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Title: -“Analysis and Implementation of Equalization and Power Level for NOMA 5G”
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ABSTRACT
The modern case in wireless communication is having a inclined growth in the number of
users and also the data size due to multimedia applications. This needs the use of high data
rates for communication. However, die to the limitations on the available bandwidth, it is
becoming difficult to manage the available bandwidth and share them among different users.
Hence it becomes mandatory to design multiplexing techniques which would utilize the
available bandwidth effectively. The most common multiplexing techniques used thus far
have been frequency division multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM) and
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). Off late, FDM has been the go to
multiplexing%%%%quotes detected%%%% technique and has been used in several wireless
technologies. Still, the search for more efficient multiplexing techniques has been an ongoing
process. One of the strongest contenders for the same which could cater to the needs of
future generation communication systems is non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA). The
proposed work presents a non-orthogonal multiple access technique for wireless
communications. In the proposed scheme, it has been shown that through iterative signal
detection and cancellation, it is possible to detect the NOMA signal%%%%quotes
detected%%%% which%%%%quotes detected%%%% is separated in the power domain.
Moreover, channel equalization is employed so as to mitigate the variable channel gain
effects dependent on the different transmitter to receiver path lengths. This ensures that the
different power levels corresponding to different path lengths can be recovered at the
receiving end with equal probability of error. A comparative BER analysis proves that the
proposed system achieves improved results compared to previously existing techniques [1].
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access
Multiplexing remains a serious challenge even today with the limited amount of available
bandwidth and the increasing number of users in cellular networks. It is estimated that with
the complete onset of 5G%%%%quotes detected%%%% systems globally, the number of
users will increase manifold. This would require more advanced multiplexing techniques to
be used for the purpose of sharing a common channel among users. Off late, OFDM has been
the go to multiplexing technique and has been used in several wireless technologies.
However, Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) has gained a lot of attention as the
future of multiple access techniques.
The most common multiplexing techniques used thus far have been frequency division
multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM) and orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM). However, NOMA owing to its effective spectral efficiency is sought
after as the next generation multiple access technique.
As in frequency division multiplexing and time division multiplexing, the signals of different
users are separated in the frequency and time domains respectively, the signals in NOMA
based multiple access, the signals are separated in the power domain. The major challenge
however lies in the detection of the NOMA signal at the receiving end with the separation of
the different user signals in the case of multipath propagation and small scale fading effects.
1.2 Multipath Propagation
Multi path propagation mechanisms are often encountered in urban and semi-urban
localities with several multipath signals adding up at the receiver. This addition often results
in constructive and destructive interference of the waves and hence a varying signal strength
at the receiver. A demonstration of the multi path environment is shown on the figure below
%%%%quotes detected%%%% Fig.1.3 Multipath Propagation Scenario in Wireless

Communication Systems
Here, it can be seen that there are several components of signal which travel form the
transmitting end to the receiving end via different paths. The reflections occur form the
interacting objects and case a cluster of waves apart from the LOS path to reach the receiver.
Based on the existence and the relative strengths of the line of sight and the multi path
components, wireless channels are often categorized as:
Rayleigh Channel
Nakagami Channel
Rician Channel
A typical channel response of multipath propagation model is shown in the figure below. It
can be seen that the response is not just a single delayed impulse function but a sequentially
delayed group of impulse functions corresponding to the different wave clusters.
Fig.1.4 Channel Impulse Response due to Multipath Propagation
Such a channel response is often represented mathematically as:
𝑛
𝑕 𝑡 = 𝑖=1 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑖𝑡0 ) %%%%quotes detected%%%% (1.1)
Here,
h(t) is the impulse response of the wireless channel
n is the number of multiple paths corresponding to the number of delayed versions of the
impulse
𝑡0 is the average time after which the delays occur
𝛿 represents a delta function
Objective
As discussed earlier, the major challenge of NOMA based multiple access technique is the
fact that small scale fading effects and multipath propagation make the amplitude of the
power variable at the receiving end. This results in difficulty of separating the signals of
different users with equal reliability. The metric for obtaining equal reliability and quality of
service (QoS) is the bit error rate (BER) of the system. The main objective of the system is to
obtain a low BER performance of the system along with low signal to noise ratio
requirement.
Motivation
Since Non Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) %%%%quotes detected%%%% is one of the
leading contenders of multiple access techniques for 5G and beyond, its becomes natural to
enhance the performance of the NOMA based systems. This however said is changing in
practical scenarios as the signal strength keeps varying and this causes difficulty in accurate
detection of the NOMA signal. The quality of service being a major contributor to the
acceptance of the NOMA based transmission thus need to be addressed which is the
motivation behind taking up the work.
Organization of Thesis
The thesis documentation is divided into six parts whose brief description is given below as
to what a particular chapter relates to.
Chapter 1: Introduction: This chapter introduces the necessity and use of NOMA as a multiple
access technique for 5G systems and beyond.
Chapter 2: Literature Review: This chapter summarizes the various different approaches
undertaken in the related field.
Chapter 3: Problem Domain: This chapter explains the problems addressed by the work and
the limitation in the previous approaches.
Chapter 4: Proposed Methodology: This chapter explain the system design and algorithm
used for the implementation of the proposed system.
Chapter 5: Results and Discussions: This chapter explains the results obtained by the
implementation of the proposed NOMA based system.
Chapter 6: Conclusion and Future Scope: This chapter summarizes the findings and concludes
the proposed work with suggestions fir further improvement.
CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER-3
PROBLEM DOMAIN
3.1 Basic NOMA based MUD%%%%quotes detected%%%%
The basic scheme of the MUD mechanism at the receiving end is shown in the figure where it
is assumed that the data being generated is serial in nature.
Here,
HLD stands for high level design
LLD stands for low level design
MRD stands for medium range devices
SRD stands for short range devices
The idea here is to design a system for multi user detection (MUD) based on software
defined radio (SDR) %%%%quotes detected%%%% parameters discussed above. The
transceiver structure of MUD is shown below:
Due to the nature of most of the radio (wireless channels or media) to be non flat in nature,
the chances of bit error rates tend to be high. The conceptual architecture of such a SDR is
shown in the subsequent section.
Here,
X stands for composite input
Y stands for composite output
The characteristics of a flat SDR is shown above with a constant channel gain for any of the
frequencies under transmission.
The figure above illustrates more of a practical or non-ideal sort of SDR with a varying
channel gain over different frequencies.
3.2 Bit Error Degradation %%%%quotes detected%%%% due to Multi User Presence
The main challenges in detecting multiple users are following:
1) Strong users overrode the signals of weak users. It is difficult to detect with high accuracy
the weaker ones. The following mathematical structure illustrates the same:
Here,
U stands for MUD input data
V stands for MUD output data
Q stands for quantizer%%%%quotes detected%%%%
b stands for various user channel gains
a stands for amplification factor
z stands for the z-domain or complex discrete frequency domain representation
The above structure focuses on the fact that the composite MUD signal needs to travel
through different channel gains with varying diversity gains and accumulates at the receiver
as a composite signal.
The tapped delay line model for the NOMA-MUD system based on Software Defined Radio
(SDR) is shown above.
Here,
TS represent taps
b are the tap weights %%%%quotes detected%%%%
c represent carriers for data transmission
d(t) represents the composite time domain MUD signal
The effect of noise in the channel can be illustrated using the tapped delay line model with
noise, shown below:
Here,
n0(t) represents the noise added in the channel at various taps
the Clock represents the fact that each tap is activated at a clock pulse of 1 or 0 (depending
on system design)
The entire problem formulation can be summarized as:
a) Presence of over-riding strong users makes it difficult to detect weaker users although
equal BER is the envisaged parameter.
b) The degradation in BER is caused due to degraded SINR defined by:
𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑆𝐼𝑁𝑅 = 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (3.1)
Here,
SINR stands for Signal to Noise plus Interference Ratio
c) Designing equalizers for channels is daunting due to time variant nature of channel and
hence the received MUD composite signal given by:
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝐻 𝑓 = 𝑇 𝑓 . 𝐶 𝑓 . 𝑅(𝑓) (3.2)
Here,
H(f) is the overall transfer function in f-domain
T(f) is the transmitter transfer function in f-domain
R(f) is the receiver transfer function in f-domain
C(f) is the channel transfer function in f-domain
CHAPTER-4
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
NOMA and need for Equalization

The mechanism of NOMA is based on the fact that the signals of multiple users us separated
in the power domain. This is given by:
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑠1 + 𝑠2 … … … … … … … . 𝑠𝑛
(4.1)
Here,
%%%%quotes detected%%%% S1, s2 ….. sn are the different signals corresponding to the
different users
s(t) is the composite signal reaching the receiving end.
A sufficient separation keeps the signals separate in the power domain. However, due to
multipath propagation and small scale fading effects, the separation in the power domain
often gets disturbed leading to increased BER.
This is also termed as non ideal channel behaviour, which is a common attribute of all
practical wireless channels which never show ideal behaviour. Hence it becomes to find the
frequency response (H) of the channel and then design a block which would invert the effects
of the channel.
The channel equalization is based on the following approach:
Step.1 Transmit dummy data through the channel (know to both transmitter and receiver)
Step.2 Receive dummy data at the output of the channel
Step.3: Compare the dummy data at the input of the channel and the output of the channel
Step.4: Estimate the Channel Frequency Response (H)
1
Step.5: Design the equalizer as%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝐸 = 𝐻
Step.6: Sense the channel again
There are several techniques to implement equalization. Some of common channel
equalization mechanism are explained below:
Trained Least Squares Linear Equalization for NOMA
This type of equalizer is designed when there is a training sequence at our disposal. This is
also called the least squares equalizer since the basic approach is to find an objective
function based on the least squares approach. The problem of finding the equalizer co-
efficients can be done based on some optimization technique that suits the problem.
4.1.2 Linear Equalization for NOMA
This equalization technique tries to find a linear relationship among the input and output
variables of the channel. Mathematically:
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑟 𝑘 = 𝑡(𝑘 − 𝛿) (4.1)
Here,
δ is the delay of transmission
r(k) represents data sequence
t(k) represents transmitted sequence
Mathematically, the error is given by:
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑘 − 𝑡(𝑘 − 𝛿) (4.2)
The estimated error is a time domain signal and the sensing of the channel is to be done after
every period t0.
Hence::
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑓(𝑡0 ) (4.3)
The block diagrammatic implementation of linear equalizer is shown below.
The linear equalization mechanism is not as effective as the contemporary mechanism since
the estimation of a perfect linear relationship among the variables in the channel response of
a random wireless channel is not always possible. Hence contemporary technique rely on
more sophisticated equalization mechanisms such as the zero forcing equalization and the
decision feedback equalization.
4.1.3 Zero Forcing Equalizer for NOMA
The zero forcing or ZF equalizer tries to force the mean error to zero
𝐸𝑕 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛{𝑒 2 𝑛 } → 0 (4.4)
Here,
Eh denotes the error in estimation
e denotes current error sample value
n denotes the number of error samples
4.1.4 Decision Feedback Equalization for NOMA
Another effective equalization mechanism is the decision feedback equalization shown in the
figure below:
The mechanism of the decision feedback equalization approach is based on modelling the
equalizer based on a filter-quantizer-decision approach. It is an improved version compared
to the linear equalizer.
Proposed Approach
Implementation of NOMA at the transmission end is fairly simple but the detection of the
NOMA signal at the receiving end is rather challenging. The iterative signal detection and
cancellation algorithm is used in this approach. The modulation format used in the proposed
approach is the Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) scheme. The QAM is preferred as
it is low power consuming modulation technique.
For an n point QAM, the number of levels is 2n..
A typical signalling point representation of the QAM signal is given by:
The system implementation of the proposed system can be understood using the flowchart
of the proposed approach.
The proposed approach uses the iterative signal detection %%%%quotes detected%%%% an
cancellation. In this approach the following points are critical:
NOMA relies on separating the signals in the power domain.
It is difficult to detect weak signals in the presence of strong signals.
It is difficult to maintain the exact power level difference among the different signals due to
the non-ideal nature of the channel and multi path propagation and fading
It is necessary to detect the signals with all signal strengths with equal error performance to
maintain satisfactory quality of service.
The iterative signal detection and cancellation can be %%%%quotes detected%%%% be
mathematically expressed as:
At time ant time ‘t’,
for (i=1:n)
{
Find Max[s(t)],
Where,
s(t) is the composite NOMA signal given by:
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑖=1 𝑠𝑖 (𝑡) (4.5)
Detect Max[s(t)],
Cancel Max[s(t)] from s(t)
}
End
Here,
n is the number of user signals in the composite NOMA signal
The iterations are run till all the signals are detected. The comparison of the power levels of
such a composite multi-level signal is carried out by a multi-level comparator which is shown
below:
The above circuit shows the 4 level implementation of a multi-level comparator which can
compare 4 different levels at the input and sequentially produces the output in descending
order of power.
4.3 Performance Indices

It has been already mentioned that the major challenge of NOMA based multiple access
technique is the fact that small scale fading effects and multipath propagation make the
amplitude of the power variable at the receiving end. This results in difficulty of separating
the signals of different users with equal reliability. The metric for obtaining equal reliability
and quality of service (QoS) is the bit error rate (BER) of the system which is mathematically
defined as:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝐵𝐸𝑅 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠 (4.6)
Moreover, the BER depends on the SNR of the system mathematically which is given by:
𝑆
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓 {𝑄 } (4.7)
𝑁
Here,
Q represents the Q function
S represents signal power
N represents noise power
The Q function ‘x’ shows a fall as the argument of the shows an increase. Thus, as the SNR of
the system increase, the BER decreases.
CHAPTER-5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Mathematical Modelling of Proposed NOMA-MUD

The typical power variation of a cellular based NOMA-MUD is shown in figure 5.1
The mathematical model of the proposed NOMA-MUD mechanism can be put forth as:
Step1. Generate random data stream S in binary form.
Here, the number of bits taken is 100000.
Step2. Design a multi path model with variable channel gain (g)
Here,
G1 is the path gain for strongest user
G2 is the path gain or the weakest user
G3 is the path gain for the average user
%%%%quotes detected%%%% Step3. Generate the complex modulated signal given by:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐾1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗𝐾2 sin⁡ (𝜔𝑡) (5.1)
The signal can also be expressed as a complex exponential,
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐾1 𝑠𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔𝑡 −𝜑) + 𝐾2 𝑠𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔𝑡 −𝜑) (5.2)
Step4. Design a channel with impulse response h(t) in the time domain.
Step5. Obtain the channel frequency response in the frequency domain by computing the
integral:
+∞
𝐻 𝑓 = −∞ 𝑕(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (5.3)
Step.6 Generate an Additive White Gaussian Noise environment with noise psd of N0/2
Step7. From the Db scale, convert the noise into linear scale using the equation:
𝑆𝑁𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑛 𝑡 = 10[ 10 ] (5.4)
Step8. Add noise to the signal in time domain to obtain the noise added signal in channel:
𝑆𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑙 = 𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑛(𝑡) (5.5)
%%%%quotes detected%%%% Step9. Find the strongest signal among the multitude of
signals in the composite signal S given by:
𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑥2 (𝑡) + ⋯ … … … 𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) (5.6)
The strongest among all can be found by evaluation:
𝑆𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 = max⁡ {𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡 } (5.7)
Repeat the above step till all the signals are detected.
Step10. Design a channel equalizer with the frequency response of:
1
𝐸 𝑓 = 𝐻(𝑓) (5.8)
The above step can be implemented practically as:
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑕(𝑡) ∗ 𝑑(𝑡) %%%%quotes detected%%%% (5.9)
Where,
Y(t) is the output of the channel for dummy data d(t)
H(t) is the impulse response of the channel
*represents the convolution operation
To estimate the channel,
Compute the error in time domain as:
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑑(𝑡) at the receiving end.
Obtain h(t) as:
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑕 𝑡 = 𝑦(𝑡_ = 𝑒(𝑡) (5.10)
This process can be applied iteratively for samples over a period ‘T’
Thus the samples of the equalizer (to be designed as a filter) can be given by:
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝑕 𝑡 = 𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑕𝑖 (𝑡) (5.11)
Finally, convert h(t) in the frequency domain by evaluation of:
+∞
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝐻 𝑓 = −∞ 𝑕(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (5.12)
Step11. For reception of the signal, evaluate the following:
𝑆𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛{𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡 } (5.13)
𝑆𝑞 = 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛{𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡 } (5.14)
Here,
I %%%%quotes detected%%%% represents the in-phase component
Q represents the %%%%quotes detected%%%% quadrature component
Step12. Compute the system load given by:
𝑁 𝐾
𝛽 = 𝑁 𝑁 −(𝑁𝑏 −1)𝑁 (5.15)
𝑏 𝑠 𝑏 0
Here,
𝑁𝑏 is the number of users
𝑁𝑠 is the sub-carrier spacing
K is the number of data nodes
Step13. Computation of BER:
BER is defined as:
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝐵𝐸𝑅 = (5.16)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠
Step.14 The system BER can be evaluated as:
𝐵𝐸𝑅𝑖 = 1 − (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠𝑖′ )/𝑛𝑁0 (5.17)
′
𝐵𝐸𝑅𝑞 = 1 − (𝑠𝑞 − 𝑠𝑞 )/𝑛𝑁0 (5.18) %%%%quotes detected%%%%
Here,
I represents the in phase component and Q represents the quadrature component.
N is the number of bits
N0 is the oversampling ratio
Thus the overall average BER can be computed as:
𝐾[𝐵𝐸𝑅 +𝐵𝐸𝑅 𝑞 ]
𝑖
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝐵𝐸𝑅 = (5.19)
2
The essence of non-orthogonal multiple access lies in the fact that multiple signals are
separated in the power domain. A typical signal transmission mechanism scheme is shown in
figure 5.1 wherein the there is a strong line of sight (LOS) component and multi path
components.
Here,
LOS designates Line of Sight
MPC designates Multi Path Component
The significance of the multipath propagation model is the fact that often the amplitude at
the receiver keeps varying due to the fact that small scale fading is prevalent at the receiving
end.
In this case,
LOS travels d1
MPC 1 travels d2
MPC 2 travelsd3
Also,
d1<d2<d3
The following analysis needs to be performed for the NOMA scenario. Different users send
their signals at different power levels. In general, the user farthest away from the base
station would face the most severe fading. On the contrary, the user nearest to the base
station would face the least fading, Hence, the users can be categorized into 3 categories
which are:
Strongest or nearest user
Weakest or far user
Average user
It is expected that the strongest user would expect the least BER at the receiver. The weakest
user would expect the least BER degradation. The average user would experience the
average BER compared to the other two categories of the users. Moreover, the BER analysis
should be carried out in two categories:
Without Proposed System.
With Proposed System.
The proposed system would incorporate both iterative or successive signal detection and
cancellation while the BER analysis without the proposed system would incorporate
conventional NOMA for the wireless communication model. A comparative analysis ensues
for the above mentioned models. The computation of the BER for the NOMA-MUD would
take into consideration the following stochastic situation:
Estimating the channel with high accuracy using weight updating and computing the
received signal strength at receiver
𝑃 𝑑 = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝐿 𝑑 , 𝑑 > 𝑑𝑜 (5.19)
Here,
Pt =Transmitted Power
P(d)=average receiver power in dBm
L(d)= distance is the path loss in dB
d=certain distance
d0 stands for the distance from which the proposed channel model can be used.
The approach focuses on detecting the strongest among a set of composites and then
iterating the process i.e.
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑: max 𝑆𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑥1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥1(5.20)
Here,
%%%%quotes detected%%%% x1 is the strongest in search of iteration 1.
The iteration is carried out till the last of the composite MUD signal is not decoded.
The composite signal at a distance d can be statistically expressed as:
𝑑
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝐿 𝑑 = 𝐿 𝑑0 + 10𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (5.21)
𝑑0
do=reference distance
n= constant value which is 2for LOS link but mostly uses higher than 2 for Multi path channel
in both area cities and urban area
𝑑
%%%%quotes detected%%%% 𝐿 𝑑 = 𝐿 𝑑0 + 10𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔10 + 𝑋𝜎 (5.22)
𝑑0
Where
𝑋𝜎 =zero-mean Gaussian random variable (in dB)
𝜎=Standard deviation%%%%quotes detected%%%%
5.2 Obtained Results

The obtained results are depicted below:
The generally used Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) model does not adequately
represent the channel for these modern applications. Moreover, the Line-Of-Sight (LOS) path
between the transmitter and the receiver may or may not exist in such a channel.White noise
is added to the channel to emulate a practical Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
condition given mathematically as:
𝑁0
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑑 = ∀𝑓
2
Here,
psd represents the power spectral density
f represents frequency
𝑁0
represents the two sided AWGN psd
2
%%%%quotes detected%%%% The figure above depicts the BER performance for the NOMA
based system for the strongest user i.e. the user with the maximum signal strength at the
receiving end.
The figure above depicts the BER performance for the NOMA based system for the weakest
user i.e. the user with the minimum signal strength at the receiving end.
The figure above depicts the BER performance for the NOMA based system for the average
user i.e. the user with the average signal strength at the receiving end.
The figure above shows the BER performance of the weakest NOMA user with iterative signal
detection with equalization.
The figure above shows the BER performance of the %%%%quotes detected%%%%averaget
NOMA user with iterative signal detection with equalization. The figure above depicts the
comparative BER performance of the NOMA based model with and without the proposed
system. It can be clearly seen that with the proposed system, the BER performance of the
strongest and the average users become almost concurrent with that of the strongest user
indicating the fact that the proposed system which indicates the fact the various categories
of NOMA users can be detected with equal accuracy. %%%%quotes detected%%%%
A comparative analysis with %%%%quotes detected%%%%Yunlong Cai, et al. [1] shows that
the proposed system attains lesser Bit Error Rate Compared to the previous work. It is
significantly (100 times lesser) error prone to the conventional systems. Moreover the Signal
to Noise Ratio requirement also lesser compared to the previously existing technique.
CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
6.1 Conclusion
It can be concluded %%%%quotes detected%%%% from previous discussions that mandatory
to design multiplexing techniques which would utilize the available bandwidth effectively.
The primary reason for the same is the increasing data size and the number of users in
cellular networks which have limited bandwidth availability. The demand for higher data
rates also contributes to the cause, which makes the use of effective multiplexing techniques
mandatory for increasing number of users and data size at high speed of communication. The
most common multiplexing techniques used thus far have been frequency division
%%%%quotes detected%%%% multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM) and
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). Off late, OFDM has been the go to
multiplexing technique and has been used in several wireless technologies. Still, the search
for more efficient multiplexing techniques has been an ongoing process. One of the strongest
contenders for the same which could cater to the needs of future generation communication
systems is non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA). The proposed work presents a non-
orthogonal multiple access technique for wireless communications. In the proposed scheme,
it has been shown that through iterative signal detection and cancellation, it is possible to
detect the NOMA signal which is separated in the power domain. Moreover, channel
equalization is employed so as to mitigate the variable channel gain effects dependent on the
different transmitter to receiver path lengths. This ensures that the different power levels
corresponding to different path lengths can be recovered at the receiving end with equal
probability of error. This is critically important since there is a tendency to attain lower BER
values for signals with plummeting strengths and higher BER values for the ones with higher
signal strengths. A comparative BER analysis proves that the proposed system achieves
improved results compared to previously existing techniques [1]. The improvement can be
seen in terms of the BER of the system and the requires%%%%quotes detected%%%% SNR of
the system.
6.2 Future Scope
The most obvious%%%%quotes detected%%%% enhancement of the proposed system
would be employing adaptive channel sounding mechanisms for channel sounding. This
would lead to the use of better channel state information (CSI) for the channel estimation
purpose. Artificial Neural Networks or Deep Learning can be used for the purpose.
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%%%quotes detected
%%%skip contents%%%
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%%%%quotes detected%%%% Fig.1.3 Multipath Propagation Scenario in Wireless

NOMA and need for Equalization

Trained Least Squares Linear Equalization for NOMA

4.3 Performance Indices

5.1 Mathematical Modelling of Proposed NOMA-MUD

5.2 Obtained Results

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