enter and exit the organization.
13. Initiative-
• The management should support and encourage the employees to take initiatives in an organization. It will help
them to increase their interest and make then worth.
• Employees that have an input as to how to best do their job are likely to feel more motivated and respected.
Many organizations place a great deal of emphasis on listening to the concerns of staff.
• Using the initiative of employees can add strength and new ideas to an organization. Initiative on the part of
employees is a source of strength for organization because it provides new and better ideas. Employees are likely
to take greater interest in the functioning of the organization.
18
14. Esprit de Corps / Morale
• It is the responsibility of the management to regularly motivate their employees and be supportive of each other.
Developing trust and mutual understanding will lead to a positive outcome and work environment.
• Keeping a high level of morale and team spirit is an essential part of having the most productive organization
possible. Happy and motivated employees are far more likely to be productive and less absent.
• This refers to the need of managers to ensure and develop morale in the workplace; individually and
communally. Team spirit helps develop an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding. Team spirit helps to
finish the task on time.
These 14 principles of management are used to manage an organization and are beneficial for prediction,
planning, decision-making, organization and process management, control, and coordination.
Types of Management Theories

Here are seven important management theories to be aware of:
1) Scientific management theory
2) Principles of administrative management theory
3) Bureaucratic management theory
4) Human relations theory
5) System management theory
6) Contingency management theory
7) Theory X and Y
1. Scientific Management Theory

• Developed by Frederick Taylor, he was one of the first to study work performance scientifically. Taylor’s principles
recommended that the scientific method should be used to perform tasks in the workplace, as opposed to the
leader relying on their judgment or the personal discretion of team members.
• His philosophy emphasized that forcing people to work hard would result in the most productive workplace.
Instead, he recommended simplifying tasks to increase productivity. He suggested that leaders assign team
members to jobs that best match their abilities, train them thoroughly and supervise them to ensure they are
efficient in the role.
• While his focus on achieving maximum workplace efficiency by finding the optimal way to complete a task was
useful, it ignored the humanity of the individual. This theory is not practiced much today in its purest form, but it
demonstrated to leaders the importance of workplace efficiency, the value of making sure team members
received ample training and the need for teamwork and cooperation between supervisors and employees.
2. Principles of Administrative Management Theory

• Henri Fayol, a senior executive and mining engineer, developed this theory when he examined an organization
through the perspective of the managers and situations they might encounter. He believed that leaders had six
main functions, to forecast, plan, coordinate, command and control, and he developed principles that outlined
how leaders should organize and interact with their teams. He suggested that the principles should not be rigid
but that it should be left up to the manager to determine how they use them to manage efficiently and
effectively. The principles he outlined are:
 Initiative: This refers to the level of freedom employees should have to carry out their responsibilities
without being forced or ordered.
 Equity: This principle implies everyone in the organization should be treated equally and that it should
be an environment of kindness.
 Scalar chain: This principle says there should be a chain of supervisors from the top level of management
to the lower level and that communication generally flows from top to bottom. He emphasized that
there is no hard rule regarding the communication process through the chain of command.
 Remuneration of personnel: This principle refers to the assertion that there should be both monetary
and non-monetary remuneration based on performance levels to create a bond between the employee
and the organization.
Unity of direction: This principle asserts that there should be only one manager per department who is in charge of
coordinating the group activity to attain a single goal.
Discipline: According to this principle, employees should be respectful and obedient, and an organization should
outline rules and regulations that clarify rules, good supervision and a reward-punishment system.
19
Division of work: This principle asserts that the overall action of management should be divided and that team
members should be given responsibilities based on their skills and interests to make them more effective and
efficient.
Authority and responsibility: According to this principle, there should be a balance between authority—the right to
give commands and make decisions—and responsibility—the obligation of an employee to perform the tasks they’re
designated.
3. Bureaucratic Management Theory

• Developed by Max Weber, bureaucratic management theory focuses on structuring organizations in a hierarchy
so there are clear rules of governance.
• His principles for creating this system include a chain of command, clear division of labor, separation of personal
and organizational assets of the owner, strict and consistent rules and regulations, meticulous recordkeeping and
documentation, and the selection and promotion of employees based on their performance and qualifications.
4. Human Relations Theory

• This theory was developed by Elton Mayo, who conducted experiments designed to improve productivity that
laid the foundation for the human relations movement. His focus was on changing working conditions like
lighting, break times and the length of the workday. Every change he tested was met with an improvement in
performance.
• Ultimately, he concluded that the improvements weren’t due to the changes but the result of the researcher’s
paying attention to the employees and making them feel valued.
• These experiments gave rise to the theory that employees are more motivated by personal attention and being
part of a group than they are by money or even working conditions.
5. Systems Management Theory

• This theory asserts that businesses consist of multiple components that must work in harmony for the larger
system to function optimally. The organization’s success, therefore, depends on synergy, interdependence and
interrelations between subsystems.
• According to this theory, employees are the most important components of a company, and departments,
workgroups and business units are all additional crucial elements for success.
• According to this theory, managers should evaluate patterns and events within the organization to determine the
best management approach. They need to collaborate and work together on programs to ensure success.
6. Contingency Management Theory

• Developed by Fred Fiedler, this theory’s primary focus is that no one management approach works for every
organization.
• Fiedler suggested that a leader’s traits were directly related to how effectively they lead their team. He asserts
that there are leadership traits that apply to every kind of situation and that a leader must be flexible to adapt to
a changing environment.
7. Theory X and Y
• American social psychologist Douglas McGregor introduced X and Y theories in his book, “The Human Side of
Enterprise,” where he concluded that two different styles of management are guided by their perceptions of
team member motivations. Managers who assume employees are apathetic or dislike their work use theory X,
which is authoritarian.
• Theory Y is used by managers who believe employees are responsible, committed and self-motivated. This is a
participative management style that gives rise to a more collaborative work environment, whereas theory X
leads to micromanaging.
• He concluded that large organizations may rely on theory X to keep everyone focused on meeting organizational
goals. Smaller businesses, where employees are part of the decision-making process and where creativity is
encouraged, tend to use theory Y.
GENERAL CONCEPT OF ADMINISTRATION
Administration relates to managing of different things. The word "administration" comes from word "minor" and
"ministrare" which means “to serve" and” to govern" accordingly. It is a top-level activity, above the management. It
deals with executive and strategic work. Thus, it must incorporate both leadership and vision
Administrating means directing, superintending the execution, using or conducting of various things. It means,
that administration involves setting and following instructions and service. Which relates to setting up objectives and
crucial policies of every organization.
20
The administration is focused on the planning and organizing of functions as well as administrative qualities. So,
in summary, both administration and management are key managerial activities in the company. Administration sets up
plans and strategy which are executed in the management process. Administration is a decision- making function, while
management is an executive function. Management is focused on "doing" because managers get work done under their
supervision, while the administration is focused on "thinking" because it is determining the plans and policies.
Management involves the achievement of results for which the responsibility pays the manager. Management
also includes involving organization to achieving objectives with maximum efficiency and responsibility for the result.
Management is the act or function of putting into practice the policies and plans decided upon by the
administration.
Management is inferior to administration, and is focused on motivating and controlling functions as well as
technical abilities and human resources abilities. It deals with employees.
STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT

Managing a business or organization is a challenging and complex job. In order for a company’s administration to
succeed, they need to have strategies specific to their particular employer and workplace. If you are looking for
strategies that can help improve administrative management, we can help.
Administration refers to the process of running an organization, office or business. This includes creating rules &
regulations, making decisions, management of operations, creating organization of staff/employees/people to direct
activities towards achieving a common goal or objective.
Administration refers to the process of running an organization, office or business. This includes creating rules &
regulations, making decisions, management of operations, creating organization of staff/employees/people to direct
activities towards achieving a common goal or objective.
Administrative management
— The term “administrative management” refers to the act of running and maintaining a business or organization.
— The core objective of administrative management is to create a formal structure that facilitates success for a
particular business or organization. Administrative management employees create a hierarchy of authority,
decide on their key functions, assign the different areas of responsibilities and divide labor across the company’s
departments.
Theories of administrative management

The concept of what effective administrative management looks like has evolved overtime as different theories were
created and applied. Here are some of the most well-known theories of effective administrative management:
1. James D. Mooney’s Administrative Management Theory

— James D. Mooney was an engineer and corporate executive. You may know him as one of the early leaders in
managerial theory. He identified three key principles that make organizations distinctive social entities. These
include:
 Coordination
 Hierarchy
 Functional differentiation
— Based on this foundation, Mooney, along with Alan Reiley, developed a systems theory of organization that
assigned a process and effect to each principle. His work is considered critical in the development of
administrative management theory.
2. Luther Gulick and the POSDCORB Theory

— POSDCORB is an acronym widely used in the field of management and public administration that reflects the
classic view of organizational theory.
— It appeared most prominently in a 1937 paper by Luther Gulick (in a set edited by himself and Lyndall Urwick).
However, he first presented the concept in 1935.[2] Initially, POSDCORB was envisioned in an effort to develop
public service professionals. In Gulick's own words, the elements are as follows: Planning, Organizing, Staffing,
Directing, Co-Ordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.
— Luther Gulick, an American political scientist, was an expert in public administration. He created the acronym
“POSDCORB” which stands for:
 Planning
 Organizing
 Staffing
 Directing
 Coordinating
 Reporting
21
 Budgeting
— Gulick's "Notes on the Theory of Organization" further defines the patterns of POSDCORB. That document
explains how portions of an executive's workload may be delegated, and that some of the elements can be
organized as subdivisions of the executive depending on the size and complexity of the enterprise.
— This essentially refers to the various steps or stages involved in a typical administrative process. POSDCORB can
be explained in detail below:
1) Planning: This essentially refers to establishing a broad sketch of the work to be completed and the
procedures incorporated to implement them.
2) Organizing: Organizing involves formally classifying, defining and synchronizing the various sub-
processes or subdivisions of the work to be done.
3) Staffing: This involves recruiting and selecting the right candidates for the job and facilitating their
orientation and training while maintaining a favorable work environment.
4) Directing: This entails decision making and delegating structured instructions and orders to execute
them.
5) Coordinating: This basically refers to orchestrating and interlinking the various components of the work.
6) Reporting: Reporting involves regularly updating the superior about the progress or the work-related
activities. The information dissemination can be through records or inspection.
7) Budgeting: Budgeting involves all the activities that under Auditing, Accounting, Fiscal Planning and
Control.
— Consider a multinational starting an exercise involving a good number of employees in the workforce. As per
POSDCORB, the planning stage would be doing the thorough research about the number of people needed,
team size, work type etc. Organizing and staffing stages would be the HR department making a list of people i.e.
supervisors and subordinates who would could execute this role.
— Under Organizing, Gulick emphasized the division and specialization of labor in a manner that would increase
efficiency. Yet Gulick observed that there were limitations. Based on his practical experience, he carefully
articulated the many factors.
— Luther Gulick, one of the Brownlow Committee authors, states that his statement of work of a chief executive is
adapted from the functional analysis elaborated by Henri Fayol in his "Industrial and General Administration".
Indeed, Fayol's work includes fourteen principles and five elements of management that lay the foundations of
Gulick's POSDCORB.
— Gulick described how the organization of workers could be done in four ways. According to him, these are
related and may be multi-level.
3. Fayol’s Principles of Administrative Management

— Henri Fayol was a theorist who introduced 14 principles of administrative management based on his experience
as an engineer and a director of a mining company in the 1800s. Fayol’s 14 principles are considered to be one of
the earliest theories of administrative management.
ESSENTIAL SKILLS FOR ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT
1. Technical skills
— Today’s business environment is dominated by technology. A successful administrator needs to understand and
be proficient in the relevant technologies for their specific segment. This means that the administrator must
understand that technology and know how to use and apply it within their particular discipline.
2. Human skills
— Technical skill is related to working with things or applications, but human skill is related to working with people.
This skill encompasses how an administrator interacts with their subordinates, equals, and superiors. A good
administrator should have the skills to understand the people they work with, be receptive to their point of
views and perceptions, understand their expectations and identify their strengths and areas of weakness.
— Human skills also include the ability to communicate well and to understand and be sensitive to the needs and
feelings of the people you work with or manage.
3. Conceptual skills
— This is the ability to see an organization and know how each part works and how it relates to other functions.
This helps the administrator monitor proper coordination because in most cases, the proper running of one
process depends on other processes.
EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
1. Budget control and cost management
22
— This is critical for the smooth operation of any organization. A successful administrative manager must have a
strategy in place to administer a budget, manage risk and report any variances.
— A sub-strategy of budget control would also include the implementation of cost improvement strategies such as
automation, waste elimination and monitoring productivity.
2. Change control and management
— It is always a challenge to manage change, not just at the team level but at a functional level. There needs to be
an administrative strategy in place to manage the process of change, to evaluate that change, budget for it,
implement it and ensure it is accepted throughout the different departments of an organization.
3. Delegation
— This is a basic necessity for the administrative side of any business operation. If you want your business to run
smoothly, assign responsibilities within the team. You also have to specify the levels of authority so that tasks are
completed on time by those who are best qualified to do so.
4. Goal setting
— This is a company-wide strategy but one that requires input from the entire administration. There has to be a
strategy that outlines a clear action plan for the employees and states specific targets.
— Most organizations follow the SMART methodology for setting goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant
and time-bound.
5. Leadership development
— Effective administrative management includes a strategy to promote leaders from within, and this will require
developing the abilities of existing team members and honing their skills.
— Leadership development is closely associated with succession planning, and both are very important for any
organization.
6. Performance management
— Performance reviews play an important role in any organization. A good administrative management strategy
would entail measures that provide feedback and direction to team members so that everyone knows of their
value and is aligned towards achieving the same targets.
7. Problem management
— Every business, big or small, faces challenges and setbacks. Administrative management often takes
responsibility for identifying those problems, investigating the cause of the problems and proposing solutions to
fix not just the problem itself, but the consequences it created.
8. Setting standards
— An organization typically functions on the principle of providing value to its stakeholders. To do so, there must be
a set of standards in place to ensure that the organization’s products and/or services are up to the mark and
meet acceptable standards. Enforcing these standards should be one of the highest priorities of a company.
9. Team building
— If you want to succeed, you will do so by using your people. To do that, implement team building strategies so
that your team remains motivated.
— Team-building activities are also important for developing team relationships and company loyalty.
10. Transparency
— One role of administrative management is to provide accurate information to the employees and the public. All
reports should be candid, and there should be no practices in place that would require hiding anything from the
core team members or from your clients.
Benefits of Implementing Strong Administrative Management Strategies

 Organizations now understand the important role effective administrative management can play in the
successful operation of a business. Some key benefits of implementing strong administrative management
strategies include:
1. Healthy financial situation

— An effective administrative management strategy to ensure that the company’s finances are managed in an
efficient manner so that expenses remain under control and within budget. There is no unnecessary wasting of
money or resources, and the company’s financial documents are in perfect order. If these areas are properly
managed, a company’s cash flow remains steady.
2. Maximum productivity
— Good administrative management always uses the strength of the team. This includes identifying which team
members will be more successful at performing a certain task. By capitalizing on the strength of each team
member, there is less mismanaging of time, greater productivity, faster results and higher motivation levels
within the team.
3. Facilitating achievement of goals
23
— A good strategy always supports the primary goals of an organization. Administrative management is critical in
creating efficient processes and their implementation. The purpose of every project, policy and action within a
company should be to reach an established goal.
4. Maximum employee and customer satisfaction
— Efficient management will lead to a proper distribution of work and increased motivation among employees.
When employees are motivated, their performance will be better, which will lead to happy clients and increased
customer satisfaction.
5. Data-based decisions
— An effective administrative management strategy will never be based on a whim or assumption. it will be
designed based on data related to the business processes. Any decisions that are made should be based on past
and current information and future goals.
More tips for effective administrative management
1. Plan strategically
— For effective administrative management, it is imperative that the administrative management team knows the
strategic objectives of the organization. When this happens, processes and functions that are implemented
within the organization will directly affect the achievement of those goals.
2. Focus on all processes
— A good administrative management strategy will ensure that each process is designed for maximum output.
Issues and problems related to business processes should be identified early and addressed quickly to avoid
losses or delays.
3. Evaluate company performance
— Administration is a day-to-day function. Effective administrative management will require regular evaluation of
an organization’s performance.
— This can be done through biweekly, weekly, monthly or quarterly meetings, depending on the type of industry
you work in and the competition. Monitoring a company’s performance, its progress and its key functions is
imperative to the success of administrative management and the organization itself.
4. Prioritize communication
— Many companies fail because of ineffective communication because it has the potential to destroy the
functioning of a business, the motivation level of its employees and the satisfaction rate of its customers.
— A lack of communication can also lead to wrong and uninformed decisions which can often turn out to be
disastrous for a business. If you want to succeed in administrative management, you will need to communicate
well with your employees, your supervisors and your customers.
Administrative management is the key to ensure the smooth operation of a business, and that is why administrative
managers are required to have a broad understanding of all stages of the management process. There is no one strategy
that makes administrative management complete. Effective administrative management requires the implementation of
multiple strategies that are based on the individual organization’s mission, vision and goals.
Decision Making
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DECISION
1) Decisions are replicable.
2) Decisions foster opportunity. (Empowers others to act
3) Decisions includes others.
4) Decisions are executable.
5) Decision are accountable
6) Decision is systematic.
7) Decisions are pragmatic
8) Decisions involve self-awareness.
Decision-making techniques can be separated into two broad categories:

1. Group Decision-Making Techniques
2. Individual Decision-Making Techniques
GROUP DECISION MAKING
24
— Also known as "Collaborative Decision-Making", a situation faced when individuals collectively make choice from
the alternatives before them. The decision i then no longer attributable to any single individual who is a member
of the group. This is because the result applies to certain systems of individuals and social classes such as social
power. Community decisions often vary from those taken by individuals.
— Collaborative decision taking in workplace environments is one of the most effective models for creating buy-in
from other stakeholders, building trust and promoting innovation. In keeping with the concept of cooperation,
collective decisions often appear to be more successful than decisions made by a single person. In this way, such
collective agreements have the ability to deliver better net output results than individuals working alone (Larson,
2010).
INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING
— In general, an person takes prompt decisions. When in a group, keeping any one person responsible for a wrong
decision is not easy. Human decision taking usually saves time, resources, and energy as individuals make timely
and rational choices. Although taking group decision takes a lot of time, money and energy
DECISION MAKING APPROACHES
1. RATIONAL OR ANALYTICAL APPROACH

— Exemplified by systematic decision-making.
— Defines upfront success factors
— Looks for details and objectively explores how each solution meets each success factor.
— Decision-making is organized and decisions can be taken under the assumption of the desired solutions except
for major unforeseeable or unpredictable incidents.
— Consideration of the implications of the final decision.
2. INTUITIVE DECISION -MAKING APPROACH

— Relying on emotions and feelings.
— Careful planning is not possible or not desired.
— People will point to a "gut feeling" or "hunch" as the cause for a choice, reflecting the explanation is not
accessible through conscious thought
3. RANDOM OR CHANCE APPROACH

— In this approach a decision is made on impulse, without thought.
— Flipping a coin or using a "decision wheel" would be representative of employing this approach.
— It is sometimes considered a dependent style because this approach can promote denial of responsibility
Rational or Analytic Decision Makers

a) Have ready a decision-making process that you know works. This helps you to jump directly through postpone
deciding the steps you will be taking.
b) Gain knowledge of pitfalls and prejudices in decision taking so they can be avoided when making
Intuitive Decision Maker

a) Ask or accept broad questions well in advance of decision. It helps the unconscious mind to work behind the
scenes to provide ideas and suggestions for a decision.
b) Know where and where your intuition is working. and not. Intuition works best in places we have a great deal of
expertise in.
c) Increasing reflection.
o This makes insight more credible, as experiences are interpreted and applied with thought to the
subconscious that helps to categorize the experience more accurately.
d) Play games which involve decision-making. Games that simulate life choices provide a low risk environment
where patterns can be formed to improve intuition.
Random or Chance Decision Maker

a) Improve awareness and appreciation. Recognizing positive results as they arise increases the probability of
successful outcomes.
b) Apply know-how. It will increase the basis for understanding good opportunities versus bad ones.
c) Know the risks and the uncertainties. Choosing where the chances are in your favor, is a smart way to maximize
positive results.
25
DECISION MAKING MODELS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE
 For criminal justice, decision-making requires more than studying the rules and applying them to individual
cases. Decision are based on discretion, that is the exercise of human judgment in order to make decisions about
alternative courses of action.
 Professionals in criminal justice have little time to make important decisions which maybe the difference
between life and death. While there is no decision-making process that is fool proof, training, conditioning, and
practice among criminal justice leadership can help these professionals react more rationally and strategically in
the heat of the moment.
DECISION MAKING CHALLENGES FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROFESSIONALS

 Events of over-exposure, which are characterized as unpredictable, erratic, volatile and under conditions of high
stress, impair the capacity of a criminal justice professional to make a reasonable, rational decision. Criminal
justice practitioners will experience a lag period in their decision-making skills during these events. Many
obstacles called psychological prisons may also have a negative impact on the willingness of a police officer to
take decisions.
The Consequences of Making the Wrong Decision:

o • Loss of life.
o • Departmental or jurisdictional administrative costs.
o • Negative media attention and public opinion.
o • Demotion in position and/or loss of job.
o • Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), family problems and other psychological concerns.
1. DIRECTIVE DECISION-MAKING
— Usually a Policy decision-maker sorts out the pros and cons of a situation based on what they already know.
Decision-makers in the directive are very rational and have little tolerance of uncertainty. situation in for their
uncertainty. Instead of going to others for more details, their decisions are rooted in their own intelligence,
experience and reasoning. The upside to this style is that decision making is fast, ownership is transparent, and
no extra communication is needed. Often, however, directive decision-making can be taken impulsively, without
all the necessary details.
• When to use Directive Decision-Making

o In a situation characterized by continuity repeated patterns and predictable events this style of decision
making is fine. For situations where there is a straightforward and unchallenged cause and effect
relationship, reserve guideline decisions. In other words, correct response exists and is collectively
understood.
• A leader's role in Directive Decision-Making

o A leader has to sense the situation, categorize it as a scenario that calls for a clear decision and an
appropriate response. Ensure best practices are in place for ongoing procedures.
• Signs you need to use a different approach

o Once operations run smoothly it is easy for leaders to become victims of complacency. Leaders must be
mindful of the changing complexity of specific situations. When you start making complicated jobs
simply by using simple decisions, you need to change your approach. Understand that changing
circumstances demand changing styles of decision making.
2. ANALYTIC DECISION-MAKING
— Before taking action, strategic decision-makers analyze a lot of details. Analytic leaders, for example, rely on
direct observation, data, and facts to back their decisions. Like decision-makers in the guideline, however, an
analytic decision maker may seek information and advice from others to affirm or refute their own expertise.
These decision-makers have a high degree of uncertainty tolerance and are extremely adaptable but they prefer
to monitor certain aspects of the decision process. This style is a well-rounded decision –making strategy that
can be time consuming
• A leader's role in Directive Decision-Making
26
o Unlike decision making directives, before agreeing on a course of action, leaders must evaluate all the
details they have available. Assembling a team of expert to assist with analytical designs is
advantageous; leaders must therefore freely consider contradictory advice and ideas. At the same time,
to make the most of the analytic decision making process, leaders need to consider non expert
perspectives.
• Signs you need to use a different approach
o Decisions paralysis is the most important warning sign of overuse of the logical decision form when you
find yourself living in a state of over analysis or overthinking without taking action or making a decision,
this strategy must be removed.
3. CONCEPTUAL DECISION-MAKING
— Compared with the guideline or empirical approaches, the relational decision-making process takes a more
collaborative approach. Conceptual decision makers promote innovative thinking and teamwork and take a wide
variety of viewpoints into consideration. These decision-makers are based on success and want to look well
into the future when it comes to making critical decisions.
• When to use Conceptual Decision-Making
• A leader's role in Conceptual Decision-Making
4. BEHAVIORAL DECISION-MAKING
— Behavioral decision-seek to make sure that everyone method, behavioral is working decision-is together well.
group-oriented; Like the conceptual however, the community is given the choices available to them, rather than
brainstorming alternative solutions. From there the community will discuss each choice's pros and cons. This
decision-making method takes into account several different viewpoints and views in the process
• When to use behavioral decision-making
 The behavioral style requires proactive communication, as with conceptual decision-making. This
style takes a more introspective approach by discussing solutions that have worked in the past,
rather than attempting to disclose new patterns.
DECISION MAKING MODELS

Based on the perspective the researcher takes on the role that culture plays in decision making one of the following
models is used to think about and forecast behavioural trends in decision making in a given community:
o 1. The universal model
o 2. The dispositional model
o 3. Dynamic model
THE CONDITIONS ACCELERATING OR HINDERING THE SALIENCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN DECISION

MAKING
1. Priming
— The automatic cognition literature indicates behavior is influenced by exposure to elements of the social
environment in a manner that occurs below consciousness or purpose. We know from the common schematic
representations of a certain society, the stereotyped behaviors that later affect our decisions. When a person is
prepared with a definition, often through an implied order to think about it, it stimulates all forms of relevant
knowledge and affects decision taking.
2. Time pressure
— Cultural and personal information is accessible to all through cultures. Cultural knowledge appears to represent
a broad sampling of the event in life, whereas personal knowledge is more based on individual or atypical
experiences. The other difference between their accessibility is the cultural and personal awareness. Personal
awareness is a record of particular event and is not replicated in too many ways. That is why a concerted
attempt is required to access it, which takes more time and effort.
— Independent individual are expected to react better information based on promotion, whereas individual with
interdependent self-construction are assumed to respond better to information based on prevention.
3. Peer pressure
— Individual in collectivist societies are less likely to behave when they do not encounter social pressure according
to their cultural values. According to what collectivist culture dictates, Japanese and chinese students are more
likely to decide, compared to American and Italian students, whether will eat in fast subject to the norms
adopted in their societies, and less likely to make choices dependent on their more salient when they make plans
for eating with their friends, and less salient when they decide to eat alone in a fast food restaurant. The
probability that they will behave based on their attitudes increases dramatically according to the above situation.
27
Types of Decisions
1. Programmed and Non-Programmed Decisions:

— Programmed decisions are of a routine nature and are taken within the specified procedures. These decisions
are made with regard to routine and recurring problems which require structured solutions. A manager is not
required to go through the problem solving procedures again and again for taking programmed decisions. The
decision rules for programmed decisions should be prepared carefully and intelligently so that lower level
executives are able to take the decisions without making references to higher managerial levels. No judgment or
discretion is needed to find out solutions to such problems. These decisions remain consistent for a relatively
longer period of time and over many solutions.
— Non-programmed decisions are related to problems which are unique and non-repetitive. The information and
knowledge about such decisions is not available. Such decisions are made under new and unfamiliar
circumstances. The standard and pre-determined procedures and rules are rendered ineffective in programmed
decisions because every decision will have to be taken separately. Non-programmed decisions are usually grade
for solving unstructured problems which keep on changing from time to time.
2. Strategic and Tactical Decisions:

— Strategic decisions relate to policy matters and need the development and analysis of alternatives. These
decisions influence organizational structure, objectives, working conditions, finances etc. Strategic decisions
exercise great influence on the functioning and direction of the organization and have long-term implications.
They also define and establish the relationship of the organization with external environment. Such decisions
require more resources, judgment and skill. Because of their importance, strategic decisions are taken at top
managerial levels.
3. Individual and Group Decisions:

— A decision taken by one person is known as individual decision. In a small concern normally the owner takes
most of the decisions, in a bigger concern the routine or simple decisions may be left to a particular manager.
Such decisions are generally taken as per predetermined rules and procedures and require less application of
judgment and skill. When a manager is required to take a decision, he is supplied with information and other
inputs needed for this purpose. All managers, whether at top level or at lower level, take decisions for carrying
out their activities.
In general, there are five basic functions of a manager:

1) Setting objectives
2) Organizing
3) Motivating the team
4) Devising systems of measurement
5) Developing people
-------END-------
DISCLAIMER:
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed textbooks. The information presented here
is merely a collection by the committee members for their respective teaching assignments. Various sources as mentioned at the end of the
document as well as freely available material from internet were consulted for preparing this document. The ownership of the information lies with
the respective authors or institutions.
28

Dec 2022 Leadership Decision Making Management and Administration

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dec 2022 Leadership Decision Making Management and Administration

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LEADERSHIP, DECISION MAKING, MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

By: Ma. Shiela M. Villanueva

UNDERSTANDING SELF – LEADERSHIP

Why Character Really Matters?

The big 5 of traits “OCEAN “

The underlying dimensions of leadership character

What kind of leadership style is good for police organizations?

The importance of leadership in organizational development cannot be denied

Four Primary factors of Leadership

1. Great Events theory

Leadership Styles: Choosing the Right Approach for the Situation:

The Most Common Leadership Styles

Choosing Leadership Styles:

Leader: Types, Characteristics and Qualities

Top Fifteen (15) Leadership Qualities That Make Good Leaders

Key Differences between Management & Administration

Management thinkers have defined management in their own ways:

Types of Managers and Their Roles:

Leadership and Interpersonal Roles

Decision Making Roles

In general, there are five basic functions of a manager:

IMPORTANT ROLES OF A MANAGER:

Management process/functions involve 4 basic activities:

1. Planning and Decision Making – Determining Courses of Action

2. Authority and Responsibility-

6. Subordination of Individual Interest to Collective Interest

12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel

Types of Management Theories

1. Scientific Management Theory

2. Principles of Administrative Management Theory

3. Bureaucratic Management Theory

4. Human Relations Theory

5. Systems Management Theory

6. Contingency Management Theory

GENERAL CONCEPT OF ADMINISTRATION

STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT

Theories of administrative management

1. James D. Mooney’s Administrative Management Theory

2. Luther Gulick and the POSDCORB Theory

3. Fayol’s Principles of Administrative Management

ESSENTIAL SKILLS FOR ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT

EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

1. Budget control and cost management

Benefits of Implementing Strong Administrative Management Strategies

1. Healthy financial situation

More tips for effective administrative management

Decision-making techniques can be separated into two broad categories:

GROUP DECISION MAKING

DECISION MAKING APPROACHES

1. RATIONAL OR ANALYTICAL APPROACH

2. INTUITIVE DECISION -MAKING APPROACH

3. RANDOM OR CHANCE APPROACH

Rational or Analytic Decision Makers

Intuitive Decision Maker

Random or Chance Decision Maker

DECISION MAKING CHALLENGES FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROFESSIONALS

The Consequences of Making the Wrong Decision:

• When to use Directive Decision-Making

• A leader's role in Directive Decision-Making

• Signs you need to use a different approach

• A leader's role in Directive Decision-Making

DECISION MAKING MODELS

THE CONDITIONS ACCELERATING OR HINDERING THE SALIENCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN DECISION