Challenges for Education during the

Pandemic: An Overview of Literature

N. K. Radina, Ju. V. Balakina

Received in October Nadezhda Radina, Doctor of Sciences in Political Institutes, Processes and Technolo-
2020 gies, Candidate of Sciences in Pedagogical Psychology, Professor, Faculty of Social
Sciences, National Research University Higher School of Economics. Email: rasv@
yandex.ru (Corresponding author)
Julia Balakina, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Literature and Intercultural
Communication, National Research University Higher School of Economics. Email:
julianaumova@gmail.com

Address: 25/12 Bolshaya Pecherskaya St, 603155 Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation.
Abstract This article overviews studies exploring the COVID‑19 pandemic’s impact on educa-
tion systems and their responses to lockdown restrictions, comparing available find-
ings with international statistics based on continuous education system monitoring.
Global organizations acknowledge disruption of classical educational processes and
emergency transition to distance learning during the pandemic. Scientific literature
examines accessibility of online education, alternative forms of distance learning, and
the pandemic-induced financial constraints on universities inhibiting new construction,
social support for students, scholarship application, professional development of fac-
ulty members, and research growth. The pandemic illuminated the issue of inequal-
ity in education, which worsened as a result of emergency transition to online stud-
ies. In particular, researchers focus on the most vulnerable groups of students, such
as children from low-income families, children from migrant backgrounds, and stu-
dents with disabilities.
Projects aimed at studying the digitalization of education account for the biggest
chunk of research inspired by the new pandemic reality. A number of studies discuss
not just a formal transition to distance learning but a major technological turn that
allows using the unique opportunities provided by digital technologies, which is espe-
cially important when teaching medical students.
Theoretical inquiry is a distinctive feature of scientific discourse, as compared to the
discourse of international expert and analytical reports on the problems of education
in the context of the COVID‑19 pandemic. Research on changes to the learning pro-
cess makes it possible to reconstruct the direct and indirect, as well as latent, threats
of the pandemic.

Keywords pandemic, COVID‑19, online education, distance learning, isolation, inequality in edu-
cation, medical education.

For citing Radina N. K., Balakina J. V. (2021) Vyzovy obrazovaniyu v usloviyakh pandemii: obzor
issledovaniy [Challenges for Education during the Pandemic: An Overview of Litera-
ture]. Voprosy obrazovaniya / Educational Studies Moscow, no 1, pp. 178–194. https://doi.
org/10.17323/1814-9545-2021-1-178-194

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The COVID‑19 pandemic changed the social, economic, and cultural as-
pects of public life, and it certainly could not leave education unaffect-
ed. The UNESCO, the OECD, and the World Bank have been continu-
ously monitoring changes in education caused by the pandemic. Based
on their findings, they have identified the main tendencies of change,
outlined the group of people involved in problematic transformations
(students, their parents, teachers, and education stakeholders), and
developed global and local practical recommendations for best prac-
tices [Department of International and Regional Cooperation of the
Accounting Chamber of the Russian Federation 2020].
Two major trends have been common to national education sys-
tems worldwide in the context of the pandemic: disruption of classi-
cal educational processes and emergency transition to distance learn-
ing formats.
Learning disruption increased socioeconomic inequality in educa-
tion. Among specific threats, international organizations mention in-
terrupted learning, difficulties obtaining the usual economic support
(e. g. free or reduced meals at school), child neglect (in case parents
went to work) or high economic costs of childcare (if it prevented par-
ents from working outside the home), health system overload (if  fe-
male health workers had to stay home to look for their children), and
problems directly related to schooling: increased workload in schools
that remained open, a rise in dropout rates following the reopening of
schools, and reduced opportunities for student socialization.
Challenges of the pandemic were multidimensional, affecting the
economic, technological, social, and methodological aspects of edu-
cation. According to international studies, very few education systems
were fully prepared for the transition to distance learning due to tech-
nological as well as economic factors. Difficulties of integrating dis-
tance learning formats could be psychological (unfamiliar format of
classes and diminished motivation, which decreased learning effective-
ness), socio-psychological (co-responsibility of parents for the organi-
zation of distance learning), methodological (difficulty of moving some
educational activities online; additional training for teachers to em-
brace new teaching methods), and policy-related (lack of management
models describing the transition to online learning). All these challeng-
es have a common effect of increasing social stratification and ine-
quality during the distance learning period imposed by the pandemic.
The overall picture of education during the COVID‑19 pandemic is
constructed not only from the monitoring reports of international or-
ganizations but also from the relevant scientific publications. Exten-
sive surveys performed by international organizations and research
studies focusing on specific problems complement each other in re-
constructing the context in which education systems have had to op-
erate during the pandemic.
The present article is aimed at systematizing the available findings
on education during the COVID‑19 pandemic and comparing them with

Voprosy obrazovaniya / Educational Studies Moscow. 2021. No 1. P. 178–194

 N. K. Radina, Ju. V. Balakina
Challenges for Education during the Pandemic: An Overview of Literature

the key conclusions drawn by international organizations engaged in

continuous monitoring of education systems.
Publications for this review study were sampled using the follow-
ing keywords:

• “education COVID”, “education pandemic”, “university COVID”, “uni-

versity pandemic”, “school COVID”, “school pandemic”—for publi-
cations in English; and
• “obrazovanie” (education), “pandemiya” (pandemic), “koronavirus”
(coronavirus), COVID—for publications in Russian

Search for and selection of publications were carried out using the of-
ficial websites of the publishers Elsevier, Wiley, Springer, Sage, Oxford
University Press, and Cambridge University Press (available in the Na-
tional Research University Higher School of Economics’ digital library
of scientific periodicals). The portal eLIBRARY.RU was used as well, spe-
cifically open-access articles. The sample included publications of the
types “research article” and “book chapter” for the period from April to
November 2020 as well as works to be published in 2021, which usu-
ally represented findings from empirical studies.
The logic of publication analysis and classification implied identi-
fying the major trends in research on education during the COVID‑19
pandemic and comparing the findings with the key challenges in mod-
ern education reported by international expert communities: digitali-
zation of education and disruption of the educational process, which
exacerbated the reproduction of socioeconomic inequality during the
pandemic [Department of International and Regional Cooperation of
the Accounting Chamber of the Russian Federation 2020].
Even research centers that engage in forecasting did not previously
qualify the pandemic threat and the following “imposed” digitalization
of social life among challenges of the future (see, for instance, [Nes-
tik, Zhuravlev 2018]). A review of recent reports of international organ-
izations and research findings on changes in education caused by the
pandemic will allow estimating the possible damage and finding the
best possible ways out of the COVID‑19 crisis in education.

Pandemic and In reports of international organizations, emergency transition to dis-

Online Education tance learning is considered to be a major education trend during the
pandemic. Two aspects are emphasized in this wording: distance and
emergency. Freedom of choosing whether to implement online and
blended learning formats has been replaced by emergency, or “im-
posed”, online education.
In research, the emergency of transitioning to online education
and distance learning technology is normally represented from a crit-
ical perspective, as scholars seek to find out how exactly the quality
of education has been affected for students learning from a distance

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during the COVID‑19 pandemic. For example, distance learning in lock-

down is believed to have undermined preparedness of Russian high
school students for the Unified State Exam (USE) in advanced math-
ematics. Despite the increased use of exam coaching services, actual
USE scores were lower than expected, which affected students’ choice
of higher education institution and field of study [Yakobyuk 2020].
A Danish study shows that during the first lockdown phase, chil-
dren of parents with no college degree decreased their reading activ-
ity compared to pre-lockdown [Reimer et al. 2021], and the shift to re-
mote teaching in elementary schools of Malaysia became a challenge
for teachers as well as learners and their parents [Jan 2020]. Along with
methodological questions about distance learning technologies suit-
able for elementary school, the article also explores the psychological
and psychophysiological aspects of engaging elementary school stu-
dents in distance learning.
An economic analysis of Russian educational institutions that
switched to online education due to the pandemic shows that digitali-
zation has an essentially negative impact on preschool and supplemen-
tary education (particularly private for-profit institutions), where in-per-
son classes cannot be replaced fully with distance learning, which leads
to reductions in enrollment and in the range of fee-based education-
al services [Toshchenko 2020].
Even before the COVID‑19 pandemic, online education technolo-
gy had been a priority in university education development in Viet-
nam, Germany, India, Canada, China, Russia, the United States, Tur-
key, and a number of other countries. However, it was the emergency
of change and the imposed digitalization that moved online educa-
tion to the top of the agenda [Klyagin et al. 2020; Bao 2020; Ozkaral,
Bozyi̇ gi̇ t 2020; Mishra, Gupta, Shree 2020; Hiep-Hung, Tien-Thi-Hanh
2020; Kerres 2020; Palvia et al. 2018]. The following aspects of online
university education during the coronavirus pandemic are covered in
scientific literature:

• Methodological and technological support of online learning in

the context of emergency transformations [Ladyzhets et al. 2020;
Bao 2020]
• Consequences of imposed digitalization and involuntary nonresis-
tance of university administrators against the transition to online
learning [Kerres 2020]
• Disappointment of students whose in-class education has been
replaced by online learning, whose expectations (e. g. about in-
ternships) have not been fulfilled, and who experience technical
issues associated with the digitalization of education [Ozkaral, Bo-
zyi̇ gi̇ t 2020]
• Development of multimodal approaches to course content design
to promote critical thinking in students; the need for government

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 N. K. Radina, Ju. V. Balakina
Challenges for Education during the Pandemic: An Overview of Literature

support to ensure high-quality digital academic experience [Mishra,

Gupta, Shree 2020]
• Digital technology in education and the need for social mobiliza-
tion to promote online and blended learning [Hiep-Hung, Tien-
Thi-Hanh 2020]
• Rational and well-founded integration of online and offline learn-
ing after the pandemic [Osman 2020]
• Post-pandemic changes in some education programs; for instance,
the possibility of increasing digitalization of legal education is be-
ing considered, given the ongoing “digital transformation” of the
legal profession [Osina, Tolstopyatenko, Malinovsky 2021]

As soon as the COVID‑19 pandemic broke out, preparedness of Russian

universities for distance learning was assessed [Klyagin et al. 2020].
Degrees of adaptation to online learning practices varied across insti-
tutions, departments, programs, and fields of study. For this reason,
some parts of education programs or entire programs in a number
of Russian universities “could only be delivered with the use of online
courses provided by other universities” [Ibid.:54].
A large number of studies analyze the role of distance learning and
digitalization in medical education, in particular the following:

• Prospective applicants’ problems with the residency application

process, away rotations, and obtaining letters of recommendation
[Hanson et al. 2020]
• Peculiarities of using online learning tools due to the fact that
many psychomotor skills are developed in practical sessions only
(such as weighing, pipetting, microscope slide making, DNA swab-
bing, and many other skills) [Thompson et al. 2020]
• Lack of regular communication between students and personal tu-
tors due to the transition to distance learning technology; suspen-
sion of clinical placements which may put students at a disadvan-
tage due to missed opportunities [Sani et al. 2020]
• Acquiring, retaining, and improving technical skills in social isola-
tion and online learning; use of telehealth interactions in outpa-
tient care and medical education [Adesoye et al. 2021; Chick, Clift-
on, Peace 2020]
• Creation of virtual video platforms to implement formal case re-
view “show and tell” sessions [Madrazo 2020]

Analysis of limitations imposed on medical education by distance learn-

ing is followed by specifying the ways of mitigating their effects, with
a focus on new technology (video platforms and telemedicine) and
compensatory teaching strategies to compensate for the limitations.
Analysis of management practices to adapt universities to online
learning is especially optimistic in assessing voluntary engagement in
the organization of student-faculty interactions [Klyagin et al. 2020].

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Researchers recommend using advanced technologies, such as multi-

modal learning [Skulmowski, Rey 2020], virtual reality, augmented re-
ality, the Internet of things, etc. for the digitalization of university edu-
cation. In this regard, the COVID‑19 crisis becomes an unprecedented
accelerator of technological development in higher education.
The study of consequences of the emergency and involuntary inte-
gration of online learning during the pandemic catalyzed not only ex-
perimental and empirical research but also the search for an adequate
theoretical framework to conceptualize the new reality. Speculating on
post-pandemic pedagogy, Michael P. A. Murphy draws attention to the
rhetoric of emergency transition to online learning, specifically to rep-
resentations of face-to-face schooling as a threat. The author suggests
using securitization theory to analyze the post-pandemic situation in
educational institutions [Murphy 2020]. Ryan Burns considers it impor-
tant to reexamine the role of ethics in post-pandemic pedagogy, refuse
the COVID-induced neoliberal transformation of education, and inject
online pedagogy with a praxis of care and compassion [Burns 2020].

Learning Reproduction of inequality in education is one of the key areas of re-

Disruption and search in Russia and abroad [Froumin 2006; Konstantinovskiy 2010;
Reproduction Nieto 2005]. Research on pandemic-induced changes in education is
of Inequality in dominated by projects focusing on digitalization as a means of achiev-
Education ing social isolation that is necessary to break the chains of transmis-
sion. Publications exploring the effects of emergency digitalization and
social isolation through the lens of educational inequality are much
less numerous and usually represent pilot studies or programs of re-
search (for example, [Omelchenko 2020]).
The first wave of research on inequality in education during the
COVID‑19 pandemic (based on data from Russia, the United States,
Finland, and other countries) dealt with the most obvious problems
of socioeconomic deprivation of children from low-income families,
who used to receive support from educational institutions pre-pan-
demic, and the impossibility for such families to meet the require-
ments of “digital education”. The lockdown shut students off from the
publicly-funded resources, including technological infrastructure, in-
creasing parents’ responsibility for their children’s learning. Families
with low socioeconomic status turned out to be extremely uncondu-
cive distance learning environments [Iivari, Sharma, Ventä-Olkkonen
2020]. Furthermore, children from low-income families also lost other
types of school support, such as free meals [Morgan 2020].
During the pandemic, just as before, the most vulnerable groups
in terms of access to education include students from low-income
families [Aucejo et al. 2020], children from migrant backgrounds
[Omelchenko 2020], and students with disabilities [Meleo-Erwin et al.
2020]. As for developing countries (e. g. Guyana), unavailability of com-
puters, poor Internet connection, and even inconsistent power sup-

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 N. K. Radina, Ju. V. Balakina
Challenges for Education during the Pandemic: An Overview of Literature

ply inhibit the education process completely, especially in rural areas

[Oyedotun 2020].
The use of television as an alternative to “inaccessible online edu-
cation”, according to research, equalizes access to educational prod-
ucts in distance learning. In Los-Angeles, a partnership between local
PBS stations and schools spawned a remote-learning initiative tied to
documentaries and popular science TV programs [Noonoo 2020].
“Collective trauma” inflicted by the COVID‑19 pandemic became one
of the factors promoting the reproduction of inequality in education.
A study conducted in Smolensk Oblast shows that high school gradu-
ates of 2020 shifted their strategies of academic mobility toward “local
higher education” [Artemenkov, Sukhova 2020]. This can be explained
by increased attractiveness of regional universities (extended enroll-
ment quotas for government-funded places), but the authors also as-
sign a lot of significance to the factor of the coronavirus pandemic:
the threat of infection radically increased the value of safety for high
school graduates. Therefore, refusal from academic mobility (from re-
gions to megalopolises in quest of “high-status education”) as a result
of the pandemic psychotrauma can be analyzed in the context of the
reproduction of educational inequality.
New studies will show whether high school graduates realize the
reduction in the range of their post-graduation choices. University stu-
dents who studied during the pandemic perfectly realize and even de-
scribe their losses in sociological surveys. Due to COVID‑19, 13% of Amer-
ican students have delayed graduation, 40% have lost a job, internship,
or job offer, and 29% expect to earn less at age 35 [Aucejo et al. 2020].
Pandemic-induced disruption of the educational process affects
not only students and faculty but also universities as institutions. Fi-
nancial constraints caused by the pandemic inhibit their activities in
various dimensions: construction, institutional support for students,
and faculty training [Palvia et al. 2018]. Meanwhile, the most vulner-
able groups, such as international students, are badly in need of ad-
ditional support from host universities during the pandemic [Pletne-
va, Ochirova 2020].
Research has also been facing huge challenges, mostly due to re-
duced funding and mandatory social distancing requirements [Rashid,
Yadav 2020]. The latter are difficult to meet in a research setting, par-
ticularly in the areas requiring physical laboratories and fieldwork,
which causes significant losses to research studies. The recruitment
of international staff and the exchange of skilled researchers are a
huge challenge due to travel restrictions. In addition, the universi-
ties and funding bodies will be under financial strain in the coming
months, and the non-COVID projects may lose importance and focus
from these agencies.
Researchers justify the necessity of providing government support
to universities, as the pandemic has undermined the mechanisms of
promoting academic mobility and internationalization, thereby wors-

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ening the positions of national universities in global rankings [El Mas-

ri, Sabzalieva 2020].

Global Rankings Comparative analysis of the discourse on education during the COV-
and Academic ID‑19 pandemic between scientific literature and reports of interna-
Research: tional organizations shows that both types of sources emphasize the
Specific Aspects challenges of digitalization and learning disruption as increasing the
of Constructing reproduction of inequality in education. Emergency transition to dis-
the Pandemic tance (online) learning is seen as the greatest challenge for education
Context during the pandemic in international reports and digests [Department
of International and Regional Cooperation of the Accounting Cham-
ber of the Russian Federation 2020; Arzhanova et al. 2020], just as in
research publications.
Analytical reports of international organizations provide a thor-
ough and comprehensive analysis of online learning, paying due re-
gard to its impact on students and faculty’s health (working on com-
puter, negative psychological aspects of isolation, etc.) and the need
for enhancing schools’ technological infrastructure (access to porta-
ble computers instead of smartphones, which is closely related to the
problem of educational inequality) and recommending the develop-
ment of an integrated portal for all programs, apps, platforms, and
materials required for distance learning as well as relevant tutorials
for students, their parents, and teachers.
As for the academic discourse, researchers acknowledge that the
emergency form of online learning imposed today on all schools and
universities meets neither public expectations nor high-quality learn-
ing standards [Tishchenko 2020; Yakobyuk 2020; Jan 2020].
Although universities were more prepared for the transition to on-
line technology in education, the pandemic factor complicated the sit-
uation of accepting the digitalization, largely due to the negative psy-
chological context [Ozkaral, Bozyi̇ gi̇ t 2020; Kerres 2020]. At the same
time, a number of researchers point to the resources that have be-
come available thanks to the “emergency digitalization” of education.
They discuss the need for fundamentally new multimodal approach-
es to course content design [Bao 2020; Mishra, Gupta, Shree 2020],
which is especially critical in areas implying the development of psych-
omotor skills, such as medicine [Adesoye et al. 2021]. Academics have
no doubts that the trend for digitalization of education will persist in
post-pandemic reality, yet it will shift toward blended learning formats
[Hiep-Hung, Tien-Thi-Hanh 2020; Osman 2020].
International reports provide quite a brief overview of learning
disruption and the reproduction of inequality in education during the
pandemic, giving the most basic recommendations on providing so-
cial and digital support to vulnerable social groups.
Academic researchers investigate the factors spurring the repro-
duction of educational inequality during the pandemic, paying spe-

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 N. K. Radina, Ju. V. Balakina
Challenges for Education during the Pandemic: An Overview of Literature

cial attention to social isolation of students and the lack of access to

government support in this situation [Iivari, Sharma, Ventä-Olkkonen
2020; Morgan 2020]. In publications, vulnerable social groups include
children from low-income families, children from migrant backgrounds,
students with disabilities, and those from rural areas of developing
countries [Omelchenko 2020; Oyedotun 2020].
The pandemic has negative effects on students’ behavior and edu-
cational/career trajectories [Aucejo et al. 2020]. In addition, research-
ers raise the problem of possible psychological trauma inflicted on stu-
dents by the pandemic, its behavioral manifestation being high school
graduates refusing from opportunities offered by academic mobility
[Artemenkov, Sukhova 2020]. The COVID‑19 crisis also affects univer-
sities, which suffer from pressure and reduced funding and face limi-
tations in research projects and academic mobility [Pletneva, Ochiro-
va 2020; El Masri, Sabzalieva 2020].
The challenges of education management during the pandemic —
in the context of both learning disruption and digitalization —are ana-
lyzed from various perspectives in international memoranda as well as
academic publications [Palvia et al. 2018; Rashid, Yadav 2020].
Theoretical inquiry is a distinguishing feature of the scientific dis-
course compared to the discourse of expert and analytical reports of
international organizations on the problems of education during the
COVID‑19 pandemic. Research studies are aimed at not only describ-
ing and classifying the empirical facts but also finding a conception—a
theory to explain empirical data, a logic of analysis—that will enhance
the explanatory and predictive capacity of research. Securitization the-
ory proposed by Garry Gordon Buzan can be a promising theoretical
framework for analyzing education during the pandemic, as it explains
how education becomes part of the process of constructing a “secure
society” [Murphy 2020].

Conclusions A substantial number of publications devoted to education during the

first months of the COVID‑19 pandemic are based on data from uni-
versities, while school education remains less explored in this regard.
Emergency transition to online learning is the overarching theme
in international reports and scientific publications on education dur-
ing the coronavirus pandemic. Researchers suggest making not just
a formal transition to distance digital learning but a real technologi-
cal turn (use of multimodal interaction tools of virtual reality, includ-
ing augmented reality, the Internet of things, etc.).
Research on disruptive changes to the learning process makes it
possible to reconstruct the direct and indirect, as well as latent, threats
of the pandemic. Such studies therefore have a predictive value that
is crucial for post-pandemic society and education.
Memoranda and digests of international organizations summarize
best practices and thus mostly act as a reflection of the reality analyz-

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ed. If, however, such analytical reports claim to conceptualize a prob-

lem, draw conclusions, or propose solutions and practical recommen-
dations, they may outline areas of research that will be significant in
the future.
Translated from Russian by I. Zhuchkova.

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