Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) as alternative Glue Essay

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ABSTRACT

The study of creating and transforming okra as alternative glue aims to prove that there
are other resources from nature that can be derived of in making natural glue/adhesive. It
can be valuable to those whose necessities are some materials as well as school supplies in
school for making such paperwork. It is beneficial to those who want to be thrifty in buying
materials for them to save money since this study can conduct in home as well as its
materials and ingredients needed could be found at home. Its mucilaginous properties are
used as thickening agent for food particularly in soups. The upper part of the okra pods are
commonly remove or cut and thrown prior to cooking. This part of okra pod also contains
mucilage which gives its slimy characteristic. This mucilage has a good potential to be
alternative glue. (University of Sto. Tomas Department of Medical Technology). The
researcher conducted its experimentation by extracting the mucilage of the okra by heating
it over the pan and sieves it for its mucilage to be extracted and separated. From that, it will
be followed by mixing other ingredients in quantitative measures to give importance of the
exact amount of substance to be mixed to extract and to avoid wasting ingredients. The
ingredients are particularly the okra mucilage (extract), water, and flour. Through the
process of mixing and sieving, its contents will be mix to each other and form a new
substance that can be as alternative glue. Based on the experimentations, the researcher
made different set up to test where is the best set up that represent the exact amount of
substance in a mixture. From that, the researcher analyzes the set up by comparing its
outcomes due from experimentation and explains the facts and information with the aid of
tables and graphs. The researcher can say that based on findings, okra as alternative glue is
effective even though it did not actually match the same appearance and texture since the
ordinary glue that we bought from stores are synthetic while in the case of this study, it is a
natural glue. They recommended the product to some students to their community to use it
for their paperwork in school as well as their projects. Chapter I
 INTRODUCTION

Commonly, as students, there are many obligations that should participate particularly in
paper works. For instance, there are paper works that should need some materials to make
work easier. One of those materials is glue. Glue can be bought on some stores costs Php 10-
12. But for some students, they cannot afford such materials in terms that they lack financial
needs. The researcher conducted this study to promote an alternative way and to highlight
the potential of other things in making a product. Gluekra: Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
as alternative Glue shows up the alternative way on making glue with used of okra. This
study focuses on the potential of okra as renewable product that is significant for purposes.
A. Background of the study

Lady’s finger (Abelmoschus esculentus) or “Okra” is commonly known here in the

Philippines as a green finger-shape like fruit. It is one of the many plants which contain
mucilage. It was proven according to University of Sto. Tomas Department of Medical
Technology that it is widely dominated in tropical regions around the world. Its
mucilaginous properties are used as thickening agent for food particularly in soups. The
upper part of the okra pods are commonly remove or cut and thrown prior to cooking. This
part of okra pod also contains mucilage which gives its slimy characteristic. This mucilage
has a good potential to be alternative glue. (University of Sto. Tomas Department of Medical
Technology) By extracting the mucilage inside the through boiling, separating, and filtration
processes, it possibly releases its mucilage which can be derived in making glue. The
researcher prepared substance like flour and water to make its ability more effective
specifically to its ability to stick papers or other object to paper. On the other hand, glue has
contributed in making such things easier particularly to those students making their
projects or some activities in school. They were spending money in buying glue instead of
gaining savings for other purposes. In that case, they should need alternative way to avoid
spending a lot in buying school materials. Due to prior basis of related studies and
conceptual experimentation of the researcher to this study, it would result to a
comprehensive, long lasting, cheaper but good quality and useful glue for students and
other individual. B. Statement of the problem

* Is it possible that okra can be alternative glue? How? * How can the mucilage be
extracted outside the okra? * How long can the “gluekra” stick to the paper and other object
that can stick to paper? C. Hypothesis

It is possible that okra can transform as alternative glue. By extracting mucilage of it, that
has the ability to produce a sticky texture as glue. By heating the upper part sliced okra, it
extracts its mucilage to produce sticky substance. Since this project aims to make glue from
okra, it will stick as long as other glue can. D. Significance of the study
 This outcome that follow significantly useful in such that it helps particularly to those
students who can’t afford buying glue since the commonly price of it is Php 10-12. It is
important for the farmer having plantation of okra to improve their productivity and
profitability that they can gain especially that they have ideas about the importance of okra.
For ordinary people they can use it for unexpected troubles regarding on pasting their
materials or creating a hand-on project. Since glue is universally known as use to paste
things it should be needed alternative way to improve not only the product but also the
source of the product that being derived. On the other hand, it also applies in such aspects
regarding as a source of income or having additional information about the potential of
okra. E. Scopes and Limitations

The said study focuses on the effectiveness of okra mucilage to become glue due to its
sticky characteristics. The processing of this study occurs in Antipolo National High School
for the verification of the effectiveness of this study. It scopes the date conducted July 6,
2012 and ends within this school year 2012-2013. The purpose of this study is to provide
cheaper product which is universally used especially by students and other individuals
who’s interested of using it or obliged to use. It deals in one fruit which is okra that can be
derived to one product also, glue. It highlights the potential of okra as alternative glue. The
limitation of the outcome or product can only have one purpose on what the basis of the
product is commonly used. Meaning to say, if the glue is only used for pasting it should be in
pasting and should not apply for other purposes. F. Definition of Terms

Glue- a white or colorless liquid substance that has a sticky texture that is use to paste
paper works. Mucilage- a part of okra that has sticky substance

Okra- a finger-shape like fruit

Chapter II

REVIEW AND RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

The effectiveness of okra as alternative glue have related studies but have different
outcome to be overcome compared to this study. To gather further information about okra,
the researcher find related studies about it to settle and lessen the questions and problems
of the study. It can also help to have justification for qualification of okra as alternative glue.
To define the source that is the reason in making this study, here are some reviews of
information:

A. Information about Okra Mucilage

Plant mucilage is found in almost all classes of plants, usually in very small amount.
Mucilage and gums are water soluble polysaccharides found in a widespread number of
plants and also in some microorganisms. It has different purposes ranging from water
storage and seed germination in plants to membrane thickener and food reserve. Okra is
one of the many plants which contain mucilage. It is widely distributed in tropical regions
around the world. Its mucilaginous properties are used as thickening agent for food
particularly in soups. On the other hand, some people use it for medicinal purposes. The
upper part of the okra pods are commonly remove or cut and thrown prior to cooking. This
part of okra pod also contains mucilage which gives its slimy characteristic. Okra pods
specially when heated produce more sticky mucus. Source: (Department of Medical
Technology, University of Sto. Tomas)

We have included okra mucilage and coconut fibers, things that are relatively cheap and
abundant. Up to 75% mucilage was extracted from okra. The coir fibers were cooked for at
least three hours, after which the fibers were made fine. Three batches of paper were
produced. The first was made up of pure recycled paper; the second of recycled paper and
okra mucilage; and the third, recycled paper, okra mucilage, and coconut fibers. (David, et
al., 2004-2005) Source:
(http://www.investigatoryprojectexample.com/science/wastepaper-and-coir-with-okra-
mucilage.html)

Okra is a vegetable that has been cultivated for more than 800 years originating
somewhere in present day Ethiopia. It was introduced by Africa to America and has been an
important part of the South American diet in the form of stews and gumbos (thick stews). In
the Philippines, okra is used in

the traditional pinakbet and sinigang and to some extent a plain roasted vege; some would
eat it raw. It is a significant source of dietary fiber, Vitamin A, and potassium and Vitamin C.
The seeds of okra can be dried, roasted, ground and brewed as a substitute for coffee. The
ripe seeds can also yield edible oils. The leaves are used as medicinal remedy to reduce
swelling and inflammation. This vegetable is rich in dietary fibers that help stabilize blood
sugar. Okra can also help reduce cholesterol by binding along with bile acids which usually
carry the toxins which the body should eliminate. The mucilaginous material in the fruit also
facilitates the binding. This property is comparable to taking satins. As we know statins are
the drugs that doctors prescribe in cases of high cholesterol or high dangerous fat in the
blood. This however works in our intestines and virtually eliminating the source of high fat
that is already attached with bile salts. (Gemiliano Aligui, 2006) Source: (Research Institute
for Tropical Medicine – Assistant Director) The research work aimed to determine the
possibility of producing glue and paper from scrap hides. For the production of glue, alum
was added to the extract produced from the boiling of scrap hides. As for the production of
paper, the pulp was not subjected to quantitative test. It was immediately processed into
paper by hand papermaking.The glue produced developed into a heterogeneous mixture of
a crystalline substance and the liquid which did not exhibit sufficient adhesive properties on
wood or paper. On the other hand, the paper produced exhibited a tearing strength (58.0g)
within the range of Philippine standards for wrapping paper but was substandard in terms
of thickness (35.71 mills) and weight (419.0 kg/15mm). It did not pass any of the standards
for writing paper. (Chin, et. al., 1995) Source: (The Production of glue and paper from scrap
hides)

The research study aimed to produce a cheap and environmentfriendly adhesive from D-
limonene dissolved Styrofoam. A minor objective was to recycle Styrofoam by reusing waste
Styrofoam for the production of the adhesive. D-limonene is an extract from citrus fruits like
lemon and is proven to be safe to dissolve polystyrene. Styrofoam, the commercial name for
polystyrene is widely used in society. Food packaging is one major source of waste
Styrofoam. To prepare the adhesive, used Styrofoam containers were dissolved in D-
limonene with different proportions divided into four set-ups. The first and the third
treatment were of the same concentration consisting of 5 mL Dlimonene: 2 g Styrofoam, but
the third, unlike the first set-up, was boiled. The second and the fourth treatments both had
a concentration of 5 mL Dlimonene: 1 g Styrofoam. The fourth treatment was also boiled.
After production, the adhesives were applied on wood blocks to test their holding strength
by attaching weights on one side of bound wooden blocks.Five replicates were used for each
treatment including the control. The average weight each pair of blocks can carry were
subjected to ANOVA tests to determine if adhesive treatments were comparable to the
commercial adhesive, Rugby.Results showed that some treatments were as strong as Rugby
in terms of holding strength. But, treatment A had the best holding strength and can be
considered an alternative for commercially available adhesives.The group concluded that
the first treatment had potential to be an alternative for commercial adhesives. The results
of the study showed that there was no significant difference between the first and the
control treatments only. Therefore, Styrofoam melted in limonene has the potential to be
recycled as an adhesive. (Perez III, et. al., 1996) Source: (D-limonene Dissolved Styrofoam As
Adhesive)

A study on the potential of using extracts from three easily accessible plants, okra
(hibiscus esculentus), kamote leaves (Ipomea batatas), and ginger rhizomes (zingiber
officinale) was made. Crude extracts were prepared from each plant sample. Ethanol was
used as the solvent for the extracts. The pH of each extract was taken. They were tested in
acidic and basic solutions to determine whether or not their initial colors would change.
Three sets of thirteen solutions of different pH’s were prepared, one for each extract. Then
the extracts were stability of these extracts were also determined. Then the specific pH
sensitive substance in the extracts were determined.

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The results showed that the okra changed color from cloudy green to yellow at pH 6.8 to
7.15. The ginger was initially red-orange, but becamecloudy in acidic solutions. pH range
was 12 to 10. The kamote leaf extract changed form dark red-brown to very dark bluish-
green at pH 10-12. The okra extract was found to be the best acid-base indicator among the
three, because it showed the most obvious color change at the boundary of acidity and
basicity. (Chavez et. al., 1996) Source: (The potential of okra (Hibiscus esculentus), Kamote
leaves(Ipomea batatas), and ginger Rhizome (Zingiberofficinale) Extracts as acid-base
Indicators This research project, entitled “Determination of the adhesive potential of
coconut (cocos nucifera) husk extract,” aimed to extract lignin from coir dust by a method
previously used on saw dust and the determine the extract‟s potential as a paper and wood
adhesive by employing simplified versions of standard tests. Coir dust is said to be
approximately forty-five percent lignin, a polymer whose basic building blocks are phynel
propane monomer, benzene rings attached to three carbon side chain atoms, and which is
thought to exhibit adhesive properties. Since lignin is a waste product of the pulp and paper
making process, it would be of some significance to verify whether the extract would be
used as a glue. The extraction process yielded a light brown, semiviscous sticky liquid which
exhibited positive properties in so far as it was able to keep pieces of paper and wood stuck
together for more than 24 hours. The rip test and water tests were done using varying
concentrations of extract and polvinyl alcohol and showed other properties of an adhesive.
(Diokno et. al., 1995) Source: (Determination of the adhesive potential of coconut (cocos
nucifera) husk extract) This research is concerned with recycling of styrofoam, scientifically
known as a foam polystyrene (FPS), a plastic resin. Styrofoam was reused as a major
material for making an adhesive. Gasoline was used to dissolve the FPS, resulting in a sticky
mixture. Five mixtures of FPS-Gasoline were made with the ratios of 11:4, 9:4, 7:4, 5:4, and
1:1 Blocks of wood having the same sizes were used for testing the adhesiveness of the
mixtures. Each of the mixture was applied on a clean surface of the block and was left to air
dry. Each mixture was tested against the commercially available cement rugby. A test of
tension was done, pulling the two blocks which are bonded together by the mixture
(receiving load). Results proved that the adhesive was comparable with the commercially
produced RUGBY. It also showed that the mixtures having the ratios greater than 1:1 (FPS-
gasoline mass ratio) are much stronger than RUGBY. (Rivera, 1997) Source: (Foam
polystyrene-Gasoline Mixture as an Adhesive)

Partial defoliation of okra plants was done on one group at the four week stage and on
another group at the six-week old stage. Measurements were taken of fruit weight, fruit
diameter, fruit length, number of fruits per plant, plant height, and plant basal stalk
diameter.Observations showed that plants defoliated at the four week stage matured earlier
than the control group. Qualitative tests showed significant increases in weight yield per
plant for those plants defoliated at the four-week stage. However, defoliation at the sixth
week was found to have significantly decreased the weight and mean fruit diameter. No
significant differences were noticed in plant height and basal stalk diameter. (Aldea, 1996)
Source: (The effects of partial defoliation on the yield of okra (Hibiscus esculentus)

The % yield of mucilage from okra fruit was 47.28%. The mucilage was tested using the
Xanthroproteic and Ninhydrin tests for aromatic amino acids and free amino acids
respectively. Positive results were obtained. The presence of glucose was confirmed by the
Benedict’s solution.Several PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) – mucilage mixtures were prepared
using the ratios 0-100, 25-75, 50-50, 75-25, 100-0 percent by volume. These mixtures were
inoculated with S. cerevisiea and growth was observed after 24 hours of incubation at 28˚C.
Growth was observed in all the replicates of the treatments. Thus the control and the
experimental media had no difference between them in terms of supporting yeast growth.To
quantify the results of the above observation, nutrient Broth (NB) –mucilage mixtures were
used at the same ratios as above and inoculated with 0.1 ml of a prepared inoculum
containing 3.1 x 104yeast cells. =Yeast count was performed using a hemacytometer after 24
hours. The means of the cell count and their standard deviations were also calculated. A 2
sample t0test was performed (control against experimental treatment) resulting in the
acceptance of the Ho. The experimental and control media were not significantly different in
terms of capacity to support the growth of the yeast cells. A 1 sample t-test was performed
to investigate the significant increase in the number of yeast cells after 24 hours in the
treatments. Negative results were obtained for media treatment media 0-100 and 100-0
while significant differences were obtained for 25-75 at = 0.01 and for 50-50 and 75-25 at =
0.05. (De Castro, 1996) Source: (The potential of Okra (Hibiscus esculentus) Mucilage as a
culture medium for Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiea) Foreign Related Studies

For the development of salinity tolerant okra breeding material, studies were undertaken
on the assessment of genetic variability for salinity tolerance in the available okra
germplasm at the seedling stage, assessment of genetic diversity with molecular makers,
responses of the selected tolerant and non-tolerant genotypes to salinity stress during
ontogeny of the whole plant in summer and spring seasons and genetic basis of variation for
salinity tolerance. Substantial variation appeared to exist in okra for salinity tolerance at the
seedling stage. The 80 mM NaCl concentration was found suitable for discriminating
tolerant and non tolerant okra genotypes because many genotypes failed to germinate at
higher NaCl concentrations and maximum variation among the genotypes appeared at this
concentration.The pooled ranking of the genotypes, based on their individual rankings for
each trait in single NaCl concentration appeared effective for selecting tolerant genotypes.
Twenty RAPD primers were used to analyze the genetic diversity among the okra
germplasm, which showed considerable polymorphism in the okra genotypes. The cluster
analysis divided the 39 okra genotypes into seven main clusters with maximum similarity of
82.88% between Sabzpari 2001 and Acc.No.019221. The genotypes selected at the seedling
stage for salinity tolerance maintained their tolerance to NaCl during the ontogeny of whole
plant. This suggested that the screening of the germplasm accessions and breeding material
for salt tolerance at the seedling stage is effective, at least for initial selection. The NCM II
analysis was carried out to estimate components of genetic variation in okra genotypes. The
inheritance of salinity tolerance in okra at seedling stage appeared to be governed by both
additive and non additive genetic effects. The additive effects were predominant and narrow
sense heritability was moderate. It is concluded that the genetic variation for tolerance to
NaCl salinity existed among the okra genotypes, which had considerable heritable
component and, therefore, genetic improvement of okra genotypes for salinity tolerance
through breeding and recurrent selection is possible. (IKARM-UL-HAQ, 2009)

Source: Genetic Basis of Variation for Salinity Tolerance in Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus
L.) (2009, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan)

Okra fruits and baobab leaves are just two examples of foods used to give a mucilagi- nous
quality to West African food dishes. The mucilages were extracted from both foods and
purified. Preliminary studies have been conducted t o characterise the mucilages chemically,
as well as study their viscous behaviour in relation to their use in West African dishes. Both
mucilages are acidic polysaccharides with associated protein and minerals. Neither the
quantity of protein nor minerals were significantly reduced during purification. The protein
was not separated from the polysaccharide by either gel chromatography or disc
electrophoresis. They attain maximum viscosity in the neutral p H range. However, the
mucilage solutions are not stable to heat and lose much of their viscosity when heated.
(Mark L. et al., 1976)

Source: (Studies on the Mucilages Extracted from Okra Fruits (Hibiscus esculentus L.) and
Baobab Leaves (Adansonia digitata L.) Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University
of Ghana, Legon, Ghana (Manuscript received 19 November 1976)

West African Okra [Abelmoschus caillei (A. Chev) Stevels] is a multipurpose annual,
biennal herb sometime perennial woody crop plant common in the humid West African
subcontinent. It is produced in traditional agriculture especially when other vegetables are
not in season and an important cash crop in the local economy. This study is aimed at
generating information and documenting the ethnobotany of A. caillei via the indigenous
knowledge among tribes of Delta, Edo and Ondo States of Nigeria). Primary information was
collected from randomly selected respondents through survey using structured
questionnaires and guided walks within 54 sites. A 18-87 years old. Of this number, 259
(48%) were males and 281 (52%) females. Nine ethnic tribes were recorded in the 3 States.
The tribes varied in their socio-cultural and economic characteristics and local knowledge
about the crop. One-two local names of the crop were recorded with one related “type”.
Traditional uses of the crop include food (100%) and nonfood purposes. The information
from non-food uses include medicine (27%), myth/religion (32%), soil fertility indicate
(19%), rainy season indicator (8%), dry season/harvest time indicator (100%), fuel (15%)
and sponge (11%). These sets of information indicate that the crop plant is of prime
importance in the area. ( Osawaru M. E., Dania-Ogbe, F. M, 2010) Source: (Ethnobotanical
Studies of West Africa Okra [Abelmoschus caillei (A. chev) Stevels] from some Tribes of West
Nigeria (Science World Journal, 2010) Ten selected genetically diverse okra strains were
evaluated in one location for two years in Yola Nigeria. The objective was to study the extent
of variability and relationship between various economically important traits for the
purpose of genetic improvement. The trial was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block
Design (RCBD), with three replications. The data collected included, plant height, number of
branches per plant, days to 50 % flowering, days to 95 % maturity, number of fruits per
plant, fruit diameter and yield per plot. Analysis of variance and other genetic analyses such
as genotypic and phenotypic coe icient of variation and genetic advance were performed.
The results obtained showed variation in all the cultivars and characters measured such as
fruit diameter (1.17**), days to 95 % maturity (374.76**), days to 50 % flowering
(422.98**), number of fruit per plant (54.13**). Genotypic coe icient of correlation showed
more significant relationship between the pairs of characters, meaning that, these
characters are more related genotypically. The characters, which showed high broad sense
heritability and high genetic advance after selection respectively, included fruit diameter (18
% and 61 %) and number of branches per plant (96 % and 41 %). These characters are all
under additive gene e ects. In conclusion, therefore; genetic variation exists among the
cultivars in all characters studied. However, Ex-Wuro Sarki showed greater potential for
yielding ability while ExSangere I, although, a poor yielder, is a good material for earliness.
Therefore hybridization between these two could produce a high yielding and early F1
(hybrid) variety. (Bello, D, et al., 2006) Source: (Variability and correlation studies in okra
(Abelmoschu esculentus L. Moench) (Journal of Sustainable Development in Agriculture and
Environment, 2006) Okra is one of the important vegetables grown in India during both
summer and rainy seasons. This is an often cross-pollinated crop showing 4–19% cross
pollination. Emasculation and pollination processes are easier due to large flower and
monoadelphous stamens. This enables the breeder to exploit the hybrid vigor through
manual hybridization. Considering the importance of bhindi, an investigation was carried
out with five lines and two testers with three replications at Agricultural College and
Research Institute, Madurai during 2001–2002 in order to determine the extent to which
the heterosis is manifested. The observations recorded were plant height, days to first
flowering, number of nodes/plant, fruit length, fruit girth, number of fruits/plant, single
fruit weight, number of seeds/fruit, 100 seed weight, crude fibre content, protein content,
and yield/plant. The results revealed highly significant differences for all the characters
among the parent and genotypes studied indicating wider range of variability. Among all the
crosses evaluated, the cross combination IC 169340 x IC 112475 exhibited highest heterosis
for all the characters studied. (K. Shoba, S. Mariappan, 2000) Source: (Heterosis Study in
Okra (ABELMOSCHUS ESCULENTUS (L.) MOENCH) for some other Biometrical Traits) ( I
International Conference on Indigenous Vegetables and Legumes. Prospectus for Fighting
Poverty, Hunger and Malnutrition, 2000)

Okra fruits, Taro tubers, Jew’s mellow leaves and Fenugreek seeds are commonly used in
Egypt to prepare popular diets with desired slimy consistency. The mucilages were
extracted and preliminary studies conducted to characterise them physically. The pH values
of a 1% solution of the mucilages varied from 6·9-7·5 for Okra and Taro, 7·1–7·8 for Jew’s
mellow, and 5·9-6 for Fenugreek, depending upon extraction conditions. The highest
viscosity was observed in Okrasolutions, followed by Fenugreek, Jew’s mellow and Taro
mucilages. Okra and Jew’s mellow mucilages are acidic polysaccharides which contain
higher amounts of ash than the Taro and Fenugreek mucilages which are neutral
polysaccharides. All mucilages are associated with protein. Gel chromatography indicated
strong interaction of protein with the polysaccharide. The acid hydrolysis of the mucilages
followed by paper chromatography revealed that all mucilages contain methyl pentose,
glucose, galactose, and fructose, in different proportions. Taro and Fenugreek mucilages are
free of rhamnose. All mucilages are devoid of arabinose and mannose except Fenugreek
which contained these two sugars. (El-Sebaiy, 2003) Source: (Preliminary studies on the
mucilages extracted from Okra fruits, Taro tubers, Jew’s mellow leaves and Fenugreek seeds
(Food Technology Department, Kafr El-Shiekh Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University,
Egypt, 2003)

Polysaccharide extracts were prepared from two traditional food thickeners with extensive
domestic use in central and western parts of Africa: okra (Hibiscus esculentis L.) and the
seed kernel from ‘dika nut’ (Irvingia gabonensis). Both demonstrated typical polyelectrolyte
behaviour in solution, and were therefore studied under fixed ionic conditions (0.1 M NaCl),
yielding intrinsic viscosities of [η] = 7.6 dl g−1 for okra and [η] = 4.4 dl g−1 for dika.
Concentrated solutions gave mechanical spectra typical of entangled networks, with close
Cox-Merz superposition of η(ω) and η(γ). The variation of ‘zero-shear’ specific viscosity
with degree of space-occupancy (c[η]) was also broadly similar to the general form
observed for most disordered polysaccharides, but with greater separation of c∗ and c∗∗
and steeper slope of log ηsp vs. log c above c∗(~4.0 for okra and ~4.6 for dika, in
comparison with the usual value of ~3.3). As found for normal disordered polysaccharides,
the shear-thinning behaviour of dika gum could be reduced to a single ‘master-curve’ for all
concentrations above c∗∗, but the absolute value of the terminal slope of log ( η- ηs) vs. log
⋗g was unusually low (~0.58, in comparison with the normal value of ~0.76). Terminal
slopes for okra gum were also unusually low, and varied systematically with polymer
concentration. These departures from normal solution properties are tentatively ascribed to
compact macromolecular structures, coupled, in the case of okra gum, with a strong
tendency to self-association. (R. Ndjouenkeu, et al., 2000)

Source: (Rheology of okra (Hibiscus esculentus L.) and dika nut (Irvingia gabonensis)
polysaccharides (Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria,
2000)

Freshly harvested okra fruits were blanched in boiling water (with or without 0.2%
sodium metablsulphite salt) and the effect of this treatment, dehydration methods and
temperature on certain characteristics of okra investigated. Blanching resulted in the slight
decrease in carbohydrate, fat, ash, colour components, ascorbic acid and viscosity. Besides
this initial loss, blanching in sulphite solution led to the retention of more of the colour
components and ascorbic acid during dehydration. All dehydrated okra samples had higher
contents of carbohydrate, fat and ash but lesser contents of protein and ascorbic acid than
fresh okra. Fresh okra fruits, on the other hand, had higher content of the colour pigments
and were more viscous than all dehydrated products. Samples blanched prior to
dehydration retained more of the colour components but were less viscous than unblanched
samples. Vacuum dehydrated samples retained more ascorbic acid, colour pigment and
mucilage at each of the dehydration temperatures than those from a hot air oven. High
dehydration temperatures had negative effect on the colour, ascorbic acid and viscosity of
okra. (U. E. Inyang and C. I. Ike, 1998)

Source: (Effect of blanching, dehydration method and temperature on the ascorbic acid,
colour, sliminess and other constituents of okra fruit (Department of Food Science &
Technology, University of Agriculture, 1998)

The European community has commissioned a programme for the development of non-
food plants with economic potential (project AIR 3-CT-1236). In this project, five varieties of
okra (Veludo, Bogiatou, Pyleas, Levadias and Kilkis) were cultivated in 1994 on an
experimental plot in the south-west of France (near Mont de Marsan). Three varieties
(Veludo, Pyles and Kilkis) were also cultivated in 1995 in a Mediterranean area near
Narbonne (France). The plants appeared to be suited to the wet climate of Mont de Marsan
and the hotter, drier climate of Narbonne. Contents in hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin
were determined in all the parts of the plant. Concerning the hemicellulose content of the
stem, the richest varieties are Veludo and Bogiatou (17%); Veludo has the highest content of
hemicellulose in the dry, mature fruits (19%). Concerning the seed oil content, Levadias and
Pyleas had a high content of palmitic acid (28%) and Kilkis a high content of linoleic acid
(52%). Oil content was 15–19% in all varieties. The Bogiatou and Levadias varieties
produced a cake containing more than 30% proteins. The yield in oil, the quality of its
proteins and the use of the stem in paper-making, indicate that okra has economic potential
for cultivation on set aside acreage in this part of Europe. (M. Camciuc, et al., 1998)

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